Liposomal Formulations in Clinical Use: An Updated Review

Novel Therapeutic Hybrid Systems Using Hydrogels and Nanotechnology: A Focus on Nanoemulgels for the Treatment of Skin Diseases

Topical and transdermal drug delivery are advantageous administration routes, especially when treating diseases and conditions with a skin etiology. Nevertheless, conventional dosage forms often lead to low therapeutic efficacy, safety issues, and patient noncompliance. To tackle these issues, novel topical and transdermal platforms involving nanotechnology have been developed. This review focuses on the latest advances regarding the development of nanoemulgels for skin application, encapsulating a wide variety of molecules, including already marketed drugs (miconazole, ketoconazole, fusidic acid, imiquimod, meloxicam), repurposed marketed drugs (atorvastatin, omeprazole, leflunomide), natural-derived compounds (eucalyptol, naringenin, thymoquinone, curcumin, chrysin, brucine, capsaicin), and other synthetic molecules (ebselen, tocotrienols, retinyl palmitate), for wound healing, skin and skin appendage infections, skin inflammatory diseases, skin cancer, neuropathy, or anti-aging purposes. Developed formulations revealed adequate droplet size, PDI, viscosity, spreadability, pH, stability, drug release, and drug permeation and/or retention capacity, having more advantageous characteristics than current marketed formulations. In vitro and/or in vivo studies established the safety and efficacy of the developed formulations, confirming their therapeutic potential, and making them promising platforms for the replacement of current therapies, or as possible adjuvant treatments, which might someday effectively reach the market to help fight highly incident skin or systemic diseases and conditions.

Implantation of In Situ Gelling Systems for the Delivery of Chemotherapeutic Agents

Implantation is a modern method of administering chemotherapeutic agents, with a highly targeted effect and better patient tolerance due to the low frequency of administration. Implants are capable of controlled release, which makes them a viable alternative to infusional chemotherapy, allowing patients to enjoy a better quality of life without the need for prolonged hospitalization. Compared to subcutaneous implantation, intratumoral implantation has a number of significant advantages in terms of targeting and side effects, but this area of chemotherapy is still poorly understood in terms of clinical trials. At the same time, there are more known developments of drugs in the form of implants and injections for intratumoral administration. The disadvantages of classical intratumoral implants are the need for surgical intervention to install the system and the increased risk of tumor rupture noted by some specialists. The new generation of implants are in situ implants-systems formed in the tumor due to a phase transition (sol-gel transition) under the influence of various stimuli. Among this systems some are highly selective for a certain type of malignant neoplasm. Such systems are injected and have all the advantages of intratumoral injections, but due to the phase transition occurring in situ, they form depot forms that allow the long-term release of chemotherapeutic agents.

Design and Development of Ophthalmic Liposomes from the QbD Perspective

Due to significant lachrymation, drug washing out, and poor adhesion to the lipophilic outer layer of the precorneal and cornea membrane, topical ophthalmic solution drops have poor ocular bioavailability. The rate of transcorneal absorption is impacted in the case of hydrophilic drug molecules as brimonidine tartrate, timolol maleate, cyclosporine, etc. Ophthalmic solution administered in many doses is less patient-compliant. The limitation of multiple-dose and its negative effects can be overcome by the development of delayed- release liposomes. Liposomes are regulatory-approved novel drug delivery systems. Its vesicular form aids in delaying medication release, and its lipidic makeup enables it to stick to the cornea's lipophilic layer. As a result, it will prevent precorneal clearing, extend corneal contact time, and provide sufficient transcorneal absorption. The aim of this review article is to portray the benefits of liposomes for ophthalmic drug delivery and its formulation development in the light of QbD. The review discusses the composition, preparatory methods and quality aspects of ophthalmic liposomes. It then accordingly reasonably proposes the quality target product profile, critical quality attributes, critical material attributes and critical process parameters, involved in liposome development for ophthalmic drug delivery. This review shall help formulation scientists to formulate ophthalmic liposomes of desirable quality.

Challenges and Therapeutic Approaches for the Protein Delivery System: A Review

The protein delivery system is one of the innovative or novel drug delivery systems in the present era. Proteins play an indispensable role in our body and are mainly found in every part, like tissue and cells of our body. It also controls various functions, such as maintaining our tissue, transportation, muscle recovery, enzyme production and acting as an energy source for our body. Protein therapeutics have big future perspectives, and their use in the treatment of a wide range of serious diseases has transformed the delivery system in the pharmaceutical and biotechnology industries. The chief advantage of protein delivery is that it can be delivered directly to the systemic circulation. So far, parenteral routes, such as intravenous, intramuscular, and subcutaneous, are the most often used method of administering protein drugs. Alternative routes like buccal, oral, pulmonary, transdermal, nasal, and ocular routes have also shown a remarkable success rate. However, as with all other types of delivery, here, several challenges are posed due to the presence of various barriers, such as the enzymatic barrier, intestinal epithelial barrier, capillary endothelial barrier, and blood-brain barrier. There are several approaches that have been explored to overcome these barriers, such as chemical modification, enzymatic inhibitors, penetration enhancers, and mucoadhesive polymers. This review article discusses the protein, its functions, routes of administration, challenges, and strategies to achieve ultimate formulation goals. Recent advancements like the protein Pegylation method and Depofoam technology are another highlight of the article.

A Glance on Nanovaccine: A Potential Approach for Disease Prevention

There are several vaccines available for preventing various bacterial and viral infections, but still, there are many challenges that require the development of noninvasive, more efficient, and active vaccines. The advancement in biotechnological tools has provided safer antigens, such as nucleic acids, proteins etc., but due to their lower immunogenic property, adjuvants of stronger immune response are required. Nanovaccines are effective vaccines when compared with conventional vaccines as they can induce both Humoral and cell-mediated immune responses and also provide longer immunogenic memory. The nanocarriers used in vaccines act as adjuvant. They provide site-specific delivery of antigens and can be used in conjugation with immunostimulatory molecules for enhancing adjuvant therapy. The nanovaccines avoid degrading cell pathways and provide effective absorption into blood vessels. The higher potential of nanovaccines to treat various diseases, such as acquired immuno deficiency syndrome, cancer, tuberculosis, malaria and many others, along with their immunological mechanisms and different types, have been discussed in the review.

Nattokinase Encapsulated Nanomedicine for Targeted Thrombolysis: Development, Improved in Vivo Thrombolytic Effects, and Ultrasound/Photoacoustic Imaging

Nattokinase (NK), a potent thrombolytic enzyme that dissolves blood clots, is highly used in the treatment of cardiovascular disorders. However, its effective delivery remains demanding because of stability and bioavailability problems owing to its high molecular weight and proteineous nature. In this research, we have developed novel NK-loaded nontargeted liposomes (NK-LS) and targeted liposomes (RGD-NK-LS and AM-NK-LS) by the reverse phase evaporation method. The physiochemical characterizations (particle size, polydispersity index, zeta potential, and morphology) were performed by a Zetasizer, SEM, TEM, and AFM. The Bradford assay and XPS analysis confirmed the successful surface conjugation of the targeting ligands. Platelet interaction studies by CLSM, photon imager optima, and flow cytometry showed significantly higher (P < 0.05) platelet binding affinity of targeted liposomes. In vitro evaluations were performed using human blood and a fibrinolysis study by CLSM imaging demonstrating the potent antithrombotic efficacy of AM-NK-LS. Furthermore, bleeding and clotting time studies revealed that the targeted liposomes were free from any bleeding complications. Moreover, the in vivo FeCl3 model on Sprague-Dawley (SD) rats using a Doppler flow meter and ultrasound/photoacoustic imaging indicated the increased % thrombolysis and potent affinity of targeted liposomes toward the thrombus site. Additionally, in vitro hemocompatibility and histopathology studies demonstrated the safety and biocompatibility of the nanoformulations.

