Brown Norway chromosome 13 confers protection from high salt to consomic Dahl S rat

Mechanism of differential cardiovascular response to propofol in Dahl salt-sensitive, Brown Norway, and chromosome 13-substituted consomic rat strains: role of large conductance Ca2+ and voltage-activated potassium channels

Cardiovascular sensitivity to general anesthetics is highly variable among individuals in both human and animal models, but little is known about the genetic determinants of drug response to anesthetics. Recently, we reported that propofol (2,6-diisopropylphenol) causes circulatory instability in Dahl salt-sensitive SS/JRHsdMcwi (SS) rats but not in Brown Norway BN/NHsdMcwi (BN) rats and that these effects are related to genes on chromosome 13. Based on the hypothesis that propofol does target mesenteric circulation, we investigated propofol modulation of mesenteric arterial smooth muscle cells (MASMC) in SS and BN rats. The role of chromosome 13 was tested using SS-13(BN)/Mcwi and BN-13(SS)/Mcwi consomic strains with chromosome 13 substitution. Propofol (5 microM) produced a greater in situ hyperpolarization of MASMC membrane potential in SS than BN rats, and this effect was abrogated by iberiotoxin, a voltage-activated potassium (BK) channel blocker. In inside-out patches, the BK channel number, P(o), and apparent Ca(2+) sensitivity, and propofol sensitivity all were significantly greater in MASMC of SS rats. The density of whole-cell BK current was increased by propofol more in SS than BN myocytes. Immunolabeling confirmed higher expression of BK alpha subunit in MASMC of SS rats. Furthermore, the hyperpolarization produced by propofol, the BK channel properties, and propofol sensitivity were modified in MASMC of SS-13(BN)/Mcwi and BN-13(SS)/Mcwi strains toward the values observed in the background SS and BN strains. We conclude that differential function and expression of BK channels, resulting from genetic variation within chromosome 13, contribute to the enhanced propofol sensitivity in SS and BN-13(SS)/Mcwi versus BN and SS-13(BN)/Mcwi strains.

Modulation of vascular O2 responses by cytochrome 450-4A omega-hydroxylase metabolites in Dahl salt-sensitive rats

OBJECTIVE

This study evaluated the role of the 20-HETE/cytochrome P450-4A omega-hydroxylase (CYP450-4A) system in microvascular regulation in the skeletal muscle circulation following short-term (three-day) exposure to a high-salt (HS) diet in Dahl salt-sensitive (SS) rats.

METHODS

The effects of inhibiting CYP450-4A on resting diameter, O(2)-induced constriction, and vasodilator responses to acetylcholine (ACh) and the nitric oxide (NO) donor, sodium nitroprusside (SNP), were evaluated in cremasteric arterioles of SS rats fed a low- (LS; 0.4% NaCl) or high-salt (HS; 4% NaCl) diet for three days.

RESULTS

The HS diet upregulated CYP450-4A mRNA expression and led to an enhanced constriction of arterioles in response to elevated PO(2) in SS rats, which could be blocked by inhibiting CYP450-4A enzymes with dibromododecenyl methylsulfimide (DDMS). DDMS also inhibited resting tone significantly in SS rats fed the HS, but not the LS, diet, despite similar resting diameters and active tone in the two groups. Arteriolar dilations in response to ACh and SNP were similar in SS rats fed the LS vs. the HS diet and were unaffected by DDMS.

CONCLUSIONS

These findings suggest that CYP450-4A enzymes contribute to resting tone and to an enhanced response to elevated PO(2) in arterioles of Dahl-SS rats fed the HS diet.

Genetic determinants of hypertension: an update

Hypertension represents a global public health burden. In addition to the rarer Mendelian forms of hypertension, classic genetic studies have documented a significant heritable component to the most common form, essential hypertension (EH). Extensive efforts are under way to elucidate the genetic basis of this disease. Recently, a new form of Mendelian hypertension has been identified, pharmacogenetic association studies in hypertensive patients have identified novel gene-by-drug interactions, and the first genome-wide association studies of EH have been published. New findings in consomic and congenic rat models also offer new clues to the genetic architecture of this complex phenotype. In this review, the authors summarize and evaluate the most recent findings related to hypertension gene identification.

Renal medullary 11 beta-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 1 in Dahl salt-sensitive hypertension

The Dahl salt-sensitive rat is a widely used model of human salt-sensitive forms of hypertension. The kidney plays an important role in the pathogenesis of Dahl salt-sensitive hypertension, but the molecular mechanisms involved remain a subject of intensive investigation. Gene expression profiling studies suggested that 11 beta-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 1 might be dysregulated in the renal medulla of Dahl salt-sensitive rats. Additional analysis confirmed that renal medullary expression of 11 beta-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 1 was downregulated by a high-salt diet in SS-13BN rats, a consomic rat strain with reduced blood pressure salt sensitivity, but not in Dahl salt-sensitive rats. 11 beta-Hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 1 is known to convert inactive 11-dehydrocorticosterone to active corticosterone. The urinary corticosterone/11-dehydrocorticosterone ratio as well as urinary excretion of corticosterone was higher in Dahl salt-sensitive rats than in SS-13BN rats. Knockdown of renal medullary 11 beta-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 1 with small-interfering RNA attenuated the early phase of salt-induced hypertension in Dahl salt-sensitive rats and reduced urinary excretion of corticosterone. Knockdown of 11 beta-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 1 did not affect blood pressure in SS-13BN rats. Long-term attenuation of salt-induced hypertension was achieved with small hairpin RNA targeting renal medullary 11 beta-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 1. In summary, we have demonstrated that suppression of 11 beta-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 1 expression in the renal medulla attenuates salt-induced hypertension in Dahl salt-sensitive rats.

Genetic mapping of mammary tumor traits to rat chromosome 10 using a novel panel of consomic rats

Identification of novel breast cancer susceptibility and resistance genes in genetically diverse human populations is challenging, and so inbred rats have been used to identify novel mammary cancer susceptibility quantitative trait loci (QTLs) with conventional mapping approaches. An alternative approach for QTL mapping is to use chromosome substitution (consomic) rat strains, which has the advantage of rapid generation of congenic from consomic animals. Using a novel rat strain pair, SS and BN, we identified rat mammary cancer QTLs in one of two consomic rat strains tested. Female rats of inbred parental (SS and BN) and two consomic (SS-10 BN and SS-12 BN) strains were treated with 7,12-dimethylbenz[a]anthracene orally. The phenotypes of tumor incidence, latency, and multiplicity were evaluated. SS rats were highly susceptible to mammary adenocarcinoma development, whereas BN rats were completely resistant. Statistical comparison of the phenotypes between the susceptible parental and the two consomic strains identified QTLs residing within chromosome 10 controlling mammary tumor latency and multiplicity. The study shows that SS-BN consomic rat strains can be used to map mammary tumor QTLs. This novel approach should accelerate positional cloning of mammary cancer susceptibility and resistant genes in the rat and the identification of homologous genes in humans.

Chromosome substitution reveals the genetic basis of Dahl salt-sensitive hypertension and renal disease

This study examined the genetic basis of hypertension and renal disease in Dahl SS/Mcwi (Dahl Salt-Sensitive) rats using a complete chromosome substitution panel of consomic rats in which each of the 20 autosomes and the X and Y chromosomes were individually transferred from the Brown Norway (BN) rat onto the Dahl SS/Mcwi genetic background. Male and female rats of each of the two parental and 22 consomic strains (10-12 rats/group) were fed a high-salt (8.0% NaCl) diet for 3 wk. Mean arterial blood pressure rose by 60 mmHg and urinary protein and albumin excretion increased 3- and 20-fold, respectively, in male SS/Mcwi rats compared with BN controls. Substitution of chromosomes 1, 5, 7, 8, 13, or 18 from the BN onto the SS/Mcwi background attenuated the development of hypertension, proteinuria, and albuminuria in male rats. In female rats, substitution of chromosomes 1 and 5 also decreased blood pressure, protein excretion, and albumin excretion. These studies also identified several chromosomes in male (6, 11, Y) and female (4, 6, 11, 19, 20) rats that reduced albuminuria without altering blood pressure. These data indicate that genes contributing to salt-sensitive hypertension are found on multiple chromosomes of the Dahl SS/Mcwi rat. Furthermore, this consomic rat panel provides a stable genetic platform that can facilitate further gene mapping by either linkage studies or the breeding of congenic and subcongenic rats.

