151
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Aboelella NS, Brandle C, Kim T, Ding ZC, Zhou G. Oxidative Stress in the Tumor Microenvironment and Its Relevance to Cancer Immunotherapy. Cancers (Basel) 2021; 13:cancers13050986. [PMID: 33673398 PMCID: PMC7956301 DOI: 10.3390/cancers13050986] [Citation(s) in RCA: 71] [Impact Index Per Article: 23.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/27/2021] [Revised: 02/20/2021] [Accepted: 02/23/2021] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Simple Summary Cancer cells are consistently under oxidative stress, as reflected by elevated basal level of reactive oxygen species (ROS), due to increased metabolism driven by aberrant cell growth. This feature has been exploited to develop therapeutic strategies that control tumor growth by modulating the oxidative stress in tumor cells. This review provides an overview of recent advances in cancer therapies targeting tumor oxidative stress, and highlights the emerging evidence implicating the effectiveness of cancer immunotherapies in intensifying tumor oxidative stress. The promises and challenges of combining ROS-inducing agents with cancer immunotherapy are also discussed. Abstract It has been well-established that cancer cells are under constant oxidative stress, as reflected by elevated basal level of reactive oxygen species (ROS), due to increased metabolism driven by aberrant cell growth. Cancer cells can adapt to maintain redox homeostasis through a variety of mechanisms. The prevalent perception about ROS is that they are one of the key drivers promoting tumor initiation, progression, metastasis, and drug resistance. Based on this notion, numerous antioxidants that aim to mitigate tumor oxidative stress have been tested for cancer prevention or treatment, although the effectiveness of this strategy has yet to be established. In recent years, it has been increasingly appreciated that ROS have a complex, multifaceted role in the tumor microenvironment (TME), and that tumor redox can be targeted to amplify oxidative stress inside the tumor to cause tumor destruction. Accumulating evidence indicates that cancer immunotherapies can alter tumor redox to intensify tumor oxidative stress, resulting in ROS-dependent tumor rejection. Herein we review the recent progresses regarding the impact of ROS on cancer cells and various immune cells in the TME, and discuss the emerging ROS-modulating strategies that can be used in combination with cancer immunotherapies to achieve enhanced antitumor effects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nada S. Aboelella
- Georgia Cancer Center, Medical College of Georgia, Augusta University, Augusta, GA 30912, USA; (N.S.A.); (C.B.); (Z.-C.D.)
- The Graduate School, Augusta University, Augusta, GA 30912, USA
| | - Caitlin Brandle
- Georgia Cancer Center, Medical College of Georgia, Augusta University, Augusta, GA 30912, USA; (N.S.A.); (C.B.); (Z.-C.D.)
| | - Timothy Kim
- The Center for Undergraduate Research and Scholarship, Augusta University, Augusta, GA 30912, USA;
| | - Zhi-Chun Ding
- Georgia Cancer Center, Medical College of Georgia, Augusta University, Augusta, GA 30912, USA; (N.S.A.); (C.B.); (Z.-C.D.)
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Medical College of Georgia, Augusta University, Augusta, GA 30912, USA
| | - Gang Zhou
- Georgia Cancer Center, Medical College of Georgia, Augusta University, Augusta, GA 30912, USA; (N.S.A.); (C.B.); (Z.-C.D.)
- The Graduate School, Augusta University, Augusta, GA 30912, USA
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Medical College of Georgia, Augusta University, Augusta, GA 30912, USA
- Department of Medicine, Medical College of Georgia, Augusta University, Augusta, GA 30912, USA
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +1-706-721-4472
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152
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Sun Y, He Z, Li J, Gong S, Yuan S, Li T, Ning N, Xing L, Zhang L, Chen F, Li Z, Wang J, Luo D, Wang H. Gentamicin Induced Microbiome Adaptations Associate With Increased BCAA Levels and Enhance Severity of Influenza Infection. Front Immunol 2021; 11:608895. [PMID: 33708192 PMCID: PMC7940682 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2020.608895] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/22/2020] [Accepted: 12/22/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Involvement of gut microbiota in pulmonary disease by the gut-lung axis has been widely observed. However, the cross-talk messengers between respiratory mucosal immunity and gut microbiota are largely unknown. Using selective pharmacologic destruction of gut microenvironment mouse models, we found gut microbiota displayed significantly lower alpha diversity and relative abundance of bacteria in Gentamicin treated mice. Metagenomic studies revealed functional differences in gut bacteria in altering metabolic profiles in mice blood. Branched-chain amino acids (BCAAs) are the essential factors linked between gut and lung. During this process, selective destruction of gut microbiota by Gentamicin induced high levels of BCAAs, and the high levels of BCAAs impacted the lung immunity against influenza virus. In vivo, Gentamicin-treated mice or mice fed with high BCAAs diets displayed reduced survival. At the sites of infection, the number of CD11b+Ly6G+ cells decreased, and CD8+ T cells increased accompanied by exuberant expression of pro-inflammatory cytokines could result in tissue damage. CD11b+Ly6G+ cells transplantation conferred remarkable protection from influenza virus infections. In vitro, BCAAs promoted bone marrow-derived cells differentiation to dendritic cells. Taken together, these findings demonstrate that Gentamicin induced disruption of the gut microbiota leads to increased BCAA levels that suppress CD11b+Ly6c+ cell development in association with overactive CD8+ T responses which may contribute to enhanced severity of the viral infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yakun Sun
- Anhui Medical University, Hefei, China.,State Key Laboratory of Pathogen and Biosecurity, Beijing Institute of Microbiology and Epidemiology, Beijing, China
| | - Zhili He
- State Key Laboratory of Pathogen and Biosecurity, Beijing Institute of Microbiology and Epidemiology, Beijing, China
| | - Jiajia Li
- Anhui Medical University, Hefei, China.,State Key Laboratory of Pathogen and Biosecurity, Beijing Institute of Microbiology and Epidemiology, Beijing, China
| | - Saisai Gong
- State Key Laboratory of Pathogen and Biosecurity, Beijing Institute of Microbiology and Epidemiology, Beijing, China
| | - Shunzong Yuan
- State Key Laboratory of Pathogen and Biosecurity, Beijing Institute of Microbiology and Epidemiology, Beijing, China
| | - Tao Li
- State Key Laboratory of Pathogen and Biosecurity, Beijing Institute of Microbiology and Epidemiology, Beijing, China
| | - Nianzhi Ning
- State Key Laboratory of Pathogen and Biosecurity, Beijing Institute of Microbiology and Epidemiology, Beijing, China