The Astonishing Accomplishment of Biological Drug Delivery using Lipid Nanoparticles: An Ubiquitous Review

Biotech drugs, including proteins, hormones, enzymes, DNA/RNA therapies, and cell-based treatments, are gaining popularity due to their effectiveness. However, effective delivery systems are needed to overcome administration challenges. Lipid nanoparticles (LNPs) have emerged as promising carriers for various therapies. LNPs are biocompatible, less likely to cause adverse reactions, and can stabilize delicate biological drugs, enhancing their stability and solubility. Scalable and cost-effective manufacturing processes make LNPs suitable for largescale production. Despite recent research efforts, challenges in stability, toxicity, and regulatory concerns have limited the commercial availability of LNP-based products. This review explores the applications, administration routes, challenges, and future directions of LNPs in delivering biopharmaceuticals.

Advanced Formulation Approaches for Proteins

Proteins and peptides are highly desirable as therapeutic agents, being highly potent and specific. However, there are myriad challenges with processing them into patient-friendly formulations: they are often unstable and have a tendency to aggregate or degrade upon storage. As a result, the vast majority of protein actives are delivered parenterally as solutions, which has a number of disadvantages in terms of cost, accessibility, and patient experience. Much work has been undertaken to develop new delivery systems for biologics, but to date this has led to relatively few products on the market. In this chapter, we review the challenges faced when developing biologic formulations, discuss the technologies that have been explored to try to overcome these, and consider the different delivery routes that can be applied. We further present an overview of the currently marketed products and assess the likely direction of travel in the next decade.

Modified HT-SPOTi: An Antimicrobial Susceptibility Testing to Evaluate Formulated Therapeutic Combinations Against Bacterial Growth and Viability

Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) poses a serious threat to global health, potentially causing 10 million deaths per year globally by 2050. To tackle AMR, researchers from all around the world have generated a selection of various formulated (viz. nanoparticulate, liposomal) therapeutic combinations to be evaluated for new antimicrobial drug discovery. To meet the urgent need for accelerating new antibacterial drug development, we need rapid but reliable whole-cell assay methods and models to test formulated therapeutic combinations against several pathogens in different in vitro conditions as models of actual infections.Over the past two decades, high-throughput spot-culture growth inhibition assay (HT-SPOTi) has been demonstrated to be a gold-standard drug susceptibility method for evaluating novel chemotherapeutic entities and existing drugs against various microbes of global concern. Our modified HT-SPOTi method serves the purpose of evaluating drug combinations against Gram-positive/negative microorganisms as well as acid-fast bacilli. The newly developed and modified HT-SPOTi assay builds upon the limitations of our previously published method to incorporate antimicrobial susceptibility testing with formulated therapeutic combinations. The modified HT-SPOTi is compared with a range of other antimicrobial susceptibility testing methods and validated using a library of existing antibiotics as well as formulated therapeutic combinations. The modified HT-SPOTi assay can serve as an efficient and reliable high-throughput drug screening platform to discover new potential antimicrobial molecules, including as part of therapeutic formulations.This chapter describes the generation of drug susceptibility profile for formulated therapeutic combinations using modified HT-SPOTi in a semi-automated system.

NKT Agonist-Antigen Conjugates as Cancer Vaccines

Natural killer T (NKT) cells are a population of innate-like T cells capable of enhancing both innate and adaptive immune responses. Co-delivering an NKT cell agonist and antigen can provide molecular signals to antigen-presenting cells, such as dendritic and B cells, that facilitate strong antigen-specific adaptive immune responses. Accordingly, there has been a significant number of developmental NKT cell-dependent vaccine therapies developed, particularly in the last decade, with many incorporating cancer antigens. In this review, we summarize studies that chemically conjugate the NKT cell agonist and antigen as an effective strategy for agonist-antigen co-delivery to drive antitumor responses.

Proof-of-Concept Study on the Use of Tangerine-Derived Nanovesicles as siRNA Delivery Vehicles toward Colorectal Cancer Cell Line SW480

In the last years, the field of nanomedicine and drug delivery has grown exponentially, providing new platforms to carry therapeutic agents into the target sites. Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are ready-to-use, biocompatible, and non-toxic nanoparticles that are revolutionizing the field of drug delivery. EVs are involved in cell-cell communication and mediate many physiological and pathological processes by transferring their bioactive cargo to target cells. Recently, nanovesicles from plants (PDNVs) are raising the interest of the scientific community due to their high yield and biocompatibility. This study aims to evaluate whether PDNVs may be used as drug delivery systems. We isolated and characterized nanovesicles from tangerine juice (TNVs) that were comparable to mammalian EVs in size and morphology. TNVs carry the traditional EV marker HSP70 and, as demonstrated by metabolomic analysis, contain flavonoids, organic acids, and limonoids. TNVs were loaded with DDHD1-siRNA through electroporation, obtaining a loading efficiency of 13%. We found that the DDHD1-siRNA complex TNVs were able to deliver DDHD1-siRNA to human colorectal cancer cells, inhibiting the target expression by about 60%. This study represents a proof of concept for the use of PDNVs as vehicles of RNA interference (RNAi) toward mammalian cells.

Lipid-Based Nanotechnology: Liposome

Over the past several decades, liposomes have been extensively developed and used for various clinical applications such as in pharmaceutical, cosmetic, and dietetic fields, due to its versatility, biocompatibility, and biodegradability, as well as the ability to enhance the therapeutic index of free drugs. However, some challenges remain unsolved, including liposome premature leakage, manufacturing irreproducibility, and limited translation success. This article reviews various aspects of liposomes, including its advantages, major compositions, and common preparation techniques, and discusses present U.S. FDA-approved, clinical, and preclinical liposomal nanotherapeutics for treating and preventing a variety of human diseases. In addition, we summarize the significance of and challenges in liposome-enabled nanotherapeutic development and hope it provides the fundamental knowledge and concepts about liposomes and their applications and contributions in contemporary pharmaceutical advancement.

Nanoparticle-Mediated Hyperthermia and Cytotoxicity Mechanisms in Cancer

Hyperthermia has the potential to damage cancerous tissue by increasing the body temperature. However, targeting cancer cells whilst protecting the surrounding tissues is often challenging, especially when implemented in clinical practice. In this direction, there are data showing that the combination of nanotechnology and hyperthermia offers more successful penetration of nanoparticles in the tumor environment, thus allowing targeted hyperthermia in the region of interest. At the same time, unlike radiotherapy, the use of non-ionizing radiation makes hyperthermia an attractive therapeutic option. This review summarizes the existing literature regarding the use of hyperthermia and nanoparticles in cancer, with a focus on nanoparticle-induced cytotoxicity mechanisms.

Terpenes-Modified Lipid Nanosystems for Temozolomide, Improving Cytotoxicity against Glioblastoma Human Cancer Cells In Vitro

Currently, increasing the efficiency of glioblastoma treatment is still an unsolved problem. In this study, a combination of promising approaches was proposed: (i) an application of nanotechnology approach to create a new terpene-modified lipid system (7% w/w), using soybean L-α-phosphatidylcholine, N-carbonyl-methoxypolyethylene glycol-2000)-1,2-distearoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphoethanolamine for delivery of the chemotherapy drug, temozolomide (TMZ, 1 mg/mL); (ii) use of TMZ associated with natural compounds-terpenes (1% w/w) abietic acid and Abies sibirica Ledeb. resin (A. sibirica). Different concentrations and combinations of terpene-lipid systems were employed to treat human cancer cell lines T 98G (glioblastoma), M-Hela (carcinoma of the cervix) and human liver cell lines (Chang liver). The terpene-lipid systems appeared to be unilamellar and of spherical shape under transmission electron microscopy (TEM). The creation of a TMZ-loaded terpene-lipid nanosystem was about 100 nm in diameter with a negative surface charge found by dynamic light scattering. The 74% encapsulation efficiency allowed the release time of TMZ to be prolonged. The modification by terpenes of TMZ-loaded lipid nanoparticles improved by four times the cytotoxicity against human cancer T 98G cells and decreased the cytotoxicity against human normal liver cells. Terpene-modified delivery lipid systems are of potential interest as a combination therapy.