Enhanced amiloride-sensitive superoxide production in renal medullary thick ascending limb of Dahl salt-sensitive rats

The aims of the present study were to determine whether superoxide (O(2)(-)) production is enhanced in medullary thick ascending limb (mTAL) of Dahl salt-sensitive (SS) rats compared with a salt-resistant consomic control strain (SS.13(BN)) and to elucidate the cellular pathways responsible for augmented O(2)(-) production. Studies were carried out in 7- to 10-wk-old male SS and SS.13(BN) rats fed either a 0.4% NaCl diet or a 4.0% NaCl diet for 3 days before tissue harvest. Tissue strips containing mTAL were isolated from the left kidney, loaded with the O(2)(-)-sensitive fluorescent dye dihydroethidium, superfused with modified Hanks' solution, and imaged at x60 magnification on a heated microscope stage. O(2)(-) production was stimulated in mTAL by incrementing superfusate NaCl concentration from 154 to 254 to 500 mM. O(2)(-) production was enhanced in mTAL of SS rats compared with SS.13(BN) rats in response to incrementing bath NaCl. Addition of N-methyl-amiloride (100 muM) or inhibition of NAD(P)H oxidase reduced O(2)(-) production in SS mTAL to levels observed in SS.13(BN) rats. Both amiloride- and ouabain-sensitive pathways of O(2)(-) production were elevated following 3 days of high (4.0%) NaCl feeding in mTAL of SS and SS.13(BN) rats. We conclude that mTAL from SS rats exhibit enhanced amiloride-sensitive O(2)(-) production. The amiloride-sensitive O(2)(-) response in mTAL is independent of active Na(+) transport and appears to be mediated by NAD(P)H oxidase. Amiloride-sensitive O(2)(-) production is likely to contribute to augmented outer medullary O(2)(-) production observed in SS rats during both normal and high NaCl diets.

Sex-specific differences in chromosome-dependent regulation of vascular reactivity in female consomic rat strains from a SSxBN cross

High-throughput studies in the Medical College of Wisconsin Program for Genomic Applications (Physgen) were designed to link chromosomes with physiological function in consomic strains derived from a cross between Dahl salt-sensitive SS/JrHsdMcwi (SS) and Brown Norway normotensive BN/NHsdMcwi (BN) rats. The specific goal of the vascular protocol was to characterize the responses of aortic rings from these strains to vasoconstrictor and vasodilator stimuli (phenylephrine, acetylcholine, sodium nitroprusside, and bath hypoxia) to identify chromosomes that either increase or decrease vascular reactivity to these vasoactive stimuli. Because previous studies demonstrated sex-specific quantitative trait loci (QTLs) related to regulation of cardiovascular phenotypes in an F2 cross between the parental strains, males and females of each consomic strain were included in all experiments. As there were significant sex-specific differences in aortic sensitivity to vasoconstrictor and vasodilator stimuli compared with the parental SS strain, we report the results of the females separately from the males. There were also sex-specific differences in aortic ring sensitivity to these vasoactive stimuli in consomic strains that were fed a high-salt diet (4% NaCl) for 3 wk to evaluate salt-induced changes in vascular reactivity. Differences in genetic architecture could contribute to sex-specific differences in the development and expression of cardiovascular diseases via differential regulation and expression of genes. Our findings are the first to link physiological traits with specific chromosomes in female SS rats and support the idea that sex is an important environmental variable that plays a role in the expression and regulation of genes.

Molecular networks in Dahl salt-sensitive hypertension based on transcriptome analysis of a panel of consomic rats

The Dahl salt-sensitive (SS) rat is a widely used model of human salt-sensitive hypertension and renal injury. We studied the molecular networks that underlie the complex disease phenotypes in the SS model, using a design that involved two consomic rat strains that were protected from salt-induced hypertension and one that was not protected. Substitution of Brown Norway (BN) chromosome 13 or 18, but not 20, into the SS genome was found to significantly attenuate salt-induced hypertension and albuminuria. Gene expression profiles were examined in the kidneys of SS and consomic SS-13(BN), SS-18(BN), and SS-20(BN) rats with a total of 240 cDNA microarrays. The substituted chromosome was overrepresented in genes differentially expressed between a consomic strain and SS rats on a 0.4% salt diet. F5, Serpinc1, Slc19a2, and genes represented by three other expressed sequence tags (ESTs), which are located on chromosome 13, were found to be differentially expressed between SS-13(BN) and all other strains examined. Likewise, Acaa2, B4galt6, Colec12, Hsd17b4, and five other ESTs located on chromosome 18 exhibited expression patterns unique to SS-18(BN). On exposure to a 4% salt diet, there were 184 ESTs in the renal cortex and 346 in the renal medulla for which SS-13(BN) and SS-18(BN) shared one expression pattern, while SS and SS-20(BN) shared another, mirroring the phenotypic segregation among the four strains. Molecular networks that might contribute to the development of Dahl salt-sensitive hypertension and albuminuria were constructed with an approach that merged biological knowledge-driven analysis and data-driven Bayesian probabilistic analysis.

High perfusion pressure accelerates renal injury in salt-sensitive hypertension

Renal injury in the Dahl salt-sensitive rat mimics human salt-sensitive forms of hypertension that are particularly prevalent in black individuals, but the mechanisms that lead to the development of this injury are incompletely understood. We studied the impact of renal perfusion pressure (RPP) on the development of renal injury in this model. During the development of salt-induced hypertension over 2 wk, the RPP to the left kidney was maintained at control levels (125 +/- 2 mmHg) by continuous servocontrol inflation of an aortic balloon implanted between the renal arteries; during the same period, the RPP to the right kidney rose to 164 +/- 8 mmHg. After 2 wk of a 4% salt diet, DNA microarray and real-time PCR identified genes related to fibrosis and epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition in the kidneys exposed to hypertension. The increased RPP to the right kidney accounted for differences in renal injury between the two kidneys, measured by percentage of injured cortical and juxtamedullary glomeruli, quantified proteinaceous casts, number of ED-1-positive cells per glomerular tuft area, and interstitial fibrosis. Interlobular arteriolar injury was not increased in the kidney exposed to elevated pressure but was reduced in the control kidney. We conclude that elevations of RPP contribute significantly to the fibrosis and epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition found in the early phases of hypertension in the salt-sensitive rat.

Hyperhomocysteinemia: association with renal transsulfuration and redox signaling in rats

Despite substantial evidence indicating the association of hyperhomocysteinemia (hHcys) and end-stage renal disease (ESRD), the pathogenic role of increased plasma homocysteine (Hcys) levels in the progression of ESRD remains unclear. This review will briefly summarize recent findings regarding the role of hHcys in the development of glomerulosclerosis, the association of hHcys with reduced renal transsulfuration and Hcys-induced changes of redox signaling in the development of glomerulosclerosis in rat kidneys. Based on these results, it is concluded that hHcys is implicated in glomerular sclerosis in hypertension, elevated plasma Hcys in Dahl salt-sensitive (SS) hypertensive rats is due to downregulation of cystathionine beta-synthase (CBS) expression and consequent abnormality of transsulfuration in the kidney compared with normotensive rats. Hcys-induced superoxide (O(2)(*-)) production by activation of NADPH oxidase as a triggering mechanism contributes to the effects of Hcys on the homeostasis of extracellular matrix and consequent sclerosis in the glomeruli, and NADPH oxidase activation by Hcys is associated with enhanced Rac GTPase activity.