| | - Li Xing
- State Key Laboratory of Pathogen and Biosecurity, Beijing Institute of Microbiology and Epidemiology, Beijing, China
| | - Liangyan Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Pathogen and Biosecurity, Beijing Institute of Microbiology and Epidemiology, Beijing, China
| | - Fanghong Chen
- State Key Laboratory of Pathogen and Biosecurity, Beijing Institute of Microbiology and Epidemiology, Beijing, China
| | - Zhan Li
- State Key Laboratory of Pathogen and Biosecurity, Beijing Institute of Microbiology and Epidemiology, Beijing, China
| | - Jianxin Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Pathogen and Biosecurity, Beijing Institute of Microbiology and Epidemiology, Beijing, China
| | - Deyan Luo
- Anhui Medical University, Hefei, China.,State Key Laboratory of Pathogen and Biosecurity, Beijing Institute of Microbiology and Epidemiology, Beijing, China
| | - Hui Wang
- Anhui Medical University, Hefei, China.,State Key Laboratory of Pathogen and Biosecurity, Beijing Institute of Microbiology and Epidemiology, Beijing, China
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153
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Lewinsky H, Gunes EG, David K, Radomir L, Kramer MP, Pellegrino B, Perpinial M, Chen J, He TF, Mansour AG, Teng KY, Bhattacharya S, Caserta E, Troadec E, Lee P, Feng M, Keats J, Krishnan A, Rosenzweig M, Yu J, Caligiuri MA, Cohen Y, Shevetz O, Becker-Herman S, Pichiorri F, Rosen S, Shachar I. CD84 is a regulator of the immunosuppressive microenvironment in multiple myeloma. JCI Insight 2021; 6:141683. [PMID: 33465053 PMCID: PMC7934939 DOI: 10.1172/jci.insight.141683] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/29/2020] [Accepted: 01/15/2021] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Multiple myeloma (MM) is characterized by an accumulation of malignant plasma cells (PCs) within the BM. The BM microenvironment supports survival of the malignant cells and is composed of cellular fractions that foster myeloma development and progression by suppression of the immune response. Despite major progress in understanding the biology and pathophysiology of MM, this disease is still incurable and requires aggressive treatment with significant side effects. CD84 is a self-binding immunoreceptor belonging to the signaling lymphocyte activation molecule (SLAM) family. Previously, we showed that CD84 bridges between chronic lymphocytic leukemia cells and their microenvironment, and it regulates T cell function. In the current study, we investigated the role of CD84 in MM. Our results show that MM cells express low levels of CD84. However, these cells secrete the cytokine macrophage migration inhibitory factor (MIF), which induces CD84 expression on cells in their microenvironment. Its activation leads to an elevation of expression of genes regulating differentiation to monocytic/granulocytic–myeloid-derived suppressor cells (M-MDSCs and G-MDSCs, respectively) and upregulation of PD-L1 expression on MDSCs, which together suppress T cell function. Downregulation of CD84 or its blocking reduce MDSC accumulation, resulting in elevated T cell activity and reduced tumor load. Our data suggest that CD84 might serve as a novel therapeutic target in MM.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hadas Lewinsky
- Department of Immunology, Department of Biochemistry, Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot, Israel
| | - Emine G Gunes
- Judy and Bernard Briskin Center for Multiple Myeloma Research, City of Hope, Duarte, California, USA.,Department of Hematologic Malignancies Translational Science and
| | - Keren David
- Department of Immunology, Department of Biochemistry, Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot, Israel
| | - Lihi Radomir
- Department of Immunology, Department of Biochemistry, Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot, Israel
| | - Matthias P Kramer
- Department of Immunology, Department of Biochemistry, Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot, Israel
| | - Bianca Pellegrino
- Department of Immunology, Department of Biochemistry, Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot, Israel
| | - Michal Perpinial
- Department of Immunology, Department of Biochemistry, Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot, Israel
| | - Jing Chen
- Department of Immuno-Oncology, Beckman Research Institute, City of Hope, Duarte, California, USA
| | - Ting-Fang He
- Department of Immuno-Oncology, Beckman Research Institute, City of Hope, Duarte, California, USA
| | | | - Kun-Yu Teng
- Department of Hematologic Malignancies Translational Science and
| | - Supriyo Bhattacharya
- Translational Bioinformatics, Center for Informatics, Department of Computational and Quantitative Medicine, City of Hope, Duarte, California, USA
| | - Enrico Caserta
- Judy and Bernard Briskin Center for Multiple Myeloma Research, City of Hope, Duarte, California, USA.,Department of Hematologic Malignancies Translational Science and
| | - Estelle Troadec
- Judy and Bernard Briskin Center for Multiple Myeloma Research, City of Hope, Duarte, California, USA.,Department of Hematologic Malignancies Translational Science and
| | - Peter Lee
- Department of Immuno-Oncology, Beckman Research Institute, City of Hope, Duarte, California, USA
| | - Mingye Feng
- Department of Immuno-Oncology, Beckman Research Institute, City of Hope, Duarte, California, USA
| | - Jonathan Keats
- Judy and Bernard Briskin Center for Multiple Myeloma Research, City of Hope, Duarte, California, USA.,Translational Genomics Research Institute, Phoenix, Arizona, USA
| | - Amrita Krishnan
- Judy and Bernard Briskin Center for Multiple Myeloma Research, City of Hope, Duarte, California, USA.,Department of Hematologic Malignancies Translational Science and
| | - Michael Rosenzweig
- Judy and Bernard Briskin Center for Multiple Myeloma Research, City of Hope, Duarte, California, USA.,Department of Hematologic Malignancies Translational Science and
| | - Jianhua Yu
- Department of Hematologic Malignancies Translational Science and
| | | | - Yosef Cohen
- Sanz Medical Center, Laniado Medical Center, Netanya, Israel
| | - Olga Shevetz
- Hematology Institute, Kaplan Medical Center, Rehovot, Israel
| | - Shirly Becker-Herman
- Department of Immunology, Department of Biochemistry, Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot, Israel
| | - Flavia Pichiorri
- Judy and Bernard Briskin Center for Multiple Myeloma Research, City of Hope, Duarte, California, USA.,Department of Hematologic Malignancies Translational Science and
| | - Steven Rosen
- Judy and Bernard Briskin Center for Multiple Myeloma Research, City of Hope, Duarte, California, USA.,Department of Hematologic Malignancies Translational Science and
| | - Idit Shachar
- Department of Immunology, Department of Biochemistry, Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot, Israel
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154