Immunogenicity of Recombinant Lipid-Based Nanoparticle Vaccines: Danger Signal vs. Helping Hand

Infectious diseases are a predominant problem in human health. While the incidence of many pathogenic infections is controlled by vaccines, some pathogens still pose a challenging task for vaccine researchers. In order to face these challenges, the field of vaccine development has changed tremendously over the last few years. For non-replicating recombinant antigens, novel vaccine delivery systems that attempt to increase the immunogenicity by mimicking structural properties of pathogens are already approved for clinical applications. Lipid-based nanoparticles (LbNPs) of different natures are vesicles made of lipid layers with aqueous cavities, which may carry antigens and other biomolecules either displayed on the surface or encapsulated in the cavity. However, the efficacy profile of recombinant LbNP vaccines is not as high as that of live-attenuated ones. This review gives a compendious picture of two approaches that affect the immunogenicity of recombinant LbNP vaccines: (i) the incorporation of immunostimulatory agents and (ii) the utilization of pre-existing or promiscuous cellular immunity, which might be beneficial for the development of tailored prophylactic and therapeutic LbNP vaccine candidates.

Liposome-Mediated Anti-Viral Drug Delivery Across Blood-Brain Barrier: Can Lipid Droplet Target Be Game Changers?

Lipid droplets (LDs) are subcellular organelles secreted from the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) that play a major role in lipid homeostasis. Recent research elucidates additional roles of LDs in cellular bioenergetics and innate immunity. LDs activate signaling cascades for interferon response and secretion of pro-inflammatory cytokines. Since balanced lipid homeostasis is critical for neuronal health, LDs play a crucial role in neurodegenerative diseases. RNA viruses enhance the secretion of LDs to support various phases of their life cycle in neurons which further leads to neurodegeneration. Targeting the excess LD formation in the brain could give us a new arsenal of antiviral therapeutics against neuroviruses. Liposomes are a suitable drug delivery system that could be used for drug delivery in the brain by crossing the Blood-Brain Barrier. Utilizing this, various pharmacological inhibitors and non-coding RNAs can be delivered that could inhibit the biogenesis of LDs or reduce their sizes, reversing the excess lipid-related imbalance in neurons. Liposome-Mediated Antiviral Drug Delivery Across Blood-Brain Barrier. Developing effective antiviral drug is challenging and it doubles against neuroviruses that needs delivery across the Blood-Brain Barrier (BBB). Lipid Droplets (LDs) are interesting targets for developing antivirals, hence targeting LD formation by drugs delivered using Liposomes can be game changers.

An updated landscape on nanotechnology-based drug delivery, immunotherapy, vaccinations, imaging, and biomarker detections for cancers: recent trends and future directions with clinical success

The recent development of nanotechnology-based formulations improved the diagnostics and therapies for various diseases including cancer where lack of specificity, high cytotoxicity with various side effects, poor biocompatibility, and increasing cases of multi-drug resistance are the major limitations of existing chemotherapy. Nanoparticle-based drug delivery enhances the stability and bioavailability of many drugs, thereby increasing tissue penetration and targeted delivery with improved efficacy against the tumour cells. Easy surface functionalization and encapsulation properties allow various antigens and tumour cell lysates to be delivered in the form of nanovaccines with improved immune response. The nanoparticles (NPs) due to their smaller size and associated optical, physical, and mechanical properties have evolved as biosensors with high sensitivity and specificity for the detection of various markers including nucleic acids, protein/antigens, small metabolites, etc. This review gives, initially, a concise update on drug delivery using different nanoscale platforms like liposomes, dendrimers, polymeric & various metallic NPs, hydrogels, microneedles, nanofibres, nanoemulsions, etc. Drug delivery with recent technologies like quantum dots (QDs), carbon nanotubes (CNTs), protein, and upconverting NPs was updated, thereafter. We also summarized the recent progress in vaccination strategy, immunotherapy involving immune checkpoint inhibitors, and biomarker detection for various cancers based on nanoplatforms. At last, we gave a detailed picture of the current nanomedicines in clinical trials and their possible success along with the existing approved ones. In short, this review provides an updated complete landscape of applications of wide NP-based drug delivery, vaccinations, immunotherapy, biomarker detection & imaging for various cancers with a predicted future of nanomedicines that are in clinical trials.

Exploring the Potential of siRNA Delivery in Acute Myeloid Leukemia for Therapeutic Silencing

We investigated the feasibility of using siRNA therapy for acute myeloid leukemia (AML) by developing macromolecular carriers that facilitated intracellular delivery of siRNA. The carriers were derived from low-molecular-weight (<2 kDa) polyethyleneimine (PEI) and modified with a range of aliphatic lipids. We identified linoleic acid and lauric acid-modified PEI as optimal carriers for siRNA delivery to AML cell lines KG1 and KG1a, as well as AML patient-derived mononuclear cells. As they have been proven to be potent targets in the treatment of AML, we examined the silencing of BCL2L12 and survivin and showed how it leads to the decrease in proliferation of KG1 and stem-cell-like KG1a cells. By optimizing the transfection schedule, we were able to enhance the effect of the siRNAs on proliferation over a period of 10 days. We additionally showed that with proper modifications of PEI, other genes, including MAP2K3, CDC20, and SOD-1, could be targeted to decrease the proliferation of AML cells. Our studies demonstrated the versatility of siRNA delivery with modified PEI to elicit an effect in leukemic cells that are difficult to transfect, offering an alternative to conventional drugs for more precise and targeted treatment options.

Functional nano drug delivery system with dual lubrication and immune escape for treating osteoarthritis

Local drug delivery via inter-articular injection offers a promising scenario to treat the most common joint disease, osteoarthritis (OA), which is closely associated with the increased friction or cartilage degeneration and the inflammatory syndrome of synovium. Therefore, it is quite necessary to improve the retention of drug delivery system within synovial joint, simultaneously restore the lubrication of degraded cartilage and meanwhile alleviate the inflammation. In this study, we propose a hydrophilic coating modified nano-liposome drug carrier (PMPC-Lipo) to achieve these functions. A modified chain transfer agent was utilized to polymerize 2-methacryloyloxyethyl phosphorylcholine (MPC), the obtained polymer, combined with lecithin and cholesterol, formed a liposome (PMPC-Lipo) where poly (MPC) acted as hydrophilic coating. PMPC-Lipo was found to restore the lubrication of mechanically damage cartilage (mimicking OA conditions) to the level like healthy cartilage due to the hydration lubrication. Additionally, due to the presence of poly (MPC), we also found PMPC-Lipo avoid the recognition of macrophage and thus escape from the phagocytosis to prolong its retention in synovial joint. Furthermore, after encapsulating gallic acid (GA) into PMPC-Lipo, the obtained GA-PMPC-Lipo can effectively scavenge reactive oxygen species and restore the imbalance of matrix secretion in inflammatory chondrocytes. Collectively, the proposed GA-PMPC-Lipo may provide a new idea for osteoarthritis treatment by providing both long-term effective drug action and excellent lubrication properties.

Targeted Therapy of Acute Liver Injury via Cryptotanshinone-Loaded Biomimetic Nanoparticles Derived from Mesenchymal Stromal Cells Driven by Homing

Acute liver injury (ALI) has the potential to compromise hepatic function rapidly, with severe cases posing a considerable threat to human health and wellbeing. Conventional treatments, such as the oral administration of antioxidants, can inadvertently lead to liver toxicity and other unwanted side effects. Mesenchymal stromal cells (MSCs) can target therapeutic agents directly to inflammatory sites owing to their homing effect, and they offer a promising avenue for the treatment of ALI. However, the efficacy and feasibility of these live cell products are hampered by challenges associated with delivery pathways and safety concerns. Therefore, in this work, MSC membranes were ingeniously harnessed as protective shells to encapsulate synthesized PLGA nanoparticle cores (PLGA/MSCs). This strategic approach enabled nanoparticles to simulate endogenous substances and yielded a core-shell nano-biomimetic structure. The biomimetic nanocarrier remarkably maintained the homing ability of MSCs to inflammatory sites. In this study, cryptotanshinone (CPT)-loaded PLGA/MSCs (CPT@PLGA/MSC) were prepared. These nanoparticles can be effectively internalized by LO2 cells. They reduced cellular oxidative stress and elevated inflammatory levels. In vivo results suggested that, after intravenous administration, CPT@PLGA/MSCs significantly reduced uptake by the reticuloendothelial system and immune recognition compared to PLGA nanoparticles without MSC membrane coatings, subsequently resulting in their targeted and enhanced accumulation in the liver. The effectiveness of CPT@PLGA/MSCs in alleviating carbon tetrachloride-induced oxidative stress and inflammation in a mouse model was unequivocally demonstrated through comprehensive histological examination and liver function tests. This study introduces a pioneering strategy with substantial potential for ALI treatment.