Congenic strains reveal the effect of the renin gene on skeletal muscle angiogenesis induced by electrical stimulation

Previous studies have indicated the importance of angiotensin II (ANG II) in skeletal muscle angiogenesis. The present study explored the effect of regulation of the renin gene on angiogenesis induced by electrical stimulation with the use of physiological, pharmacological, and genetic manipulations of the renin-angiotensin system (RAS). Transfer of the entire chromosome 13, containing the physiologically regulated renin gene, from the normotensive inbred Brown Norway (BN) rat into the background of an inbred substrain of the Dahl salt-sensitive (SS/Mcwi) rat restored renin levels and the angiogenic response after electrical stimulation. This restored response was significantly attenuated when SS-13BN/Mcwi consomic rats were treated with lisinopril or high-salt diet. The role of ANG II on this effect was confirmed by the complete restoration of skeletal muscle angiogenesis in SS/Mcwi rats infused with subpressor doses of ANG II. Congenic strains derived from the SS-13BN/Mcwi consomic were used to further verify the role of the renin gene in this response. Microvessel density was markedly increased after stimulation in congenic strains that contained the renin gene from the BN rat (congenic lines A and D). This angiogenic response was suppressed in control strains that carried regions of the BN genome just above (congenic line C) or just below (congenic line B) the renin gene. The present study emphasizes the importance of maintaining normal renin regulation as well as ANG II levels during the angiogenesis process with a combination of physiological, genetic, and pharmacological manipulation of the RAS.

Comparative genomics for detecting human disease genes

Originally, comparative genomics was geared toward defining the synteny of genes between species. As the human genome project accelerated, there was an increase in the number of tools and means to make comparisons culminating in having the genomic sequence for a large number of organisms spanning the evolutionary tree. With this level of resolution and a long history of comparative biology and comparative genetics, it is now possible to use comparative genomics to build or select better animal models and to facilitate gene discovery. Comparative genomics takes advantage of the functional genetic information from other organisms, (vertebrates and invertebrates), to apply it to the study of human physiology and disease. It allows for the identification of genes and regulatory regions, and for acquiring knowledge about gene function. In this chapter, the current state of comparative genomics and the available tools are discussed in the context of developing animal model systems that reflect the clinical picture.

Multiple blood pressure loci on rat chromosome 13 attenuate development of hypertension in the Dahl S hypertensive rat

Previous studies have indicated that substitution of chromosome 13 of the salt-resistant Brown Norway BN/SsNHsdMcwi (BN) rat into the genomic background of the Dahl salt-sensitive SS/JrHsdMcwi (SS) rat attenuates the development of salt-sensitive hypertension and renal damage. To identify the regions within chromosome 13 that attenuate the development of hypertension during a high-salt diet in the SS rat, we phenotyped a series of overlapping congenic lines covering chromosome 13, generated from an intercross between the consomic SS-13BN rat and the SS rat. Blood pressure was determined in chronically catheterized rats after 2 wk of high-salt diet (8% NaCl) together with microalbuminuria as an index of renal damage. Four discrete regions were identified, ranging in size from 4.5 to 16 Mbp, each of which independently provided significant protection from hypertension during high-salt diet, reducing blood pressure by 20–29 mmHg. Protection was more robust in female than male rats in some of the congenic strains, suggesting a sex interaction with some of the genes determining blood pressure during high-salt diet. Among the 23 congenic strains, several regions overlapped. When three of the “protective” regions were combined onto one broad congenic strain, no summation effect was seen, obtaining the same decrease in blood pressure as with each one independently. We conclude from these studies that there are four regions within chromosome 13 containing genes that interact epistatically and influence arterial pressure.

Chromosomal mapping of the genetic basis of hypertension and renal disease in FHH rats

This study examined the genetic basis for hypertension and renal disease phenotypes in Fawn Hooded hypertensive (FHH) rats using chromosome substitution strains (consomic rats) in which each of the 20 autosomes as well as the X and Y chromosomes were transferred from the normal Brown Norway (BN) rat onto the FHH genetic background. Male and female rats of each of the parental and consomic strains were maintained for 2 wk on high-salt (8.0% NaCl) chow with N(G)-nitro-l-arginine methyl ester (l-NAME) in the drinking water (12.5 mg/l) to induce hypertension and renal disease. Mean arterial blood pressure (MAP) was significantly higher (by over 60 mmHg) in the male FHH compared with BN rats. Urinary protein and albumin excretion rates were increased by 15- and 40-fold, respectively, in the male FHH compared with the BN. Plasma renin activity was 10-fold higher in the FHH than the BN. Similar significant differences were observed between the female FHH and BN, but the degree of hypertension and proteinuria was of a lesser magnitude. Substitution of chromosome 20 from the BN to the FHH attenuated the development of l-NAME-induced hypertension, normalized plasma renin activity, and decreased plasma creatinine in male rats. In female rats, substitution of chromosome 15 decreased MAP and urinary protein excretion. Urinary excretion of albumin in males was decreased by substitution of chromosomes 1, 15, 16, and 18 from the BN into the FHH genetic background. The present data indicate that genes that can modify l-NAME-induced hypertension and proteinuria are on chromosomes 1, 15, 16, 18, and 20.

Characterization of vascular endothelial growth factor receptors on the endothelial cell surface during hypoxia using whole cell binding arrays

Angiogenesis plays a central role in a variety of important biological processes such as reproduction, tissue development, and wound healing, as well as being critical to tumor formation in cancer. The development of chromosomal substitution (consomic) rat strains has permitted the chromosomal localization of genetic factors critical to angiogenesis, but many questions remain as to the mechanisms involved. Here we utilize a novel cell capture assay to assess changes in the functional expression of vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) receptors on the surface of vascular endothelial cells isolated from rat strains that are normal or impaired in angiogenesis. We show that functional VEGF receptor expression is increased under hypoxic conditions in rat strains that exhibit normal angiogenesis but not in a strain impaired in angiogenesis. This result implicates the dysregulation of VEGF receptor expression levels on the endothelial cell surface as a key factor in impaired angiogenesis.

Rat chromosome 19 transfer from SHR ameliorates hypertension, salt-sensitivity, cardiovascular and renal organ damage in salt-sensitive Dahl rats

OBJECTIVES

Unlike Dahl salt-sensitive (SS) rats, some strains of spontaneously hypertensive (SHR) rats develop only minor organ damage even when exposed to high-salt diet. In previous linkage studies, we identified quantitative trait loci on rat chromosome 19 (RNO19) linked to the SHR allele suggesting a protective effect against salt-induced hypertensive organ damage in SS.

METHODS

To test the relevance of this finding, we generated and characterized a consomic strain SS-19SHR in which RNO19 from SHR was introgressed into the susceptible background of SS. We compared the effects of low-salt (0.2% NaCl) and high-salt (4% NaCl) diet exposure for 8 weeks on the development of hypertension and target organ damage in male consomic and SS animals (n=14-20, each).

RESULTS

Systolic blood pressure, relative left ventricular weight and urinary protein excretion were significantly lower in SS-19SHR compared to SS under both low-salt and high-salt diet (P < 0.05, respectively). Left ventricular atrial natriuretic peptide mRNA expression showed a more pronounced 4.5-fold increase in SS compared to SS-19 (two-fold) after high-salt (P < 0.05). In comparison to low diet, high-salt exposure induced a significant increase in vascular aortic hypertrophy index, left ventricular interstitial fibrosis (+210%) and perivascular fibrosis (+195%) in SS but not in consomic SS-19SHR (P < 0.05, respectively).

CONCLUSIONS

These results demonstrate a strong protective effect of RNO19 from SHR on the development of hypertension, salt-sensitivity, cardiovascular and renal organ damage in SS. In particular, we demonstrate a genetic effect protecting against the development of cardiac fibrosis in salt-sensitive hypertension.