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Singh R, Chakraborty M, Gautam A, Roy SK, Halder I, Barber J, Garg A. Residual immune activation in HIV-Infected individuals expands monocytic-myeloid derived suppressor cells. Cell Immunol 2021; 362:104304. [PMID: 33610024 DOI: 10.1016/j.cellimm.2021.104304] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/24/2020] [Revised: 01/28/2021] [Accepted: 01/28/2021] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
HIV-infected individuals on combined antiretroviral therapy (ART) with virologic suppression exhibit sustained immune dysfunction. Our recent work has highlighted that monocytic myeloid derived suppressor cells (M-MDSC) are elevated in these individuals and suppress immune responses. Factors responsible for M-MDSC expansion in vivo are unknown. Here we compared circulating frequency of M-MDSC in HIV-infected persons from the US and India where HIV subtype-B or -C predominate, respectively. We further investigated soluble mediators of residual immune activation in two cohorts and determined their correlation with M-MDSC expansion. Our findings show that M-MDSC are elevated and correlate with plasma levels of IL-6 in both cohorts. Chemokines CXCL10, CCL4 and CXCL8 were also elevated in HIV-infected individuals, but did not correlate with M-MDSC. These findings support that IL-6 is important in M-MDSC expansion which is independent of HIV subtype.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ritesh Singh
- Department of Community and Family Medicine, All India Institute of Medical Sciences, India
| | - Mouli Chakraborty
- National Institute of Biomedical Genomics, Departments of Chest andRespiratory Diseases JN Medical College and Hospital, Kalyani West Bengal, India
| | - Anuradha Gautam
- National Institute of Biomedical Genomics, Departments of Chest andRespiratory Diseases JN Medical College and Hospital, Kalyani West Bengal, India
| | - Suman K Roy
- Community Medicine and Chest andRespiratory Diseases JN Medical College and Hospital, Kalyani West Bengal, India
| | - Indranil Halder
- Chest andRespiratory Diseases JN Medical College and Hospital, Kalyani West Bengal, India
| | - Jamie Barber
- Department of Infectious Diseases, College of Veterinary Medicine University of Georgia, Athens, GA 30606, USA
| | - Ankita Garg
- Department of Infectious Diseases, College of Veterinary Medicine University of Georgia, Athens, GA 30606, USA.
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155
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Horn CM, Kielian T. Crosstalk Between Staphylococcus aureus and Innate Immunity: Focus on Immunometabolism. Front Immunol 2021; 11:621750. [PMID: 33613555 PMCID: PMC7892349 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2020.621750] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/26/2020] [Accepted: 12/21/2020] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Staphylococcus aureus is a leading cause of bacterial infections globally in both healthcare and community settings. The success of this bacterium is the product of an expansive repertoire of virulence factors in combination with acquired antibiotic resistance and propensity for biofilm formation. S. aureus leverages these factors to adapt to and subvert the host immune response. With the burgeoning field of immunometabolism, it has become clear that the metabolic program of leukocytes dictates their inflammatory status and overall effectiveness in clearing an infection. The metabolic flexibility of S. aureus offers an inherent means by which the pathogen could manipulate the infection milieu to promote its survival. The exact metabolic pathways that S. aureus influences in leukocytes are not entirely understood, and more work is needed to understand how S. aureus co-opts leukocyte metabolism to gain an advantage. In this review, we discuss the current knowledge concerning how metabolic biases dictate the pro- vs. anti-inflammatory attributes of various innate immune populations, how S. aureus metabolism influences leukocyte activation, and compare this with other bacterial pathogens. A better understanding of the metabolic crosstalk between S. aureus and leukocytes may unveil novel therapeutic strategies to combat these devastating infections.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christopher M Horn
- Department of Pathology and Microbiology, University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, NE, United States
| | - Tammy Kielian
- Department of Pathology and Microbiology, University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, NE, United States
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156
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de Jager P, Smith O, Pool R, Bolon S, Richards GA. Review of the pathophysiology and prognostic biomarkers of immune dysregulation after severe injury. J Trauma Acute Care Surg 2021; 90:e21-e30. [PMID: 33075024 DOI: 10.1097/ta.0000000000002996] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Pieter de Jager
- From the Department of Anaesthesiology (P.d.J., O.S., S.B.), School of Clinical Medicine, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg; Department of Haematology (R.P.), National Health Laboratory Service, University of Pretoria, Pretoria; and Division of Critical Care (G.A.R.), School of Clinical Medicine, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa
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157
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Kho VM, Mekers VE, Span PN, Bussink J, Adema GJ. Radiotherapy and cGAS/STING signaling: Impact on MDSCs in the tumor microenvironment. Cell Immunol 2021; 362:104298. [PMID: 33592541 DOI: 10.1016/j.cellimm.2021.104298] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/30/2020] [Revised: 01/14/2021] [Accepted: 01/17/2021] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Myeloid derived suppressor cells (MDSCs) are a highly heterogeneous population of immature immune cells with immunosuppressive functions that are recruited to the tumor microenvironment (TME). MDSCs promote tumor growth and progression by inhibiting immune effector cell proliferation and function. MDSCs are affected by both novel anti-cancer therapies targeting the immune system to promote anti-tumor immunity, as well as by conventional treatments such as radiotherapy. Following radiotherapy, cytoplasmic double stranded DNA stimulates the cyclic GMP-AMP synthase (cGAS)/stimulator of interferon genes (STING) pathway, resulting in type I interferon production. Effectiveness of radiotherapy and cGAS/STING signaling are closely intertwined: activation of cGAS and STING is key to generate systemic anti-tumor immunity after irradiation. This review focuses on how radiotherapy and cGAS/STING signaling in MDSCs and/or tumor cells impact MDSC recruitment, expansion and function. The influence of conventional and ablative radiotherapy treatment schedules, inflammatory response following radiotherapy, and hypoxia are discussed as MDSC modulators.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vera M Kho