Carrier-Tumor Cell Membrane Interactions for Optimized Delivery of a Promising Drug, 4(RS)-4-F4t-Neuroprostane

Nanomedicines engineered to deliver molecules with therapeutic potentials, overcoming drawbacks such as poor solubility, toxicity or a short half-life, are targeted towards their cellular destination either passively or through various elements of cell membranes. The differences in the physicochemical properties of the cell membrane between tumor and nontumor cells have been reported, but they are not systematically used for drug delivery purposes. Thus, in this study, a new approach based on a match between the liposome compositions, i.e., membrane fluidity, to selectively interact with the targeted cell membrane was used. Lipid-based carriers of two different fluidities were designed and used to deliver 4(RS)-4-F4t-Neuroprostane (F4t-NeuroP), a potential antitumor molecule derived from docosahexaenoic acid (DHA). Based on its hydrophobic character, F4t-NeuroP was added to the lipid mixture prior to liposome formation, a protocol that yielded over 80% encapsulation efficiency in both rigid and fluid liposomes. The presence of the active molecule did not modify the liposome size but increased the liposome negative charge and the liposome membrane fluidity, which suggested that the active molecule was accommodated in the lipid membrane. F4t-NeuroP integration in liposomes with a fluid character allowed for the selective targeting of the metastatic prostate cell line PC-3 vs. fibroblast controls. A significant decrease in viability (40%) was observed for the PC-3 cancer line in the presence of F4t-NeuroP fluid liposomes, whereas rigid F4t-NeuroP liposomes did not alter the PC-3 cell viability. These findings demonstrate that liposomes encapsulating F4t-NeuroP or other related molecules may be an interesting model of drug carriers based on membrane fluidity.

Material and Design Toolkit for Drug Delivery: State of the Art, Trends, and Challenges

The nanomaterial and related toolkit have promising applications for improving human health and well-being. Nanobased drug delivery systems use nanoscale materials as carriers to deliver therapeutic agents in a targeted and controlled manner, and they have shown potential to address issues associated with conventional drug delivery systems. They offer benefits for treating various illnesses by encapsulating or conjugating biological agents, chemotherapeutic drugs, and immunotherapeutic agents. The potential applications of this technology are vast; however, significant challenges exist to overcome such as safety issues, toxicity, efficacy, and insufficient capacity. This article discusses the latest developments in drug delivery systems, including drug release mechanisms, material toolkits, related design molecules, and parameters. The concluding section examines the limitations and provides insights into future possibilities.

Nanotechnology in leukemia: diagnosis, efficient-targeted drug delivery, and clinical trials

Leukemia is a group of malignant disorders which affect the blood and blood-forming tissues in the bone marrow, lymphatic system, and spleen. Many types of leukemia exist; thus, their diagnosis and treatment are somewhat complicated. The use of conventional strategies for treatment such as chemotherapy and radiotherapy may develop many side effects and toxicity. Hence, modern research is concerned with the development of specific nano-formulations for targeted delivery of anti-leukemic drugs avoiding toxic effects on normal cells. Nanostructures can be applied not only in treatment but also in diagnosis. In this article, types of leukemia, its causes, diagnosis as well as conventional treatment of leukemia shall be reviewed. Then, the use of nanoparticles in diagnosis of leukemia and synthesis of nanocarriers for efficient delivery of anti-leukemia drugs being investigated in in vivo and clinical studies. Therefore, it may contribute to the discovery of novel and emerging nanoparticles for targeted treatment of leukemia with less side effects and toxicities.

Nano-Based Drug Delivery Systems: Potential Developments in the Therapy of Metastatic Osteosarcoma-A Narrative Review

Osteosarcoma, a predominant malignant bone tumor, poses significant challenges due to its high metastatic and recurrent nature. Although various therapeutic strategies are currently in use, they often inadequately target osteosarcoma metastasis. This review focuses on the potential of nanoscale drug delivery systems to bridge this clinical gap. It begins with an overview of the molecular mechanisms underlying metastatic osteosarcoma, highlighting the limitations of existing treatments. The review then transitions to an in-depth examination of nanoscale drug delivery technologies, emphasizing their potential to enhance drug bioavailability and reduce systemic toxicity. Central to this review is a discussion of recent advancements in utilizing nanotechnology for the potential intervention of metastatic osteosarcoma, with a critical analysis of several preclinical studies. This review aims to provide insights into the potential applications of nanotechnology in metastatic osteosarcoma therapy, setting the stage for future clinical breakthroughs and innovative cancer treatments.

FF-10850, a Novel Liposomal Topotecan Achieves Superior Antitumor Activity via Macrophage- and Ammonia-Mediated Payload Release in the Tumor Microenvironment

Topotecan, an approved treatment for refractory or recurrent ovarian cancer, has clinical limitations such as rapid clearance and hematologic toxicity. To overcome these limitations and maximize clinical benefit, we designed FF-10850, a dihydrosphingomyelin-based liposomal topotecan. FF-10850 demonstrated superior antitumor activity to topotecan in ovarian cancer cell line-based xenograft models, as well as in a clinically relevant DF181 platinum-refractory ovarian cancer patient-derived xenograft model. The safety profile was also improved with mitigation of hematologic toxicity. The improved antitumor activity and safety profile are achieved via its preferential accumulation and payload release triggered in the tumor microenvironment. Our data indicate that tumor-associated macrophages internalize FF-10850, resulting in complete payload release. The release mechanism also appears to be mediated by high ammonia concentration resulting from glutaminolysis, which is activated by tumor metabolic reprogramming. In ammonia-rich conditions, FF-10850 released payload more rapidly and to a greater extent than liposomal doxorubicin, a currently approved treatment for ovarian cancer. FF-10850 significantly enhanced antitumor activity in combination with carboplatin or PARP inhibitor without detrimental effects on body weight in murine xenograft models, and demonstrated synergistic antitumor activity combined with anti-PD-1 antibody with the development of tumor antigen-specific immunity. These results support phase I investigation of FF-10850 for the treatment of solid tumors including ovarian cancer (NCT04047251), and further evaluation in combination settings.

Impact of particle size of multivesicular liposomes on the embolic and therapeutic effects in rabbit VX2 liver tumor

Transcatheter arterial chemoembolization (TACE) is usually considered more efficacious in the local treatment of parenchyma-sparing hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). At present, embolic agents commonly used in TACE, include DC pellets, Hepasphere, Lipiodol, etc. Except that iodine oil is a viscous fluid embolic agent, other solid microsphere particles used clinically range from 70 to 700 µm, among which 100 to 300 µm is the most commonly used. With the technology development of micro-invasive interventional therapy, the specific distal embolization through TACE to occlude tumor arterial blood supply in patients with HCC is also required more accurately. Effective terminal embolization is considered to be a preferred option for TACE therapy due to significantly improving the survival rate of patients and preserving liver function. In this article, we prepared the multifunctional multivesicular liposomes (IVO-DOX-MVLs) (<100 µm) that can simultaneously encapsulate ioversol and doxorubicin based on the high-phase transition temperature (Tm) lipid ingredients, and evaluated its local artery embolization and therapeutic effect in rabbit VX-2 tumor model. The influence of particle size on occlusion and therapeutic effect of MVLs on rabbit VX-2 liver tumor models were well evaluated, including the tumor volume change, tumor growth rate, and necrosis rate, which were evaluated by magnetic resonance (MR). MVL samples with average particle size distribution of 50-60 µm exhibited fewer off-target embolization. Through TACE, IVO-DOX-MVLs were directly transported to the tumor tissues, playing roles of embolization performance, CT imaging effect, and local tumor killing effect. The feasibility of MVLs as a multifunctional embolic agent in its clinical application can be further improved by optimization of lipid composition and preparation process.