Use of chromosome substitution strains to identify seizure susceptibility loci in mice

Seizure susceptibility varies among inbred mouse strains. Chromosome substitution strains (CSS), in which a single chromosome from one inbred strain (donor) has been transferred onto a second strain (host) by repeated backcrossing, may be used to identify quantitative trait loci (QTLs) that contribute to seizure susceptibility. QTLs for susceptibility to pilocarpine-induced seizures, a model of temporal lobe epilepsy, have not been reported, and CSS have not previously been used to localize seizure susceptibility genes. We report QTLs identified using a B6 (host) x A/J (donor) CSS panel to localize genes involved in susceptibility to pilocarpine-induced seizures. Three hundred fifty-five adult male CSS mice, 58 B6, and 39 A/J were tested for susceptibility to pilocarpine-induced seizures. Highest stage reached and latency to each stage were recorded for all mice. B6 mice were resistant to seizures and slower to reach stages compared to A/J mice. The CSS for Chromosomes 10 and 18 progressed to the most severe stages, diverging dramatically from the B6 phenotype. Latencies to stages were also significantly shorter for CSS10 and CSS18 mice. CSS mapping suggests seizure susceptibility loci on mouse Chromosomes 10 and 18. This approach provides a framework for identifying potentially novel homologous candidate genes for human temporal lobe epilepsy.

N-Acetylcysteine improves renal dysfunction, ameliorates kidney damage and decreases blood pressure in salt-sensitive hypertension

BACKGROUND

Salt-sensitive hypertension in humans and experimental animals causes progressive increases in renal damage and dysfunction. The Dahl salt-sensitive (S) rat closely mimics human salt-sensitive hypertension.

AIM

Our goal was to test the hypothesis that enhancing the glutathione system with dietary N-acetylcysteine administration in Dahl S rats on a high sodium intake for 5 weeks will attenuate the increases in arterial pressure, the decreases in renal hemodynamics and the increases in renal damage that normally occur in S rats on high sodium.

METHODS

Forty-four 7- to 8-week-old Dahl S/Rapp strain rats were maintained on a high sodium (8%), high sodium + N-acetylcysteine (4 g/kg per day), or low sodium (0.3%) diet for 5 weeks. Rats had arterial and venous catheters implanted at day 21.

RESULTS

By day 35 in the high-sodium rats, N-acetylcysteine treatment significantly increased the renal reduced-to-oxidized glutathione ratio, glomerular filtration rate, and renal plasma flow, and decreased renal cortical and medullary O2 release, urinary protein excretion, renal tubulointerstitial damage and glomerular necrosis. At this time, mean arterial pressure increased to 183 +/- 1 mmHg, and N-acetylcysteine reduced this arterial pressure to 121 +/- 4 mmHg. By day 35 in S high-sodium rats, N-acetylcysteine had caused a 91% decrease in glomerular necrosis and an 83% decrease in tubulointerstitial damage.

CONCLUSIONS

In Dahl S rats on high sodium intake, arterial pressure increases significantly and renal injury is pronounced. Treatment with N-acetylcysteine enhances the renal glutathione system, improves renal dysfunction and markedly decreases arterial pressure and renal injury in Dahl salt-sensitive hypertension.

The genetic dissection of essential hypertension

QTL mapping in humans and rats has identified hundreds of blood-pressure-related phenotypes and genomic regions; the next daunting task is gene identification and validation. The development of novel rat model systems that mimic many elements of the human disease, coupled with advances in the genomic and informatic infrastructure for rats, promise to revolutionize the hunt for genes that determine susceptibility to hypertension. Furthermore, methods are evolving that should enable the identification of candidate genes in human populations. Together with the computational reconstruction of regulatory networks, these methods provide opportunities to significantly advance our understanding of the underlying aetiology of hypertension.

Consomic strategies to localize genomic regions related to vascular reactivity in the Dahl salt-sensitive rat

Chromosomal substitution strains afford the opportunity to discover regions of the rat genome that contain genes related to cardiovascular traits with the long-range goal of linking these genes to physiological function. PhysGen (Programs for Genomic Applications) created a consomic panel of rats derived from the introgression of a single chromosome (> or =95% of the BN chromosome, one at a time) of the Brown Norway (BN/NHsdMcwi) rat onto the homogeneous genetic background of the Dahl salt-sensitive rat (SS/JrHsdMcwi). For 3 wk before the experiment, the rats were maintained on a low-salt diet (0.4% NaCl). The dose response of aortic rings from each strain of rat to phenylephrine, acetylcholine, sodium nitroprusside, and three different levels of tissue bath hypoxia (10, 5, and 0% O2) was measured and compared with the parental SS rat. To maximize the possibility that differences among the strains would become apparent, each strain of rat including the parental SS and BN was also studied after being maintained on a high-salt diet (4.0% NaCl) for 3 wk. If the response of the aortic ring from a consomic strain to these vasoactive substances was different from that of the SS parental strain, it was concluded that the introgressed chromosome contained a gene or genes that contributed to that difference. Because the BN chromosome is removed from its native background and the SS rat loses a native chromosome, it is also necessary to consider the contribution of changes in gene-to-gene interaction.

Identification of a QTL on chromosome 1 for impaired autoregulation of RBF in fawn-hooded hypertensive rats

The present study evaluated whether the impairment in autoregulation of renal blood flow (RBF) in the fawn-hooded Hypertensive (FHH) rat colocalizes with the Rf-1 region on chromosome 1 that has been previously linked to the development of proteinuria in this strain. Autoregulation of RBF was measured in FHH and a consomic strain (FHH.1BN) in which chromosome 1 from the Brown-Norway (BN) rat was introgressed into the FHH genetic background. The autoregulation indexes (AI) averaged 0.80 ± 0.08 in the FHH and 0.19 ± 0.05 in the FHH.1BNrats. We next performed a genetic linkage analysis for autoregulation of RBF in 85 F2 rats generated from a backcross of FHH.1BNconsomic and FHH rats. The results revealed a significant quantitative trait locus (QTL) with a peak logarithm of the odds score of 6.3 near marker D1Rat376. To confirm the existence of this QTL, five overlapping congenic strains were created that spanned the region from markers D1Rat234 to D1Mit14. Transfer of a region of BN chromosome 1 from markers D1Mgh13 to D1Rat89 into the FHH genetic background improved autoregulation of RBF (AI = 0.23 ± 0.04) and reduced protein excretion. In contrast, RBF was poorly autoregulated and the rats were not protected from proteinuria in congenic strains in which other regions of chromosome 1 that exclude the D1Rat376 marker were transferred. These results indicate that there is a gene(s) that influences autoregulation of RBF and proteinuria between markers D1Mgh13 and D1Rat89 on chromosome 1 that lies within the confidence interval of the Rf-1 QTL previously linked to the development of proteinuria in FHH rats.

Physiogenomic resources for rat models of heart, lung and blood disorders

Cardiovascular disorders are influenced by genetic and environmental factors. The TIGR rodent expression web-based resource (TREX) contains over 2,200 microarray hybridizations, involving over 800 animals from 18 different rat strains. These strains comprise genetically diverse parental animals and a panel of chromosomal substitution strains derived by introgressing individual chromosomes from normotensive Brown Norway (BN/NHsdMcwi) rats into the background of Dahl salt sensitive (SS/JrHsdMcwi) rats. The profiles document gene-expression changes in both genders, four tissues (heart, lung, liver, kidney) and two environmental conditions (normoxia, hypoxia). This translates into almost 400 high-quality direct comparisons (not including replicates) and over 100,000 pairwise comparisons. As each individual chromosomal substitution strain represents on average less than a 5% change from the parental genome, consomic strains provide a useful mechanism to dissect complex traits and identify causative genes. We performed a variety of data-mining manipulations on the profiles and used complementary physiological data from the PhysGen resource to demonstrate how TREX can be used by the cardiovascular community for hypothesis generation.

Chromosomes 18 and X are quantitative trait loci for nephrotic-range proteinuria in rats

Numerous cellular and molecular perturbations have been studied to elucidate the pathogenic mechanisms underlying nephrotic-range proteinuria, which may in turn shed light on disease-specific mechanisms. We have analyzed the publicly available data from the PhysGen partial panel of consomic rats to determine whether there are quantitative trait loci that associate with nephrotic-range proteinuria. As of this writing, consomic rat strains subjected to the renal protocol have been bred by the Program for Genomic Applications for 15 of the 22 rat chromosomes for both genders, predominantly with the Brown-Norway (BN) and Dahl salt-sensitive (SS) strains as parents. We defined chromosomes of interest as consomic SS-xBN strains whose phenotype measurements differed significantly from SS but not BN strains, stratified by gender. We filtered and clustered differentially expressed genes by function in renal tissue from relevant strains. Proteinuria was significantly higher in male SS vs. male SS-18BN, and it was significantly higher in male SS vs. female SS. Functional clustering of differentially expressed genes yielded two specific functional clusters: apoptosis (p=0.022) and angiogenesis (p=0.046). Gene expression profiles demonstrated differential expression of apoptotic and angiogenic genes. However, TUNEL stains of renal tissue showed no significant difference in the number of apoptotic nuclei. We conclude that chromosomes 18 and X are quantitative trait loci for nephrotic-range proteinuria in rats.