- Radiotherapy and OncoImmunology Laboratory, Department of Radiation Oncology, Radboud University Medical Center, Geert Grooteplein Zuid 32, 6525 GA Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | - Vera E Mekers
- Radiotherapy and OncoImmunology Laboratory, Department of Radiation Oncology, Radboud University Medical Center, Geert Grooteplein Zuid 32, 6525 GA Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | - Paul N Span
- Radiotherapy and OncoImmunology Laboratory, Department of Radiation Oncology, Radboud University Medical Center, Geert Grooteplein Zuid 32, 6525 GA Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | - Johan Bussink
- Radiotherapy and OncoImmunology Laboratory, Department of Radiation Oncology, Radboud University Medical Center, Geert Grooteplein Zuid 32, 6525 GA Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | - Gosse J Adema
- Radiotherapy and OncoImmunology Laboratory, Department of Radiation Oncology, Radboud University Medical Center, Geert Grooteplein Zuid 32, 6525 GA Nijmegen, The Netherlands.
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158
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Cartwright ANR, Suo S, Badrinath S, Kumar S, Melms J, Luoma A, Bagati A, Saadatpour A, Izar B, Yuan GC, Wucherpfennig KW. Immunosuppressive Myeloid Cells Induce Nitric Oxide-Dependent DNA Damage and p53 Pathway Activation in CD8 + T Cells. Cancer Immunol Res 2021; 9:470-485. [PMID: 33514509 DOI: 10.1158/2326-6066.cir-20-0085] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/09/2020] [Revised: 10/13/2020] [Accepted: 01/26/2021] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
Tumor-infiltrating myeloid-derived suppressor cells (MDSC) are associated with poor survival outcomes in many human cancers. MDSCs inhibit T cell-mediated tumor immunity in part because they strongly inhibit T-cell function. However, whether MDSCs inhibit early or later steps of T-cell activation is not well established. Here we show that MDSCs inhibited proliferation and induced apoptosis of CD8+ T cells even in the presence of dendritic cells (DC) presenting a high-affinity cognate peptide. This inhibitory effect was also observed with delayed addition of MDSCs to cocultures, consistent with functional data showing that T cells expressed multiple early activation markers even in the presence of MDSCs. Single-cell RNA-sequencing analysis of CD8+ T cells demonstrated a p53 transcriptional signature in CD8+ T cells cocultured with MDSCs and DCs. Confocal microscopy showed induction of DNA damage and nuclear accumulation of activated p53 protein in a substantial fraction of these T cells. DNA damage in T cells was dependent on the iNOS enzyme and subsequent nitric oxide release by MDSCs. Small molecule-mediated inhibition of iNOS or inactivation of the Nos2 gene in MDSCs markedly diminished DNA damage in CD8+ T cells. DNA damage in CD8+ T cells was also observed in KPC pancreatic tumors but was reduced in tumors implanted into Nos2-deficient mice compared with wild-type mice. These data demonstrate that MDSCs do not block early steps of T-cell activation but rather induce DNA damage and p53 pathway activation in CD8+ T cells through an iNOS-dependent pathway.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adam N R Cartwright
- Department of Cancer Immunology and Virology, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Boston, Massachusetts.,Department of Immunology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts
| | - Shengbao Suo
- Department of Pediatric Oncology, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Boston, Massachusetts
| | - Soumya Badrinath
- Department of Cancer Immunology and Virology, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Boston, Massachusetts.,Department of Immunology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts
| | - Sushil Kumar
- Department of Cancer Immunology and Virology, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Boston, Massachusetts.,Department of Immunology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts
| | - Johannes Melms
- Columbia Center for Translational Immunology, New York, New York.,Columbia University Medical Center, Division of Hematology and Oncology, New York, New York
| | - Adrienne Luoma
- Department of Cancer Immunology and Virology, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Boston, Massachusetts.,Department of Immunology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts
| | - Archis Bagati
- Department of Cancer Immunology and Virology, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Boston, Massachusetts.,Department of Immunology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts
| | - Assieh Saadatpour
- Department of Pediatric Oncology, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Boston, Massachusetts
| | - Benjamin Izar
- Columbia Center for Translational Immunology, New York, New York.,Columbia University Medical Center, Division of Hematology and Oncology, New York, New York
| | - Guo-Cheng Yuan
- Department of Pediatric Oncology, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Boston, Massachusetts
| | - Kai W Wucherpfennig
- Department of Cancer Immunology and Virology, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Boston, Massachusetts. .,Department of Immunology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts.,Department of Neurology, Brigham and Women's Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts
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159
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Miyazaki Y, Nakamura T, Takenouchi S, Hayashi A, Omori K, Murata T. Urinary 8-iso PGF2α and 2,3-dinor-8-iso PGF2α can be indexes of colitis-associated colorectal cancer in mice. PLoS One 2021; 16:e0245292. [PMID: 33503019 PMCID: PMC7840041 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0245292] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/16/2020] [Accepted: 12/25/2020] [Indexed: 01/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Early diagnosis of colorectal cancer is needed to reduce the mortal consequence by cancer. Lipid mediators play critical role in progression of colitis and colitis-associated colon cancer (CAC) and some of their metabolites are excreted in urine. Here, we attempted to find novel biomarkers in urinary lipid metabolite of a murine model of CAC. Mice were received single administration of azoxymethane (AOM) and repeated administration of dextran sulfate sodium (DSS). Lipid metabolites in their urine was measured by liquid chromatography mass spectrometry and their colon was collected to perform morphological study. AOM and DSS caused inflammation and tumor formation in mouse colon. Liquid chromatography mass spectrometry-based comprehensive analysis of lipid metabolites showed that cyclooxygenase-mediated arachidonic acid (AA) metabolites, prostaglandins, and reactive oxygen species (ROS)-mediated AA metabolites, isoprostanes, were predominantly increased in the urine of tumor-bearing mice. Among that, urinary prostaglandin (PG)E2 metabolite tetranor-PGEM and PGD2 metabolite tetranor-PGDM were significantly increased in both of urine collected at the acute phase of colitis and the carcinogenesis phase. On the other hand, two F2 isoprostanes (F2-IsoPs), 8-iso PGF2α and 2,3-dinor-8-iso PGF2α, were significantly increased only in the carcinogenesis phase. Morphological study showed that infiltrated monocytes into tumor mass strongly expressed ROS generator NADPH (p22phox). These observations suggest that urinary 8-iso PGF2α and 2,3-dinor-8-iso PGF2α can be indexes of CAC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yusuke Miyazaki