Liposomes for drug delivery: review of vesicular composition, factors affecting drug release and drug loading in liposomes

Liposomes are considered among the most versatile and advanced nanoparticle delivery systems used to target drugs to specific cells and tissues. Structurally, liposomes are sphere-like vesicles of phospholipid molecules that are surrounded by equal number of aqueous compartments. The spherical shell encapsulates an aqueous interior which contains substances such as peptides and proteins, hormones, enzymes, antibiotics, antifungal and anticancer agents. This structural property of liposomes makes it an important nano-carrier for drug delivery. Extrusion is one of the most frequently used technique for preparing monodisperse uni-lamellar liposomes as the technique is used to control vesicle size. The process involves passage of lipid suspension through polycarbonate membrane with a fixed pore size to produce vesicles with a diameter near the pore size of the membrane used in preparing them. An advantage of this technique is that there is no need to remove the organic solvent or detergent from the final preparation. This review focuses on composition of liposome formulation with special emphasis on factors affecting drug release and drug-loading.

Azithromycin-loaded liposomal hydrogel: a step forward for enhanced treatment of MRSA-related skin infections

Azithromycin (AZT) encapsulated into various types of liposomes (AZT-liposomes) displayed pronounced in vitro activity against methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) (1). The present study represents a follow-up to this previous work, attempting to further explore the anti-MRSA potential of AZT-liposomes when incorporated into chitosan hydrogel (CHG). Incorporation of AZT-liposomes into CHG (liposomal CHGs) was intended to ensure proper viscosity and texture properties of the formulation, modification of antibiotic release, and enhanced antibacterial activity, aiming to upgrade the therapeutical potential of AZT-liposomes in localized treatment of MRSA-related skin infections. Four different liposomal CHGs were evaluated and compared on the grounds of antibacterial activity against MRSA, AZT release profiles, cytotoxicity, as well as texture, and rheological properties. To our knowledge, this study is the first to investigate the potential of liposomal CHGs for the topical localized treatment of MRSA-related skin infections. CHG ensured proper viscoelastic and texture properties to achieve prolonged retention and prolonged release of AZT at the application site, which resulted in a boosted anti-MRSA effect of the entrapped AZT-liposomes. With respect to anti-MRSA activity and biocompatibility, formulation CATL-CHG (cationic liposomes in CHG) is considered to be the most promising formulation for the treatment of MRSA-related skin infections.

IR-775 - Hyptis loaded bioactive nanoparticles for enhanced phyto-photothermal therapy of breast cancer cells

Photo-responsive therapy is an emerging treatment modality due to its bioimaging and therapeutic properties. Phototherapy induces localized hyperthermia and selectively eradicates cancer cells. The current study showed that multifunctional biodegradable liposome nanosystem (HIL NPs) containing Hyptis suaveolens bioactive molecules and IR-775, a NIR dye showed efficient bioavailability to cancer ells and allowed tumor ablation upon NIR laser irradiation. The resulting entities present in the nanosystem, i.e., bioactive molecules of Hyptis, serve as an anticancer agent, and IR-775 helps in the photothermal ablation of highly metastatic breast cancer cells. Hyptis suaveolens is a weed that grows rampantly, impeding the growth of neighboring plants; nonetheless, its bioactive compounds have demonstrated therapeutic benefits. The obtained HIL NPs, photothermally active liposome nanosystem showed a high fluorescence absorption peak in the NIR range and delivered a photothermal conversion efficiency of 55.20 % upon NIR laser irradiation. TEM and particle size analyzer revealed that HIL NPs have a size of 141 ± 30 nm with a spherical shape. The results of in-ovo (zebrafish) experiments have shown efficient bioimaging capabilities with minimal concentrations of HIL NPs compared to respective controls. Furthermore, in-vitro studies of HIL NPs against triple-negative breast cancer (4T1) indicated effective anticancer activity by a combined cytotoxic effect and hyperthermia. Tumor ablation was facilitated by reactive oxygen species production and hyperthermia, leading to DNA damage and apoptosis due to overexpression of ɣ-H2AX, Cathepsin B, and p53, which halted cancer cell proliferation. Therefore, HIL NPs demonstrated effective anticancer effects induced by combined phyto-photothermal therapy when evaluated against an in-vitro breast cancer model.

A Stable Irinotecan Liposome with Enhanced Antitumor Activity in a Range of Tumor Models

PURPOSE

This study aimed to prepare a stable irinotecan liposome (CPT-11 liposome) and evaluate its antitumor efficacy in a range of tumor models.

METHODS

CPT-11 liposome was prepared with a Z-average particle size of 110 ~ 120 nm and high entrapment efficiency (> 95%) and had a good stability within 18 months. Then the antitumor efficacy was studied in human colon (Ls-174t), gastric (NCI-N87), pancreatic (BxPC-3) and small cell lung (NCI-H526) cancer xenograft models. The toxicity of high-dose CPT-11 liposome was also evaluated in Beagle dogs.

RESULTS

The results showed that the anti-tumor effects of CPT-11 liposome were markedly superior (at least 10 times higher) to those of the CPT-11 injection group in all four xenograft models. The tissue distribution test in the Ls-174t model further demonstrated that the CPT-11 liposome could alter the plasma and tissue distribution of CPT-11, increase the exposure level of its active metabolite SN-38 in tumor, and ultimately improve antitumor efficiency. Meanwhile, CPT-11 liposome showed a much less toxicity than CPT-11 injection in beagle dogs.

CONCLUSIONS

Overall, the CPT-11 liposome may be developed as a new clinical alternative for the cancer patients.

A Personalized Cancer Nanovaccine that Enhances T-Cell Responses and Efficacy Through Dual Interactions with Dendritic Cells and T Cells

Conventional approaches to developing therapeutic cancer vaccines that primarily activate tumor-specific T cells via dendritic cells (DCs) often demonstrate limited efficacy due to the suboptimal activation of these T cells. To address this limitation, here a therapeutic cancer nanovaccine is developed that enhances T cell responses by interacting with both DCs and T cells. The nanovaccine is based on a cancer cell membrane nanoparticle (CCM-MPLA) that utilizes monophosphoryl lipid A (MPLA) as an adjuvant. To allow direct interaction between the nanovaccine and tumor-specific T cells, anti-CD28 antibodies (aCD28) are conjugated onto CCM-MPLA, resulting in CCM-MPLA-aCD28. This nanovaccine activates tumor-specific CD8+ T cells in both the presence and absence of DCs. Compared with nanovaccines that interact with either DCs (CCM-MPLA) or T cells (CCM-aCD28), CCM-MPLA-aCD28 induces more potent responses of tumor-specific CD8+ T cells and exhibits a higher antitumor efficacy in tumor-bearing mice. No differences in T cell activation efficiency and therapeutic efficacy are observed between CCM-MPLA and CCM-aCD28. This approach may lead to the development of effective personalized therapeutic cancer vaccines prepared from autologous cancer cells.