Effect of renal medullary H2O2 on salt-induced hypertension and renal injury

Dahl salt-sensitive (SS) and consomic, salt-resistant SS-13(BN) rats possess substantial differences in blood pressure salt-sensitivity even with highly similar genetic backgrounds. The present study examined whether increased oxidative stress, particularly H2O2, in the renal medulla of SS rats contributes to these differences. Blood pressure was measured using femoral arterial catheters in three groups of rats: 1) 12-wk-old SS and consomic SS-13(BN) rats fed a 0.4% NaCl diet, 2) SS rats fed a 4% NaCl diet and chronically infused with saline or catalase (6.9 microg x kg(-1) x min(-1)) directly into the renal medulla, and 3) SS-13(BN) fed high salt (4%) and infused with saline or H2O2 (347 nmol x kg(-1) x min(-1)) into the renal medullary interstitium. After chronic blood pressure measurements, renal medullary interstitial H2O2 concentration ([H2O2]) was collected by microdialysis and analyzed with Amplex red. Blood pressure and [H2O2] were both significantly higher in SS (126 +/- 3 mmHg and 145 +/- 17 nM, respectively) vs. SS-13(BN) rats (116 +/- 2 mmHg and 56 +/- 14 nM) fed a 0.4% diet. Renal interstitial catalase infusion significantly decreased [H2O2] (96 +/- 41 vs. 297 +/- 52 nM) and attenuated the hypertension (146 +/- 2 mmHg catalase vs. 163 +/- 4 mmHg saline) in SS rats after 5 days of high salt (4%). H2O2 infused into the renal medulla of consomic SS-13(BN) fed high salt (4%) for 7 days accentuated the salt sensitivity (145 +/- 2 mmHg H2O2 vs. 134 +/- 1 mmHg saline). [H2O2] was also increased in the treated group (83 +/- 1 nM H2O2 vs. 44 +/- 9 nM saline). These data show that medullary production of H2O2 may contribute to salt-induced hypertension in SS rats and that chromosome 13 of the Brown Norway contains gene(s) that protect against renal medullary oxidant stress.

Enhanced expression of EGF receptor in a model of salt-sensitive hypertension

Chronic kidney disease in the Dahl/Rapp salt-sensitive (S) rat is related to an arteriolopathic process that occurs following the onset of hypertension and involves vascular smooth muscle cell (VSMC) hyperplasia and luminal constriction. Because previous studies have shown that activation of the epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) produces a mitogenic stimulus in VSMC and the EGFR participates integrally in the vasoconstrictor responses of renal arterioles, the present study analyzed the expression of EGFR in these animals. Compared with Sprague-Dawley (SD) rats, renal cortical expression of EGFR was increased in both prehypertensive and hypertensive S rats. Immunohistochemistry using a polyclonal antibody to EGFR demonstrated that EGFR expression was prominent in the renal vasculature, particularly in the media of afferent and efferent arterioles and the aorta of S rats. When examined, primary cultures of VSMC from S rats showed increased expression of EGFR, compared with VSMC from SD and Dahl/Rapp salt-resistant rats. Following addition of EGF, autophosphorylation of the EGFR was enhanced in cells from S rats, as was the downstream signaling events that included activation of p42/44 MAPK and Akt pathways. Thus in vivo and in vitro studies demonstrated augmented expression and functional activity of the EGFR in S rats.

Restoration of normal vascular relaxation mechanisms in cerebral arteries by chromosomal substitution in consomic SS.13BN rats

This study sought to identify the mechanisms of vascular relaxation that are rescued in middle cerebral arteries (MCA) of SS.13BN consomic rats by substituting chromosome 13 containing the renin gene from Brown Norway (BN) rats into the Dahl salt-sensitive (SS) genetic background. Isolated MCA from SS rats exhibited an indomethacin-sensitive constriction in response to acetylcholine (ACh) and hypoxia. ACh-induced dilation was NO dependent and hypoxic dilations were cyclooxygenase (COX) dependent in BN and SS.13BN rats. In SS rats, hypoxic dilation was restored by indomethacin and abolished by inhibiting cytochrome P-450 epoxygenases, suggesting a role for epoxyeicosatrienoic acids. MCA from SS and SS.13BN rats constricted and MCA from BN rats dilated in response to the stable prostacyclin analog iloprost. MCA from SS.13BN and BN rats (but not SS rats) dilated in response to the prostaglandin E2 receptor agonist butaprost. Hypoxia increased prostacyclin release in cerebral arteries from all the strains, whereas thromboxane A2 production was reduced in BN rat vessels only. These data suggest that SS rats may be less sensitive to vasodilator prostaglandins and that normalization of renin-angiotensin system regulation causes a switch from production of COX-derived vasoconstrictor metabolites (in SS rats) toward NO-dependent relaxation in response to ACh- and prostaglandin-dependent dilation in response to hypoxia in SS.13(BN) rats.

Genetic determinants on rat chromosome 6 modulate variation in the hypercapnic ventilatory response using consomic strains

To understand the genetic basis of pathways involved in the control of breathing, a large scale, high-throughput study using chromosomal substitution strains of rats is underway. Eight new consomic rat stains (SS-2(BN), SS-4(BN), SS-6(BN), SS-7(BN), SS-8(BN), SS-11(BN), SS-12(BN), SS-14(BN), SS-Y(BN)), containing one homozygous BN/NHsdMcwi (BN) chromosome on a background of SS/JrHsdMcwi (SS), were created by PhysGen (http://pga.mcw.edu) Program for Genomic Applications. Male and female rats were studied using standard plethysmography under control conditions and during acute hypoxia (inspired oxygen fraction = 0.12) and hypercapnia (inspired CO(2) fraction = 0.07). The rats were also studied during treadmill exercise. Both male and female BN rats had a significantly lower ventilatory response during 7% CO(2) compared with SS rats of the same gender. SS-6(BN) female rats had a significantly reduced ventilatory response, similar to BN rats due primarily to a reduced tidal volume. Male SS-6(BN) rats had a significantly reduced tidal volume response to hypercapnia but a slightly increased frequency response during hypercapnia. Gene(s) on the Y chromosome may play a role in this increased frequency response in the male rats because the SS-Y(BN) hypercapnic ventilatory response involves a significantly increased frequency response. Several chromosomal substitutions slightly altered the ventilatory responses to hypoxia and exercise. However, genes on chromosomes 6 and Y of those studied are of primary importance in aspects of ventilatory control currently studied.

Substitution of chromosome 1 ameliorates L-NAME hypertension and renal disease in the fawn-hooded hypertensive rat

Linkage analysis studies previously identified genetic loci associated with proteinuria and hypertension on chromosome 1 of fawn-hooded hypertensive (FHH) rats. The present studies were performed on conscious male and female rats to evaluate the influence of transfer of chromosome 1 from the Brown Norway (BN) rat to the FHH genetic background (FHH-1BN). Rats were maintained for 2 wk on 8.0% NaCl chow with NG-nitro-L-arginine methyl ester (L-NAME) in the drinking water (12.5 mg/l) to induce hypertension and accelerate the onset of renal disease. Mean arterial blood pressure (MAP) was significantly higher in the male FHH (188 +/- 3 mmHg, n = 13) compared with the BN (121 +/- 3 mmHg, n = 8); MAP in the FHH-1(BN) was midway between the two parental strains (167 +/- 5 mmHg, n = 9). Urinary protein and albumin excretion rates in the male FHH-1(BN) (Uprot = 189 +/- 36 mg/day, Ualb = 69 +/- 16 mg/day, n = 10) were also midway between levels observed in the FHH (Uprot = 485 +/- 54 mg/day; Ualb = 206 +/- 25 mg/day, n = 13) and the BN (Uprot = 32 +/- 5 mg/day, Ualb = 5 +/- 1 mg/day, n = 8). Creatinine clearance was elevated, and the degree of glomerular damage was significantly reduced in the FHH-1BN compared with the FHH. Qualitatively similar results were obtained from female FHH, FHH-1BN, and BN rats. The present results indicate that genes contributing to l-NAME-induced hypertension and renal disease are found on chromosome 1 of the FHH rat.