- Department of Animal Radiology and Graduate School of Agricultural and Life Sciences, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Tatsuro Nakamura
- Department of Animal Radiology and Graduate School of Agricultural and Life Sciences, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Shinya Takenouchi
- Department of Animal Radiology and Graduate School of Agricultural and Life Sciences, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Akane Hayashi
- Department of Animal Radiology and Graduate School of Agricultural and Life Sciences, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Keisuke Omori
- Department of Animal Radiology and Graduate School of Agricultural and Life Sciences, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Takahisa Murata
- Department of Animal Radiology and Graduate School of Agricultural and Life Sciences, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan
- * E-mail:
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160
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Adeshakin AO, Liu W, Adeshakin FO, Afolabi LO, Zhang M, Zhang G, Wang L, Li Z, Lin L, Cao Q, Yan D, Wan X. Regulation of ROS in myeloid-derived suppressor cells through targeting fatty acid transport protein 2 enhanced anti-PD-L1 tumor immunotherapy. Cell Immunol 2021; 362:104286. [PMID: 33524739 DOI: 10.1016/j.cellimm.2021.104286] [Citation(s) in RCA: 64] [Impact Index Per Article: 21.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/15/2020] [Revised: 01/05/2021] [Accepted: 01/07/2021] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
Despite the remarkable success and efficacy of immune checkpoint blockade (ICB) therapy against the PD-1/PD-L1 axis, it induces sustained responses in a sizeable minority of cancer patients due to the activation of immunosuppressive factors such as myeloid-derived suppressor cells (MDSCs). Inhibiting the immunosuppressive function of MDSCs is critical for successful cancer ICB therapy. Interestingly, lipid metabolism is a crucial factor in modulating MDSCs function. Fatty acid transport protein 2 (FATP2) conferred the function of PMN-MDSCs in cancer via the upregulation of arachidonic acid metabolism. However, whether regulating lipid accumulation in MDSCs by targeting FATP2 could block MDSCs reactive oxygen species (ROS) production and enhance PD-L1 blockade-mediated tumor immunotherapy remains unexplored. Here we report that FATP2 regulated lipid accumulation, ROS, and immunosuppressive function of MDSCs in tumor-bearing mice. Tumor cells-derived granulocyte macrophage-colony stimulating factor (GM-CSF) induced FATP2 expression in MDSCs by activation of STAT3 signaling pathway. Pharmaceutical blockade of FATP2 expression in MDSCs by lipofermata decreased lipid accumulation, reduced ROS, blocked immunosuppressive activity, and consequently inhibited tumor growth. More importantly, lipofermata inhibition of FATP2 in MDSCs enhanced anti-PD-L1 tumor immunotherapy via the upregulation of CD107a and reduced PD-L1 expression on tumor-infiltrating CD8+T-cells. Furthermore, the combination therapy blocked MDSC's suppressive role on T- cells thereby enhanced T-cell's ability for the production of IFN-γ. These findings indicate that FATP2 plays a key role in modulating lipid accumulation-induced ROS in MDSCs and targeting FATP2 in MDSCs provides a novel therapeutic approach to enhance anti-PD-L1 cancer immunotherapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adeleye Oluwatosin Adeshakin
- Guangdong Immune Cell Therapy Engineering and Technology Research Center, Center for Protein and Cell-based Drugs, Institute of Biomedicine and Biotechnology, Shenzhen Institutes of Advanced Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shenzhen 518055, China; University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100864, China
| | - Wan Liu
- Guangdong Immune Cell Therapy Engineering and Technology Research Center, Center for Protein and Cell-based Drugs, Institute of Biomedicine and Biotechnology, Shenzhen Institutes of Advanced Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shenzhen 518055, China
| | - Funmilayo O Adeshakin
- Guangdong Immune Cell Therapy Engineering and Technology Research Center, Center for Protein and Cell-based Drugs, Institute of Biomedicine and Biotechnology, Shenzhen Institutes of Advanced Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shenzhen 518055, China; University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100864, China
| | - Lukman O Afolabi
- Guangdong Immune Cell Therapy Engineering and Technology Research Center, Center for Protein and Cell-based Drugs, Institute of Biomedicine and Biotechnology, Shenzhen Institutes of Advanced Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shenzhen 518055, China; University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100864, China
| | - Mengqi Zhang
- Guangdong Immune Cell Therapy Engineering and Technology Research Center, Center for Protein and Cell-based Drugs, Institute of Biomedicine and Biotechnology, Shenzhen Institutes of Advanced Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shenzhen 518055, China; School of Basic Medical Science, Jinzhou Medical University, Jinzhou 121000, China
| | - Guizhong Zhang
- Guangdong Immune Cell Therapy Engineering and Technology Research Center, Center for Protein and Cell-based Drugs, Institute of Biomedicine and Biotechnology, Shenzhen Institutes of Advanced Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shenzhen 518055, China
| | - Lulu Wang
- Department of Hematology and Oncology, Shenzhen Children's Hospital, Shenzhen 518036, China
| | - Zhihuan Li
- Dongguan Enlife Stem Cell Biotechnology Institute, Dongguan 523000, China
| | - Lilong Lin
- Dongguan Enlife Stem Cell Biotechnology Institute, Dongguan 523000, China
| | - Qin Cao
- School of Biomedical Sciences, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China
| | - Dehong Yan
- Guangdong Immune Cell Therapy Engineering and Technology Research Center, Center for Protein and Cell-based Drugs, Institute of Biomedicine and Biotechnology, Shenzhen Institutes of Advanced Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shenzhen 518055, China; University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100864, China.