Regulation of the innate immune system by fragmented heparin-conjugated lipids on lipid bilayered membranes in vitro

Surface modification with heparin is a powerful biomaterial coating strategy that protects against innate immunity activation since heparin is a part of the proteoglycan heparan sulfate on cell surfaces in the body. We studied the heparinization of cellular and material surfaces via lipid conjugation to a heparin-binding peptide. In the present study, we synthesized fragmented heparin (fHep)-conjugated phospholipids and studied their regulation of the innate immune system on a lipid bilayered surface using liposomes. Liposomes have versatile applications, such as drug-delivery systems, due to their ability to carry a wide range of molecules. Owing to their morphological similarity to cell membranes, they can also be used to mimic a simple cell-membrane to study protein-lipid interactions. We investigated the interaction of complement-regulators, factor H and C4b-binding protein (C4BP), as well as the coagulation inhibitor antithrombin (AT), with fHep-lipids on the liposomal surface. Herein, we studied the ability of fHep-lipids to recruit factor H, C4BP, and AT using a quartz crystal microbalance with dissipation monitoring. With dynamic light scattering, we demonstrated that liposomes could be modified with fHep-lipids and were stable up to 60 days at 4 °C. Using a capillary western blot-based method (Wes), we showed that fHep-liposomes could recruit factor H in a model system using purified proteins and assist in the degradation of the active complement protein C3b to iC3b. Furthermore, we found that fHep-liposomes could recruit factor H and AT from human plasma. Therefore, the use of fHep-lipids could be a potential coating for liposomes and cell surfaces to regulate the immune system on the lipid surface.

Liposomal Encapsulation of Citicoline for Ocular Drug Delivery

Glaucoma represents a group of neurodegenerative diseases characterized by optic nerve damage and the slowly progressive death of retinal ganglion cells. Glaucoma is considered the second leading cause of irreversible blindness worldwide. Pharmaceutical treatment of glaucoma is critical because of the properties of the ocular barrier that limit the penetration of drugs, resulting in lower systemic bioavailability. This behavior causes the need of frequent drug administration, which leads to deposition of concentrated solutions on the eye, causing toxic effects and cellular damage to the eye. To overcome these drawbacks, novel drug-delivery systems, such as liposomes, can play an important role in improving the therapeutic efficacy of antiglaucomatous drugs. In this work, liposomes were synthesized to improve various aspects, such as ocular barrier penetration, bioavailability, sustained release of the drug, targeting of the tissue, and reduction in intraocular pressure. Citicoline (CDP-choline; cytidine 5'-diphosphocholine) is an important intermediate in the biosynthesis of cell membrane phospholipids, with neuroprotective and neuroenhancement properties, and it was used in the treatment on retinal function and neural conduction in the visual pathways of glaucoma patients. In this study, citicoline was loaded into the 1,2-dioleoyl-sn-glycerol-3-phosphocholine and cholesterol liposomal carrier to enhance its therapeutic effect. The citicoline encapsulation efficiency, drug release, and size analysis of the different liposome systems were investigated using dynamic light scattering, nuclear magnetic resonance, infrared spectroscopy, and ToF-SIMS experiments.

A Snapshot of Photoresponsive Liposomes in Cancer Chemotherapy and Immunotherapy: Opportunities and Challenges

To provide precise medical regimens, photonics technologies have been involved in the field of nanomedicine. Phototriggered liposomes have been cast as promising nanosystems that achieve controlled release of payloads in several pathological conditions such as cancer, autoimmune, and infectious diseases. In contrast to the conventional liposomes, this photoresponsive element greatly improves therapeutic efficacy and reduces the adverse effects of gene/drug therapy during treatment. Recently, cancer immunotherpay has been one of the hot topics in the field of oncology due to the great success and therapeutic benefits that were well-recognized by the patients. However, several side effects have been encountered due to the unmonitored augmentation of the immune system. This Review highlights the most recent advancements in the development of photoresponsive liposome nanosystems in the field of oncology, with a specific emphasis on challenges and opportunities in the field of cancer immunotherapy.

Nanoparticle-Based Approaches for Treatment of Hematological Malignancies: a Comprehensive Review

Blood cancer, also known as hematological malignancy, is one of the devastating types of cancer that has significantly paved its mortality mark globally. It persists as an extremely deadly cancer type and needs utmost attention owing to its negligible overall survival rate. Major challenges in the treatment of blood cancer include difficulties in early diagnosis, as well as severe side effects resulting from chemotherapy. In addition, immunotherapies and targeted therapies can be prohibitively expensive. Over the past two decades, scientists have devised a few nanoparticle-based drug delivery systems aimed at overcoming this challenge. These therapeutic strategies are engineered to augment the cellular uptake, pharmacokinetics, and effectiveness of anticancer drugs. However, there are still numerous types of nanoparticles that could potentially improve the efficacy of blood cancer treatment, while also reducing treatment costs and mitigating drug-related side effects. To the best of our knowledge, there has been limited reviews published on the use of nano-based drug delivery systems for the treatment of hematological malignancies. Therefore, we have made a concerted effort to provide a comprehensive review that draws upon recent literature and patents, with a focus on the most promising results regarding the use of nanoparticle-based approaches for the treatment of hematological malignancies. All these crucial points covered under a common title would significantly help researchers and scientists working in the area.

Light and pH responsive catanionic vesicles based on a chalcone/flavylium photoswitch for smart drug delivery: From molecular design to the controlled release of doxorubicin

Spatially and temporally localized delivery is a promising strategy to circumvent adverse effects of traditional drug therapy such as drug toxicity and prolonged treatments. Stimuli-responsive colloidal nanocarriers can be crucial to attain such goals. Here, we develop a delivery system based on dual light and pH responsive vesicles having a cationic bis-quat gemini surfactant, 12-2-12, and a negatively charged amphiphilic chalcone, C4SCh. The premise is to exploit the chalcone/flavylium interconversion to elicit a morphological change of the vesicles leading to the controlled release of an encapsulated drug. First, the phase behavior of the catanionic system is studied and the desirable composition yielding stable unilamellar vesicles identified and selected for further studies. The solutions containing vesicles (Dh ≈ 200 nm, ζ-potential ≈ 80 mV) are in-depth characterized by light microscopy, cryo-transmission electron microscopy (cryo-TEM), dynamic light scattering (DLS) and surface tension measurements. Upon subjecting the vesicles to UV irradiation (λ = 365 nm) at near neutral pH (≈ 6.0), no morphological effects are observed, yet when irradiation is coupled with pH = 3.0, the majority of the vesicles are disrupted into bilayer fragments. The anticancer drug doxorubicin (DOX) is successfully entrapped in the non-irradiated vesicles, yielding an encapsulation efficiency of ≈ 25% and a loading capacity of ≈ 3%. The release profile of the drug-loaded vesicles is then studied in vitro in four conditions: i) no stimuli (pH = 6.0); ii) irradiation, pH = 6.0; iii) no irradiation and adjusted pH = 3.0; iv) irradiation and adjusted pH = 3.0 Crucially, irradiation at pH = 3.0 leads to a sustained release of DOX to ca. 80% (within 4 h), whereas cases i) and ii) lead to only ≈ 25 % release and case iii) to 50% release but precipitation of the vesicles. Thus, our initial hypothesis is confirmed: we present a proof of concept delivery system where light and pH act as inputs of an AND logic gate mechanism for the controlled release of a relevant biomedical drug (output). This may prove useful if the irradiated nanocarriers meet acidified physiological environments such as tumors sites, endosomes or lysosomes.

Stage-specific treatment of colorectal cancer: A microRNA-nanocomposite approach

Colorectal cancer (CRC) is among the leading causes of cancer mortality. The lifetime risk of developing CRC is about 5% in adult males and females. CRC is usually diagnosed at an advanced stage, and at this point therapy has a limited impact on cure rates and long-term survival. Novel and/or improved CRC therapeutic options are needed. The involvement of microRNAs (miRNAs) in cancer development has been reported, and their regulation in many oncogenic pathways suggests their potent tumor suppressor action. Although miRNAs provide a promising therapeutic approach for cancer, challenges such as biodegradation, specificity, stability and toxicity, impede their progression into clinical trials. Nanotechnology strategies offer diverse advantages for the use of miRNAs for CRC-targeted delivery and therapy. The merits of using nanocarriers for targeted delivery of miRNA-formulations are presented herein to highlight the role they can play in miRNA-based CRC therapy by targeting different stages of the disease.