Mechanism of hypertensive nephropathy in the Dahl/Rapp rat: a primary disorder of vascular smooth muscle

The Dahl/Rapp salt-sensitive (S) rat is a model of salt-sensitive hypertension and hypertensive renal disease. This study explored the role of vascular remodeling in the development of renal failure in S rats. Groups of S and Sprague-Dawley rats were given 0.3 and 8.0% NaCl diets for up to 21 days and evidence of smooth muscle proliferation identified using immunohistochemistry that showed nuclear accumulation of proliferating cell nuclear antigen and 5-bromo-2′-deoxy-uridine. Compared with the other three groups, S rats on 8.0% NaCl diet showed increased nuclear labeling of cells of the aorta and arteries and arterioles of the kidney by the end of the first week of study. Progressive luminal narrowing of the interlobular arteries and preglomerular arterioles occurred in S rats over the 3 wk on the 8.0% NaCl diet. Accumulation of pimonidazole adducts and nuclear accumulation of hypoxia-inducible factor-1α (HIF-1α) were used as markers of tissue hypoxia. By the end of the second week of study, pimonidazole levels increased in S rats on 8.0% NaCl diet and deposition was apparent in tubular cells in the cortex and medulla. At the completion of the experiment, HIF-1α levels were increased in nuclear extracts from the cortex and medulla of S rats on this diet, compared with the other three groups of rats. The data demonstrated a disorder of the vascular remodeling process with proliferation of vascular smooth muscle cells temporally followed by development of tissue hypoxia in the hypertensive nephropathy of S rats on 8.0% NaCl diet.

Resistance to ischemic acute renal failure in the Brown Norway rat: a new model to study cytoprotection

BACKGROUND

An in vivo model of intrinsic resistance to ischemia could be invaluable to define how specific pathways to injury or putative protectors from injury affect the severity of acute renal failure (ARF). The purpose of this study was to determine whether separate rat strains had differential sensitivity to renal ischemia, characterize the extent of protection, and begin to define differences in gene expression that might impact on the severity of ARF.

METHODS

The sensitivity to 45 minutes of renal ischemia in Sprague-Dawley rat (SD) was compared with 2 lines of Brown-Norway rats (BN/Mcw, BN/Hsd). Constitutive and inducible stress protein expression was compared between strains.

RESULTS

At 24 hours' reperfusion, SD rats had higher creatinine (3.4 mg/dL), elevated Na and water excretion, and proximal tubule necrosis. Both strains of BN rats were resistant to loss of renal function (Scr = 0.9 mg/dL at 24 hours' reflow) and had preserved renal morphology. BN rats had no redistribution of Na,K-ATPase into detergent-soluble cortical extracts found early (15 minutes) after ischemia in SD rats. Hsc73 expression did not differ between strains and was not induced by ischemia. Compared with SD, induction of Hsp25 and 72 by renal ischemia was blunted in both BN strains. Constitutive Hsp25 was higher in both BN-Mcw and BN-Hsd compared with SD rat kidney. Constitutive Hsp72 was significantly higher only in BN-Mcw kidneys. Immunohistochemistry showed baseline Hsp72 and 25 expression was increased in proximal tubules of BN-Mcw versus SD.

CONCLUSION

BN rat kidney is resistant to ischemic injury and provides a new model for studying cytoprotective mechanisms. Initial study of strain-specific gene expression suggests particular stress proteins are among the potential mechanisms contributing to protection against ARF.

Unraveling the genetics of chronic kidney disease using animal models

Identifying genes underlying common forms of kidney disease in humans has proven difficult, expensive, and time consuming. Quantitative trait loci (QTL) for several complex traits are concordant among mice, rats, and humans, suggesting that genetic findings from these animal models are relevant to human disease. Therefore, we reviewed the literature on genetic studies of kidney disease in rat and mouse and examined the concordance between kidney disease QTL across species. Fifteen genomic regions contribute to kidney disease in the rat, with 12 replicated either in a separate rat cross or in another species. Five loci found in humans were concordant to QTL found in the rat. Two of these were found by homology to a previously identified rat QTL on chromosome 1, demonstrating that kidney disease loci in animal models can predict the location of kidney disease loci in humans. In contrast to the rat, the mouse has been underutilized in the genetic analysis of polygenic kidney disease, although mutagenesis and QTL analysis in the mouse are likely to contribute new findings in the near future. Knowledge of kidney disease loci conserved between the mouse and rat will identify prime candidate loci to test for association with chronic kidney disease in humans.

Consomic rat model systems for physiological genomics

A consomic rat strain is one in which an entire chromosome is introgressed into the isogenic background of another inbred strain using marker-assisted selection. The development and physiological screening of two inbred consomic rat panels on two genetic backgrounds (44 strains) is well underway. Consomic strains enable one to assign traits and quantitative trait loci (QTL) to chromosomes by surveying the panel of strains with substituted chromosomes. They enable the rapid development of congenic strains over a narrow region and enable one to perform F2 linkage studies to positionally locate QTL on a single chromosome with a fixed genetic background. These rodent model systems overcome many of the problems encountered with segregating crosses where even if linkage is found, each individual in the cross is genetically unique and the combination of genes cannot be reproduced or studied in detail. For physiologists, consomics enable studies to be performed in a replicative or longitudinal manner to elucidate in greater detail the sequential expression of genes responsible for the observed phenotypes of these animals. They often provide the best available inbred control strains for physiological comparisons with the parental strains and they enable one to assess the impact of a causal gene region in a genome by allowing comparisons of the effect of replacement of a specific chromosome on a disease susceptible or a resistant genomic background. Consomic rat strains are proving to be a unique scientific resource that can greatly extend our understanding of genes and their role in the regulation of complex function and disease.

Mapping quantitative trait loci for anxiety in chromosome substitution strains of mice

Anxious behavior in the mouse is a complex quantitative phenotype that varies widely among inbred mouse strains. We examined a panel of chromosome substitution strains bearing individual A/J chromosomes in an otherwise C57BL/6J background in open-field and light-dark transition tests. Our results confirmed previous reports of quantitative trait loci (QTL) on chromosomes 1, 4, and 15 and identified novel loci on chromosomes 6 and 17. The studies were replicated in two separate laboratories. Systematic differences in the overall activity level were found between the two facilities, but the presence of the QTL was confirmed in both laboratories. We also identified specific effects on open-field defecation and center avoidance and distinguished them from overall open-field activity.

Genetic dissection of complex traits with chromosome substitution strains of mice

Chromosome substitution strains (CSSs) have been proposed as a simple and powerful way to identify quantitative trait loci (QTLs) affecting developmental, physiological, and behavioral processes. Here, we report the construction of a complete CSS panel for a vertebrate species. The CSS panel consists of 22 mouse strains, each of which carries a single chromosome substituted from a donor strain (A/J) onto a common host background (C57BL/6J). A survey of 53 traits revealed evidence for 150 QTLs affecting serum levels of sterols and amino acids, diet-induced obesity, and anxiety. These results demonstrate that CSSs greatly facilitate the detection and identification of genes that control the wide diversity of naturally occurring phenotypic variation in the A/J and C57BL/6J inbred strains.