| | - Xiaochun Wan
- Guangdong Immune Cell Therapy Engineering and Technology Research Center, Center for Protein and Cell-based Drugs, Institute of Biomedicine and Biotechnology, Shenzhen Institutes of Advanced Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shenzhen 518055, China; University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100864, China; Shenzhen BinDeBioTech Co., Ltd, Shenzhen 518055, China.
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161
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Adamo A, Frusteri C, Pallotta MT, Pirali T, Sartoris S, Ugel S. Moonlighting Proteins Are Important Players in Cancer Immunology. Front Immunol 2021; 11:613069. [PMID: 33584695 PMCID: PMC7873856 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2020.613069] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/01/2020] [Accepted: 11/30/2020] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Plasticity and adaptation to environmental stress are the main features that tumor and immune system share. Except for intrinsic and high-defined properties, cancer and immune cells need to overcome the opponent's defenses by activating more effective signaling networks, based on common elements such as transcriptional factors, protein-based complexes and receptors. Interestingly, growing evidence point to an increasing number of proteins capable of performing diverse and unpredictable functions. These multifunctional proteins are defined as moonlighting proteins. During cancer progression, several moonlighting proteins are involved in promoting an immunosuppressive microenvironment by reprogramming immune cells to support tumor growth and metastatic spread. Conversely, other moonlighting proteins support tumor antigen presentation and lymphocytes activation, leading to several anti-cancer immunological responses. In this light, moonlighting proteins could be used as promising new potential targets for improving current cancer therapies. In this review, we describe in details 12 unprecedented moonlighting proteins that during cancer progression play a decisive role in guiding cancer-associated immunomodulation by shaping innate or adaptive immune response.
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Affiliation(s)
- Annalisa Adamo
- Section of Immunology, Department of Medicine, University of Verona, Verona, Italy
| | - Cristina Frusteri
- Section of Immunology, Department of Medicine, University of Verona, Verona, Italy
| | | | - Tracey Pirali
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Piemonte Orientale, Novara, Italy
| | - Silvia Sartoris
- Section of Immunology, Department of Medicine, University of Verona, Verona, Italy
| | - Stefano Ugel
- Section of Immunology, Department of Medicine, University of Verona, Verona, Italy
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162
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Fultang N, Li X, Li T, Chen YH. Myeloid-Derived Suppressor Cell Differentiation in Cancer: Transcriptional Regulators and Enhanceosome-Mediated Mechanisms. Front Immunol 2021; 11:619253. [PMID: 33519825 PMCID: PMC7840597 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2020.619253] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/19/2020] [Accepted: 11/30/2020] [Indexed: 01/16/2023] Open
Abstract
Myeloid-derived Suppressor Cells (MDSCs) are a sub-population of leukocytes that are important for carcinogenesis and cancer immunotherapy. During carcinogenesis or severe infections, inflammatory mediators induce MDSCs via aberrant differentiation of myeloid precursors. Although several transcription factors, including C/EBPβ, STAT3, c-Rel, STAT5, and IRF8, have been reported to regulate MDSC differentiation, none of them are specifically expressed in MDSCs. How these lineage-non-specific transcription factors specify MDSC differentiation in a lineage-specific manner is unclear. The recent discovery of the c-Rel−C/EBPβ enhanceosome in MDSCs may help explain these context-dependent roles. In this review, we examine several transcriptional regulators of MDSC differentiation, and discuss the concept of non-modular regulation of MDSC signature gene expression by transcription factors such as c-Rel and C/EBPß.