Surface modification strategies in translocating nano-vesicles across different barriers and the role of bio-vesicles in improving anticancer therapy

Nanovesicles and bio-vesicles (BVs) have emerged as promising tools to achieve targeted cancer therapy due to their ability to overcome many of the key challenges currently being faced with conventional chemotherapy. These challenges include the diverse and often complex pathophysiology involving the progression of cancer, as well as the various biological barriers that circumvent therapeutic molecules reaching their target site in optimum concentration. The scientific evidence suggests that surface-functionalized nanovesicles and BVs camouflaged nano-carriers (NCs) both can bypass the established biological barriers and facilitate fourth-generation targeting for the improved regimen of treatment. In this review, we intend to emphasize the role of surface-functionalized nanovesicles and BVs camouflaged NCs through various approaches that lead to an improved internalization to achieve improved and targeted oncotherapy. We have explored various strategies that have been employed to surface-functionalize and biologically modify these vesicles, including the use of biomolecule functionalized target ligands such as peptides, antibodies, and aptamers, as well as the targeting of specific receptors on cancer cells. Further, the utility of BVs, which are made from the membranes of cells such as mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs), white blood cells (WBCs), red blood cells (RBCs), platelets (PLTs) as well as cancer cells also been investigated. Lastly, we have discussed the translational challenges and limitations that these NCs can encounter and still need to be overcome in order to fully realize the potential of nanovesicles and BVs for targeted cancer therapy. The fundamental challenges that currently prevent successful cancer therapy and the necessity of novel delivery systems are in the offing.

A liposomal radionanoformulation for targeted drug delivery and real time monitoring by radionuclide imaging for HER2 overexpressing cancers

Liposomal formulations carrying chemotherapeutic drugs have demonstrated great potential as effective drug delivery systems. Smart nanoformulations decorated with targeting agents and probes are desired for site specific delivery of drugs and real time monitoring. In this study, we aimed to develop liposomal formulation loaded with doxorubicin and tagged with trastuzumab antibody (Ab) for targeting human epidermal growth factor receptor 2 (HER2) positive tumors. Liposomes were prepared by ethanol injection method using modified lipids to conjugate trastuzumab and radiolabel with Tc-99m radioisotope using DTPA for imaging by single photon emission computed tomography (SPECT). Doxorubicin was loaded using the active pH gradient method. The conjugation of Ab to liposomes was validated by SDS-PAGE and MALDI-MS. 99m Tc labeled liposomes encapsulating doxorubicin conjugated with antibody (99m Tc-Lip-Ab-Dox) and 99m Tc labeled liposomes encapsulating doxorubicin (99m Tc-Lip-Dox) were found to be stable in blood plasma and saline using chromatography method. The specificity of 99m Tc-Lip-Ab-Dox against HER2 receptor was evident from cell uptake and inhibition studies. Results also corroborated with confocal microscopy studies. In vivo studies in tumor bearing severe combined immunodeficient mice by SPECT imaging and biodistribution studies revealed higher uptake of 99m Tc-Lip-Ab-Dox in tumor and less accumulation in the liver compared to 99m Tc-Lip-Dox. In conclusion, liposomal nanoformulation for immunotargeting and monitoring of drug delivery was successfully formulated and evaluated. Encouraging results in preclinical studies were obtained with the radioformulation. Such smart radioformulations will not only serve the purpose of site-specific controlled release of drugs at the target site but also aid in optimizing the drug doses and schedule of cancer treatment by monitoring pharmacokinetics.

Use of Silica Nanoparticles for Drug Delivery in Cardiovascular Disease

PURPOSE

Cardiovascular disease (CVD) is the leading cause of death worldwide. The current CVD therapeutic drugs require long-term treatment with high doses, which increases the risk of adverse effects while offering only marginal treatment efficacy. Silica nanoparticles (SNPs) have been proven to be an efficient drug delivery vehicle for numerous diseases, including CVD. This article reviews recent progress and advancement in targeted delivery for drugs and diagnostic and theranostic agents using silica nanoparticles to achieve therapeutic efficacy and improved detection of CVD in clinical and preclinical settings.

METHODS

A search of PubMed, Scopus, and Google Scholar databases from 1990 to 2023 was conducted. Current clinical trials on silica nanoparticles were identified through ClinicalTrials.gov. Search terms include silica nanoparticles, cardiovascular diseases, drug delivery, and therapy.

FINDINGS

Silica nanoparticles exhibit biocompatibility in biological systems, and their shape, size, surface area, and surface functionalization can be customized for the safe transport and protection of drugs in blood circulation. These properties also enable effective drug uptake in specific tissues and controlled drug release after systemic, localized, or oral delivery. A range of silica nanoparticles have been used as nanocarrier for drug delivery to treat conditions such as atherosclerosis, hypertension, ischemia, thrombosis, and myocardial infarction.

IMPLICATIONS

The use of silica nanoparticles for drug delivery and their ongoing development has emerged as a promising strategy to improve the effectiveness of drugs, imaging agents, and theranostics with the potential to revolutionize the treatment of CVD.

Methyl-Branched Liposomes as a Depot for Sustained Drug Delivery

Inadequate drug loading and control of payload leakage limit the duration of the effect of liposomal drug carriers and may cause toxicity. Here, we report a liposome system as a depot for sustained drug delivery whose design is inspired by the low permeability of Archaeal membranes to protons and solutes. Incorporating methyl-branched phospholipids into lipid bilayers decreased payload diffusion across liposomal membranes, thereby enhancing the drug load capacity by 10-16% and reducing the release of small molecules in the first 24 h by 40-48%. The in vivo impact of this approach was demonstrated by injection at the sciatic nerve. Methyl-branched liposomes encapsulating the anesthetic tetrodotoxin (TTX) achieved markedly prolonged local anesthesia lasting up to 70 h, in comparison to the 16 h achieved with liposomes containing conventional lipids. The present work demonstrates the usefulness of methyl-branched liposomes to enhance liposomal depot systems for sustained drug delivery.

Aromatized liposomes for sustained drug delivery

Insufficient drug loading and leakage of payload remain major challenges in designing liposome-based drug delivery systems. These phenomena can limit duration of effect and cause toxicity. Targeting the rate-limiting step in drug release from liposomes, we modify (aromatized) them to have aromatic groups within their lipid bilayers. Aromatized liposomes are designed with synthetic phospholipids with aromatic groups covalently conjugated onto acyl chains. The optimized aromatized liposome increases drug loading and significantly decreases the burst release of a broad range of payloads (small molecules and macromolecules, different degrees of hydrophilicity) and extends their duration of release. Aromatized liposomes encapsulating the anesthetic tetrodotoxin (TTX) achieve markedly prolonged effect and decreased toxicity in an application where liposomes are used clinically: local anesthesia, even though TTX is a hydrophilic small molecule which is typically difficult to encapsulate. Aromatization of lipid bilayers can improve the performance of liposomal drug delivery systems.

Stability and cytotoxicity of biopolymer-coated liposomes for use in the oral cavity

This study investigates the stability and cytotoxicity of biopolymer-coated liposomes for use in the oral cavity. Liposomes (3 mM and 6 mM) were prepared by the thin film method and hydrated with phosphate buffer (PB) or glycerol phosphate buffer (G-PB). For coating, liposomes were added to a biopolymer solution of opposite charge. Particle stability was evaluated by measuring the size, polydispersity index, and zeta potential for up to 60 weeks. In vitro interaction of fluorescent-labelled biopolymer-coated liposomes and dysplastic oral keratinocytes was analyzed by confocal microscopy. Potential cytotoxicity was assessed in dysplastic oral keratinocytes by cell proliferation and cell viability. All three biopolymers showed good coating abilities for both concentrations and hydration media. The alginate coated liposomes in PB, 3 mM chitosan-coated liposomes in PB, and chitosan-coated liposomes in G-PB were stable for up to 60 weeks. In vitro studies demonstrated low cytotoxicity for all coated liposomes and non-specific cellular uptake of biopolymer-coated liposomes, independent of biopolymer, surface charge, lipid concentration and hydration media. All three formulations demonstrated low cytotoxicity and were considered safe. Alginate- and chitosan-coated liposomes demonstrated good stability over time and may be promising agents for use in the oral cavity and should be investigated further.