Application of chromosomal substitution techniques in gene-function discovery

A consomic rat strain is one in which an entire chromosome is introgressed into the isogenic background of another inbred strain using marker assisted selection. The development and initial physiologic screening of two inbred consomic rat panels on two genetic backgrounds (44 strains) is well underway. The primary uses of consomic strains are: (1) to assign traits and quantitative trait loci (QTL) to chromosomes by surveying the panel of strains with substituted chromosomes; (2) to rapidly develop congenic strains over a narrow region using several approaches described in this review and perform F2 linkage studies to positionally locate QTL in a fixed genetic background. In addition, consomic strains overcome many of the problems encountered with segregating crosses where, even if linkage is found, each individual in the cross is genetically unique and the combination of genes cannot be reproduced or studied in detail. Consomic strains provide greater statistical power to detect linkage than traditional F2 crosses because of their fixed genetic backgrounds, and can produce sufficient numbers of genetically identical rats to validate the relationship between a trait and a particular chromosome. These strains allow studies to be performed in a replicative or longitudinal manner to elucidate in greater detail the sequential changes responsible for the observed phenotypes of these animals, and they enable one to assess the impact of a causal gene region in a genome by allowing comparisons of the effect of replacement of a specific chromosome upon a disease susceptible or resistant genomic background. Consomics can be used to quickly develop multiple chromosome substitution models to investigate gene-gene interactions of complex traits or diseases. Finally, they often provide the best available inbred control strain for particular physiological comparisons with the inbred parental strains. Consomic rat strains are proving to be a unique scientific resource that greatly extends our understanding of genes and complex normal and pathological function.

Functional genomics in rodent models of hypertension

Inbred strains of rodents have been used to study mammalian physiology and pathophysiology in an attempt to understand the contribution of genes in the pathogenesis of the disease process. In this review we focus on experimental animal models to identify quantitative trait loci (QTL) and possible strategies for identifying underlying genetic determinants responsible for hypertension. Confirmation of the existence of the QTL and dissection of the implicated region can be undertaken by production of either recombinant inbred, consomic or congenic strains. Despite complex interactions and the relatively few confirmed causative genes underlying QTL, recent developments in rat genome resources and advancement in statistical and bioinformatic methods will facilitate the identification of major gene(s) responsible for complex, polygenic traits.

Introgression of chromosome 13 in Dahl salt-sensitive genetic background restores cerebral vascular relaxation

To evaluate the potential role of impaired renin-angiotensin system (RAS) function in contributing to reduced vascular relaxation in Dahl salt-sensitive (S) rats, responses to ACh (10(-6) mol/l) and hypoxia (Po(2) reduction to 40-45 mmHg) were determined in isolated middle cerebral arteries of Dahl S rats, Brown Norway (BN) rats, and consomic rats having chromosome 13 (containing the renin gene) or chromosome 16 of the BN rat substituted into the Dahl S genetic background (SS-13(BN) and SS-16(BN), respectively). Arteries of BN rats on a low-salt (LS) diet (0.4% NaCl) dilated in response to ACh and hypoxia, whereas dilation in response to these stimuli was absent in Dahl S rats on LS diet. Vasodilation to ACh and hypoxia was restored in SS-13(BN) rats on an LS diet but not in SS-16(BN) rats. High-salt diet (4% NaCl), to suppress ANG II, eliminated vasodilation to hypoxia and ACh in BN and in SS-13(BN) rats. Treatment of SS-13(BN) rats with the AT(1) receptor antagonist losartan also eliminated the restored vasodilation in response to ACh and hypoxia. These studies suggest that restoration of normal RAS regulation in SS-13(BN) consomic rats restores vascular relaxation mechanisms that are impaired in Dahl S rats.

Influence of diet and genetics on hypertension and renal disease in Dahl salt-sensitive rats

Experiments examined the influence of diet and genetics on hypertension and renal disease in inbred Dahl salt-sensitive (SS/Mcw) rats and consomic rats in which chromosomes 16 (SS.BN16) or 18 (SS.BN18) of the normotensive Brown Norway rat were inserted into the genetic background of the SS/Mcw. Dahl SS/Mcw breeders and offspring were randomly placed on a purified AIN-76A diet or a grain-based diet, and male offspring were screened for cardiovascular and renal phenotypes following 3 wk on a 4.0% NaCl diet. High-salt arterial blood pressure (162 +/- 5 mmHg, n = 10), urinary protein excretion (147 +/- 16 mg/day, n = 14), and albumin excretion (72 +/- 9 mg/day, n = 14) were significantly elevated in the Dahl SS/Mcw maintained on the purified diet compared with rats fed the grain-based diet. Rats fed the purified diet also exhibited significantly more renal glomerular and tubular damage than rats fed the grain diet. Moreover, feeding the purified diet to the parents led to a significant increase in blood pressure in the offspring, regardless of offspring diet. Similar dietary effects were observed in SS.BN16 and SS.BN18 rats. In rats fed the purified diet, substitution of chromosomes 16 or 18 led to a significant decrease in arterial blood pressure, albumin excretion, and protein excretion compared with the SS/Mcw. Chromosomal substitution did not, however, affect albumin or protein excretion in the consomic rats compared with the SS/Mcw when the rats were maintained on the grain diet. These data demonstrate a significant influence of diet composition on salt-induced hypertension and renal disease in the Dahl SS/Mcw rat.

High throughput gene expression profiling: a molecular approach to integrative physiology

Integrative physiology emphasizes the importance of understanding multiple pathways with overlapping, complementary, or opposing effects and their interactions in the context of intact organisms. The DNA microarray technology, the most commonly used method for high-throughput gene expression profiling, has been touted as an integrative tool that provides insights into regulatory pathways. However, the physiology community has been slow in acceptance of these techniques because of early failure in generating useful data and the lack of a cohesive theoretical framework in which experiments can be analysed. With recent advances in both technology and analysis, we propose a concept of multidimensional integration of physiology that incorporates data generated by DNA microarray and other functional, genomic, and proteomic approaches to achieve a truly integrative understanding of physiology. Analysis of several studies performed in simpler organisms or in mammalian model animals supports the feasibility of such multidimensional integration and demonstrates the power of DNA microarray as an indispensable molecular tool for such integration. Evaluation of DNA microarray techniques indicates that these techniques, despite limitations, have advanced to a point where the question-driven profiling research has become a feasible complement to the conventional, hypothesis-driven research. With a keen sense of homeostasis, global regulation, and quantitative analysis, integrative physiologists are uniquely positioned to apply these techniques to enhance the understanding of complex physiological functions.

Genomic map of cardiovascular phenotypes of hypertension in female Dahl S rats

Genetic linkage analyses in human populations have traditionally combined male and female progeny for determination of quantitative trait loci (QTL). In contrast, most rodent studies have focused primarily on males. This study represents an extensive female-specific linkage analysis in which 236 neuroendocrine, renal, and cardiovascular traits related to arterial pressure (BP) were determined in 99 female F2 rats derived from a cross of Dahl salt-sensitive SS/JrHsdMcwi (SS) and Brown Norway normotensive BN/SsNHsdMcwi (BN) rats. We identified 126 QTL for 96 traits on 19 of the 20 autosomal chromosomes of the female progeny. Four chromosomes (3, 6, 7, and 11) were identified as especially important in regulation of arterial pressure and renal function, since aggregates of 8–11 QTL mapped together on these chromosomes. BP QTL in this female population differed considerably from those previously found in male, other female, or mixed sex population linkage analysis studies using SS rats. Kidney weight divided by body weight was identified as an intermediate phenotype that mapped to the same region of the genome as resting diastolic blood pressure and was correlated with that same BP phenotype. Seven other phenotypes were considered as “potential intermediate phenotypes, ” which mapped to the same region of the genome as a BP QTL but were not correlated with BP. These included renal vascular responses to ANG II and ACh and indices of baroreceptor responsiveness. Secondary traits were also identified that were likely to be consequences of hypertension (correlated with BP but not mapped to a BP QTL). Seven such traits were found, notably heart rate, plasma cholesterol, and renal glomerular injury. The development of a female rat systems biology map of cardiovascular function represents the first attempt to prioritize those regions of the genome important for development of hypertension and end organ damage in female rats.

Do genes on rat chromosomes 9, 13, 16, 18, and 20 contribute to regulation of breathing?