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Affiliation(s)
- Norman Fultang
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, United States
| | - Xinyuan Li
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, United States
| | - Ting Li
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, United States
| | - Youhai H Chen
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, United States
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163
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Rashid MH, Borin TF, Ara R, Piranlioglu R, Achyut BR, Korkaya H, Liu Y, Arbab AS. Critical immunosuppressive effect of MDSC‑derived exosomes in the tumor microenvironment. Oncol Rep 2021; 45:1171-1181. [PMID: 33469683 PMCID: PMC7860000 DOI: 10.3892/or.2021.7936] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2020] [Accepted: 12/09/2020] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Myeloid-derived suppressor cells (MDSCs) are an indispensable component of the tumor microenvironment (TME). Along with the role of MDSC immunosuppression and antitumor immunity, MDSCs facilitate tumor growth, differentiation, and metastasis in several ways that are yet to be explored. Like any other cell type, MDSCs also release a tremendous number of exosomes, or nanovesicles of endosomal origin, that participate in intercellular communications by dispatching biological macromolecules. There have been no investigational studies conducted to characterize the role of MDSC-derived exosomes (MDSC exo) in modulating the TME. In this study, we isolated MDSC exo and demonstrated that they carry a significant level of proteins that play an indispensable role in tumor growth, invasion, angiogenesis, and immunomodulation. We observed a higher yield and more substantial immunosuppressive potential of exosomes isolated from MDSCs in the primary tumor area than those in the spleen or bone marrow. Our in vitro data suggest that MDSC exo are capable of hyper-activating or exhausting CD8 T-cells and induce reactive oxygen species production that elicits activation-induced cell death. We confirmed the depletion of CD8 T-cells in vivo by treating mice with MDSC exo. We also observed a reduction in pro-inflammatory M1-macrophages in the spleen of those animals. Our results indicate that the immunosuppressive and tumor-promoting functions of MDSCs are also implemented by MDSC-derived exosomes which would open up a new avenue of MDSC research and MDSC-targeted therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mohammad H Rashid
- Laboratory of Tumor Angiogenesis, Georgia Cancer Center, Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Augusta University, Augusta, GA 30912, USA
| | - Thaiz F Borin
- Laboratory of Tumor Angiogenesis, Georgia Cancer Center, Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Augusta University, Augusta, GA 30912, USA
| | - Roxan Ara
- Laboratory of Tumor Angiogenesis, Georgia Cancer Center, Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Augusta University, Augusta, GA 30912, USA
| | - Raziye Piranlioglu
- Laboratory of Tumor Angiogenesis, Georgia Cancer Center, Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Augusta University, Augusta, GA 30912, USA
| | - Bhagelu R Achyut
- Cancer Animal Models Shared Resource, Winship Cancer Institute, Emory University, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA
| | - Hasan Korkaya
- Molecular Oncology and Biomarkers Program, Georgia Cancer Center, Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Augusta University, Augusta, GA 30912, USA
| | - Yutao Liu
- Department of Cellular Biology and Anatomy, Medical College of Georgia, Augusta University, Augusta, GA 30912, USA
| | - Ali S Arbab
- Laboratory of Tumor Angiogenesis, Georgia Cancer Center, Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Augusta University, Augusta, GA 30912, USA
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164
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The Functional Crosstalk between Myeloid-Derived Suppressor Cells and Regulatory T Cells within the Immunosuppressive Tumor Microenvironment. Cancers (Basel) 2021; 13:cancers13020210. [PMID: 33430105 PMCID: PMC7827203 DOI: 10.3390/cancers13020210] [Citation(s) in RCA: 88] [Impact Index Per Article: 29.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/01/1970] [Revised: 12/13/2020] [Accepted: 01/06/2021] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Simple Summary Immunotherapy improved the therapeutic landscape for patients with advanced cancer diseases. However, many patients do not benefit from immunotherapy. The bidirectional crosstalk between myeloid-derived suppressor cells (MDSC) and regulatory T cells (Treg) contributes to immune evasion, limiting the success of immunotherapy by checkpoint inhibitors. This review aims to outline the current knowledge of the role and the immunosuppressive properties of MDSC and Treg within the tumor microenvironment (TME). Furthermore, we will discuss the importance of the functional crosstalk between MDSC and Treg for immunosuppression, issuing particularly the role of cell adhesion molecules. Lastly, we will depict the impact of this interaction for cancer research and discuss several strategies aimed to target these pathways for tumor therapy. Abstract Immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICI) have led to profound and durable tumor regression in some patients with metastatic cancer diseases. However, many patients still do not derive benefit from immunotherapy. Here, the accumulation of immunosuppressive cell populations within the tumor microenvironment (TME), such as myeloid-derived suppressor cells (MDSC), tumor-associated macrophages (TAM), and regulatory T cells (Treg), contributes to the development of immune resistance. MDSC and Treg expand systematically in tumor patients and inhibit T cell activation and T effector cell function. Numerous studies have shown that the immunosuppressive mechanisms exerted by those inhibitory cell populations comprise soluble immunomodulatory mediators and receptor interactions. The latter are also required for the crosstalk of MDSC and Treg, raising questions about the relevance of cell–cell contacts for the establishment of their inhibitory properties. This review aims to outline the current knowledge on the crosstalk between these two cell populations, issuing particularly the potential role of cell adhesion molecules. In this regard, we further discuss the relevance of β2 integrins, which are essential for the differentiation and function of leukocytes as well as for MDSC–Treg interaction. Lastly, we aim to describe the impact of such bidirectional crosstalk for basic and applied cancer research and discuss how the targeting of these pathways might pave the way for future approaches in immunotherapy.
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165
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Aldrich AL, Horn CM, Heim CE, Korshoj LE, Kielian T. Transcriptional Diversity and Niche-Specific Distribution of Leukocyte Populations during Staphylococcus aureus Craniotomy-Associated Biofilm Infection. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2021; 206:751-765. [PMID: 33419769 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.2001042] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/11/2020] [Accepted: 12/06/2020] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Neurosurgery for brain tumor resection or epilepsy treatment requires a craniotomy to gain access to the brain. Despite prophylactic measures, infectious complications occur at a frequency of 1-3%, with approximately half caused by Staphylococcus aureus (S. aureus) that forms a biofilm on the bone flap and is recalcitrant to antibiotics. Using single-cell RNA sequencing in a mouse model of S. aureus craniotomy infection, this study revealed the complex transcriptional heterogeneity of resident microglia and infiltrating monocytes in the brain, in addition to transcriptionally diverse granulocyte subsets in the s.c. galea and bone flap. In the brain, trajectory analysis identified the transition of microglia from a homeostatic/anti-inflammatory to proinflammatory and proliferative populations, whereas granulocytes in the brain demonstrated a trajectory from a granulocyte myeloid-derived suppressor cell (MDSC)-like phenotype to a small population of mature polymorphonuclear neutrophils (PMNs). In the galea, trajectory analysis identified the progression from two distinct granulocyte-MDSC-like populations to PMN clusters enriched for IFN signaling and cell cycle genes. Based on their abundance in the galea and bone flap, PMNs and MDSCs were depleted using anti-Ly6G, which resulted in increased bacterial burden. This revealed a critical role for PMNs in S. aureus containment because MDSCs were found to attenuate PMN antibacterial activity, which may explain, in part, why craniotomy infection persists in the presence of PMN infiltrates. These results demonstrate the existence of a transcriptionally diverse leukocyte response that likely influences the chronicity of S. aureus craniotomy infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amy L Aldrich