Pediatric Drug Development: Reviewing Challenges and Opportunities by Tracking Innovative Therapies

The paradigm of pediatric drug development has been evolving in a "carrot-and-stick"-based tactic to address population-specific issues. However, the off-label prescription of adult medicines to pediatric patients remains a feature of clinical practice, which may compromise the age-appropriate evaluation of treatments. Therefore, the United States and the European Pediatric Formulation Initiative have recommended applying nanotechnology-based delivery systems to tackle some of these challenges, particularly applying inorganic, polymeric, and lipid-based nanoparticles. Connected with these, advanced therapy medicinal products (ATMPs) have also been highlighted, with optimistic perspectives for the pediatric population. Despite the results achieved using these innovative therapies, a workforce that congregates pediatric patients and/or caregivers, healthcare stakeholders, drug developers, and physicians continues to be of utmost relevance to promote standardized guidelines for pediatric drug development, enabling a fast lab-to-clinical translation. Therefore, taking into consideration the significance of this topic, this work aims to compile the current landscape of pediatric drug development by (1) outlining the historic regulatory panorama, (2) summarizing the challenges in the development of pediatric drug formulation, and (3) delineating the advantages/disadvantages of using innovative approaches, such as nanomedicines and ATMPs in pediatrics. Moreover, some attention will be given to the role of pharmaceutical technologists and developers in conceiving pediatric medicines.

DNA templated Click Chemistry via 5-vinyl-2'-deoxyuridine and an acridine-tetrazine conjugate induces DNA damage and apoptosis in cancer cells

AIMS

Click Chemistry is providing valuable tools to biomedical research, but its direct use in therapies remains nearly unexplored. For cancer treatment, nucleoside analogues (NA) such as 5-vinyl-2'-deoxyuridine (VdU) can be metabolically incorporated into cancer cell DNA and subsequently "clicked" to form a toxic product. The inverse electron-demand Diels-Alder (IEDDA) reaction between VdU and an acridine-tetrazine conjugate (PINK) has previously been used to label cell nuclei of cultured cells. Here, we report tandem usage of VdU and PINK to induce cytotoxicity.

MAIN METHODS

Cell lines were subsequently treated with VdU and PINK, and cell viability was measured via well confluency and 3D tumor spheroid assays. DNA damage and apoptosis were evaluated using Western Blotting and cell cycle analysis by flow cytometry. Double stranded DNA break (DSB) formation was measured using the comet assay. Apoptosis was assessed by fluorescent detection of externalized phosphatidylserine residues.

KEY FINDINGS

We report that the combination of VdU and PINK synergistically induces cytotoxicity in cultured human cells. The combination of VdU and PINK strongly reduced cell viability in 2D and 3D cultured cancer cells. Mechanistically, the compounds induced DNA damage through DSB formation, which leads to S-phase accumulation and apoptosis.

SIGNIFICANCE

The combination of VdU and PINK represents a novel and promising DNA-templated "click" approach for cancer treatment via selective induction of DNA damage.

Lipid carriers for mRNA delivery

Messenger RNA (mRNA) is the template for protein biosynthesis and is emerging as an essential active molecule to combat various diseases, including viral infection and cancer. Especially, mRNA-based vaccines, as a new type of vaccine, have played a leading role in fighting against the current global pandemic of COVID-19. However, the inherent drawbacks, including large size, negative charge, and instability, hinder its use as a therapeutic agent. Lipid carriers are distinguishable and promising vehicles for mRNA delivery, owning the capacity to encapsulate and deliver negatively charged drugs to the targeted tissues and release cargoes at the desired time. Here, we first summarized the structure and properties of different lipid carriers, such as liposomes, liposome-like nanoparticles, solid lipid nanoparticles, lipid-polymer hybrid nanoparticles, nanoemulsions, exosomes and lipoprotein particles, and their applications in delivering mRNA. Then, the development of lipid-based formulations as vaccine delivery systems was discussed and highlighted. Recent advancements in the mRNA vaccine of COVID-19 were emphasized. Finally, we described our future vision and perspectives in this field.

The translational potential of cholesterol-based therapies for neurological disease

Cholesterol is an important metabolite and membrane component and is enriched in the brain owing to its role in neuronal maturation and function. In the adult brain, cholesterol is produced locally, predominantly by astrocytes. When cholesterol has been used, recycled and catabolized, the derivatives are excreted across the blood-brain barrier. Abnormalities in any of these steps can lead to neurological dysfunction. Here, we examine how precise interactions between cholesterol production and its use and catabolism in neurons ensures cholesterol homeostasis to support brain function. As an example of a neurological disease associated with cholesterol dyshomeostasis, we summarize evidence from animal models of Huntington disease (HD), which demonstrate a marked reduction in cholesterol biosynthesis with clinically relevant consequences for synaptic activity and cognition. In addition, we examine the relationship between cholesterol loss in the brain and cognitive decline in ageing. We then present emerging therapeutic strategies to restore cholesterol homeostasis, focusing on evidence from HD mouse models.

Biomaterials-mediated CRISPR/Cas9 delivery: recent challenges and opportunities in gene therapy

The use of biomaterials in delivering CRISPR/Cas9 for gene therapy in infectious diseases holds tremendous potential. This innovative approach combines the advantages of CRISPR/Cas9 with the protective properties of biomaterials, enabling accurate and efficient gene editing while enhancing safety. Biomaterials play a vital role in shielding CRISPR/Cas9 components, such as lipid nanoparticles or viral vectors, from immunological processes and degradation, extending their effectiveness. By utilizing the flexibility of biomaterials, tailored systems can be designed to address specific genetic diseases, paving the way for personalized therapeutics. Furthermore, this delivery method offers promising avenues in combating viral illnesses by precisely modifying pathogen genomes, and reducing their pathogenicity. Biomaterials facilitate site-specific gene modifications, ensuring effective delivery to infected cells while minimizing off-target effects. However, challenges remain, including optimizing delivery efficiency, reducing off-target effects, ensuring long-term safety, and establishing scalable production techniques. Thorough research, pre-clinical investigations, and rigorous safety evaluations are imperative for successful translation from the laboratory to clinical applications. In this review, we discussed how CRISPR/Cas9 delivery using biomaterials revolutionizes gene therapy and infectious disease treatment, offering precise and safe editing capabilities with the potential to significantly improve human health and quality of life.

Tuning DNA Dissociation from Spherical Nucleic Acids for Enhanced Immunostimulation

The stability of the core can significantly impact the therapeutic effectiveness of liposome-based drugs. While the spherical nucleic acid (SNA) architecture has elevated liposomal stability to increase therapeutic efficacy, the chemistry used to anchor the DNA to the liposome core is an underexplored design parameter with a potentially widespread biological impact. Herein, we explore the impact of SNA anchoring chemistry on immunotherapeutic function by systematically studying the importance of hydrophobic dodecane anchoring groups in attaching DNA strands to the liposome core. By deliberately modulating the size of the oligomer that defines the anchor, a library of structures has been established. These structures, combined with in vitro and in vivo immune stimulation analyses, elucidate the relationships between and importance of anchoring strength and dissociation of DNA from the SNA shell on its biological properties. Importantly, the most stable dodecane anchor, (C12)9, is superior to the n = 4-8 and 10 structures and quadruples immune stimulation compared to conventional cholesterol-anchored SNAs. When the OVA1 peptide antigen is encapsulated by the (C12)9 SNA and used as a therapeutic vaccine in an E.G7-OVA tumor model, 50% of the mice survived the initial tumor, and all of those survived tumor rechallenge. Importantly, the strong innate immune stimulation does not cause a cytokine storm compared to linear immunostimulatory DNA. Moreover, a (C12)9 SNA that encapsulates a peptide targeting SARS-CoV-2 generates a robust T cell response; T cells raised from SNA treatment kill >40% of target cells pulsed with the same peptide and ca. 45% of target cells expressing the entire spike protein. This work highlights the importance of using anchor chemistry to elevate SNA stability to achieve more potent and safer immunotherapeutics in the context of both cancer and infectious disease.