As part of a large scale, high through-put physiologic genomics study, we sought to determine whether genes on rat chromosomes 9, 13, 16, 18, and 20 contribute to phenotypic differences in the control of breathing between two inbred rat strains (SS/Mcw and BN/Mcw). Through a chromosomal substitution breeding strategy, we created 5 consomic rat strains (SS.BN9, SS.BN13, SS.BN16, SS.BN18, and SS.BN20), which were BN/Mcw homozygous at only one chromosome and SS/Mcw homozygous at all other chromosomes. Standard plethsmography was used to assess eupneic breathing and ventilatory responses to CO(2) (FI(CO(2))=0.07) and hypoxia (FI(CO(2))=0.12), and Pa(CO(2)) during treadmill exercises provided the index of the exercise hyperpnea. There were no robust differences in eupneic breathing between any strains. The ventilatory response to CO(2) was 150% greater (P<0.001) in the SS/Mcw rats than in the BN/Mcw rats and all consomic strains had the SS/Mcw phenotype. Hyperventilation during hypoxia did not differ between the parental and the consomic strains, but ventilation during hypoxia was greater (P<0.001) in the SS/Mcw than in the BN/Mcw, and the SS.BN9, and SS.BN18 appeared to acquire this BN/Mcw phenotype. The hyperventilation during treadmill walking was greater (P<0.006) in the BN/Mcw and the SS.BN18 rats than in the SS/Mcw rats. Finally, the duration of the apnea following an augmented breath (post sigh apnea, PSA) was greater (P<0.001) in the BN/Mcw and the SS.BN9 rats than all other strains. We conclude that the robust difference between the parental strains in ventilatory CO(2) sensitivity is not due to genotypic differences on the 5 chromosomes studied to date, but genotypic differences on chromosomes 9 and 18 contribute to differences in ventilatory responses to hypoxia, exercise, and/or to the differences in the PSA.

CYP4A metabolites of arachidonic acid and VEGF are mediators of skeletal muscle angiogenesis

Vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) has been implicated in angiogenesis induced by electrical stimulation in skeletal muscle. Less is known about the role of arachidonic acid metabolites in the control of growth of blood vessels in vivo. The present study examined the role of 20-hydroxyeicosatetraenoic acid (20-HETE) on the angiogenesis induced by electrical stimulation in skeletal muscle. The tibialis anterior and extensor digitorum longus muscles of rats were stimulated for 7 days. Electrical stimulation significantly increased the 20-HETE formation and angiogenesis in the muscles, which was blocked by chronic treatment with N-hydroxy-N'-(4-butyl-2-methylphenol)formamidine (HET0016) or 1-aminobenzotriazole (ABT). Chronic treatment with either HET0016 or ABT did not block the increases in VEGF protein expression in both muscles. To analyze the role of VEGF on 20-HETE formation, additional rats were treated with VEGF-neutralizing antibody (VEGF Ab). VEGF Ab blocked the increases of 20-HETE formation induced by stimulation. These results place 20-HETE in the downstream signaling pathway for angiogenesis and show that both VEGF and 20-HETE are involved in the angiogenesis induced by electrical stimulation in skeletal muscle.

Genomics and homeostasis

The Cannon lecture this year illustrates how knowledge of DNA sequences of complex living organisms is beginning to shape the landscape of physiology in the 21st century. Enormous challenges and opportunities now exist for physiologists to relate the galaxy of genes to normal and pathological functions. The first extensive genomic systems biology map for cardiovascular and renal function was completed last year as well as a new hypothesis-generating tool ("physiological profiling") that enables us to hypothesize relationships between specific genes responsible for the regulation of regulatory pathways. Techniques of chromosomal substitution (consomic and congenic rats) are beginning to confirm statistical results from linkage analysis studies, narrow the regions of genetic interest for positional cloning, and provide genetically well-defined control strains for physiological studies. Patterns of gene expression identified by microarray and mapping of expressed genes to chromosomal sites are adding to the understanding of systems physiology. The previously unimaginable goal of connecting approximately 36,000 genes to the complex functions of mammalian systems is indeed well underway.

Insights into Dahl salt-sensitive hypertension revealed by temporal patterns of renal medullary gene expression

Dahl salt-sensitive SS and consomic, salt-resistant SS-13(BN)/Mcw rats possess a highly similar genetic background but exhibit substantial differences in blood pressure salt sensitivity. We used cDNA microarrays to examine sequential changes of mRNA expression of approximately 2,000 currently known rat genes in the renal medulla (a tissue critical for long-term blood pressure regulation) in SS and SS-13(BN)/Mcw rats in response to a high-salt diet (16 h, 3 days, or 2 wk). Differentially expressed genes in each between-group comparison were identified based on a threshold determined experimentally using a reference distribution that was constructed by comparing rats within the same group. A difference analysis of 54 microarrays identified 50 genes that exhibited the most distinct temporal patterns of expression between SS and SS-13(BN)/Mcw rats over the entire time course. Thirty of these genes could be linked to the regulation of arterial blood pressure or renal injury based on their known involvement in functional pathways such as renal tubular transport, metabolism of vasoactive substances, extracellular matrix formation, and apoptosis. Importantly, the majority of the 30 genes exhibited temporal expression patterns that would be expected to lower arterial pressure and reduce renal injury in SS-13(BN)/Mcw compared with SS rats. The phenotypic impact of the other 20 genes was less clear. These 50 genes are widely distributed on chromosome 13 and several other chromosomes. This suggested that primary genetic defects, although important, are unlikely to be solely responsible for the full manifestation of this type of hypertension and associated injury phenotypes. In summary, the results of this study identified a number of pathways potentially important for the amelioration of hypertension and renal injury in SS-13(BN)/Mcw rats, and these results generated a series of testable hypotheses related to the role of the renal medulla in the complex mechanism of salt-sensitive hypertension.

Dissecting the genetic architecture of the cardiovascular and renal stress response

We review the evidence for a genetic basis of the cardiovascular and renal stress response. A bio-behavioral model of stress-induced hypertension is presented that explains how repeated exposure to stress in combination with genetic susceptibility might lead to the development of hypertension. In this model, we focus on three underlying physiological systems that mediate the stress response of the heart, vasculature and kidney: the sympathetic nervous system (SNS), the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system (RAAS) and the endothelial system (ES). We then review the evidence for a genetic influence on cardiovascular reactivity to psychological stress and stress-induced sodium retention using data from twin and family studies and a limited number of candidate gene studies. Finally, by describing the underlying physiological systems of our model and their genetic underpinning we emphasize the importance of inclusion of genetic measurements in any future studies testing the reactivity hypothesis.

Renal medullary genes in salt-sensitive hypertension: a chromosomal substitution and cDNA microarray study

Substitution of chromosome 13 from Brown Norway BN/SsNHsd/Mcw (BN/Mcw) rats into the Dahl salt-sensitive SS/JrHsd/Mcw (SS/Mcw) rats resulted in substantial reduction of blood pressure salt sensitivity in this consomic rat strain designated SSBN13. In the present study, we attempted to identify genes associated with salt-sensitive hypertension by utilizing a custom, known-gene cDNA microarray to compare the mRNA expression profiles in the renal medulla (a tissue playing a pivotal role in long-term blood pressure regulation) of SS/Mcw and SSBN13 rats on either low-salt (0.4% NaCl) or high-salt (4% NaCl, 2 wk) diets. To increase the reliability of microarray data, we designed a four-way comparison experiment incorporating several levels of replication and developed a conservative yet robust data analysis method. Using this approach, from the 1,751 genes examined (representing more than 80% of all currently known rat genes), we identified 80 as being differentially expressed in at least 1 of the 4 comparisons. Substantial agreements were found between the microarray results and the results predicted on the basis of the four-way comparison as well as the results of Northern blots of 20 randomly selected genes. Analysis of the four-way comparison further indicated that approximately 75% of the 80 differentially expressed genes were likely related to salt-sensitive hypertension. Many of these genes had not previously been recognized to be important in hypertension, whereas several genes/pathways known to be involved in hypertension were confirmed. These results should provide an informative source for designing future functional studies in salt-sensitive hypertension.