- Department of Pathology and Microbiology, University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, NE 68198
| | - Christopher M Horn
- Department of Pathology and Microbiology, University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, NE 68198
| | - Cortney E Heim
- Department of Pathology and Microbiology, University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, NE 68198
| | - Lee E Korshoj
- Department of Pathology and Microbiology, University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, NE 68198
| | - Tammy Kielian
- Department of Pathology and Microbiology, University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, NE 68198
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166
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Role of myeloid-derived suppressor cells in metastasis. Cancer Metastasis Rev 2021; 40:391-411. [PMID: 33411082 DOI: 10.1007/s10555-020-09947-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/20/2020] [Accepted: 12/02/2020] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
The spread of primary tumor cells to distant organs, termed metastasis, is the principal cause of cancer mortality and is a critical therapeutic target in oncology. Thus, a better understanding of metastatic progression is critical for improved therapeutic approaches requiring insight into the timing of tumor cell dissemination and seeding of distant organs, which can lead to the formation of occult lesions. However, due to limitations in imaging techniques, primary tumors can only be detected when they reach a relatively large size (e.g., > 1 cm3), which, based on our understanding of tumor evolution, is 10 to 20 years (30 doubling times) following tumor initiation. Recent insights into the timing of metastasis are based on the genomic profiling of paired primary tumors and metastases, suggesting that tumor cell seeding of secondary sites occurs early during tumor progression and years prior to diagnosis. Following seeding, tumor cells may remain in a dormant state as single cells or micrometastases before emerging as overt lesions. This timeline and the role of metastatic dormancy are regulated by interactions between the tumor, its microenvironment, and tumor-specific T cell responses. An improved understanding of the mechanisms and interactions responsible for immune evasion and tumor cell release from dormancy would support the development of novel targeted therapeutics. We posit herein that the immunosuppressive mechanisms mediated by myeloid-derived suppressor cells (MDSCs) are a major contributor to tumor progression, and that these mechanisms promote tumor cell escape from dormancy. Thus, while extensive studies have demonstrated a role for MDSCs in the escape from adoptive and innate immune responses (T-, natural killer (NK)-, and B cell responses), facilitating tumor progression and metastasis, few studies have considered their role in dormancy. In this review, we discuss the role of MDSC expansion, driven by tumor burden, and its role in escape from dormancy, resulting in occult metastases, and the potential for MDSC inhibition as an approach to prolong the survival of patients with advanced malignancies.
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167
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An Overview of Advances in Cell-Based Cancer Immunotherapies Based on the Multiple Immune-Cancer Cell Interactions. Methods Mol Biol 2021; 2097:139-171. [PMID: 31776925 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-0716-0203-4_10] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Tumors have a complex ecosystem in which behavior and fate are determined by the interaction of diverse cancerous and noncancerous cells at local and systemic levels. A number of studies indicate that various immune cells participate in tumor development (Fig. 1). In this review, we will discuss interactions among T lymphocytes (T cells), B cells, natural killer (NK) cells, dendritic cells (DCs), tumor-associated macrophages (TAMs), neutrophils, and myeloid-derived suppressor cells (MDSCs). In addition, we will touch upon attempts to either use or block subsets of immune cells to target cancer.
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168
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Barouni RM, Musiu C, Bronte V, Ugel S, Canè S. Phenotypical Characterization and Isolation of Tumor-Derived Mouse Myeloid-Derived Suppressor Cells. Methods Mol Biol 2021; 2236:29-42. [PMID: 33237538 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-0716-1060-2_4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/27/2024]
Abstract
Myeloid-derived suppressor cells (MDSCs) are a heterogeneous cell population composed of mature and immature cells of myeloid origin that play a major role in tumor progression by inhibiting the antitumor immune responses mediated by T cells. In this chapter, we describe protocols for isolation, phenotypical and functional evaluation of MDSCs isolated from mouse tumors, with the aim at unifying and standardizing protocols set up by different laboratories.
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Affiliation(s)
- Roza Maria Barouni
- Department of Medicine, Section of Immunology, University of Verona, Verona, Italy
| | - Chiara Musiu
- Department of Medicine, Section of Immunology, University of Verona, Verona, Italy
| | - Vincenzo Bronte
- Department of Medicine, Section of Immunology, University of Verona, Verona, Italy.
| | - Stefano Ugel
- Department of Medicine, Section of Immunology, University of Verona, Verona, Italy
| | - Stefania Canè
- Department of Medicine, Section of Immunology, University of Verona, Verona, Italy
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169
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Analysis of Antimicrobial Activity of Monocytic Myeloid-Derived Suppressor Cells in Infection with Mycobacterium tuberculosis and Human Immunodeficiency Virus. Methods Mol Biol 2021; 2236:115-127. [PMID: 33237545 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-0716-1060-2_11] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Myeloid-derived suppressor cells (MDSC) encompass a subset of myeloid cells, which suppress both innate and adaptive immune functions. Since Mycobacterium tuberculosis (M. tuberculosis) can infect these cells, interest has emerged to study the antimicrobial response of MDSC to mycobacteria causing tuberculosis. Reactive oxygen species (ROS) are critical mediators to control intracellular replication of M. tuberculosis and MDSC express high levels of these effector molecules. Here we describe the flow cytometric assessment of total cellular ROS produced by MDSC in response to infection with M. tuberculosis and compare it with the ROS activity of non-MDSC myeloid cells. To further understand the dynamics of host-pathogen interactions, we provide details on methods for measurement of the intracellular replication of M. tuberculosis within MDSC. Of note, these procedures were adopted for primary MDSC and non-MDSC subsets isolated from human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)-uninfected or HIV-infected individuals, in vitro infected with M. tuberculosis to mimic M. tuberculosis mono- or HIV-M. tuberculosis coinfection, respectively.
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170
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Shirasuna K, Ito M, Matsuda T, Enomoto T, Ohara Y, Yamamoto M, Nishijima S, Ohkohchi N, Kuromitsu S. Correlation analysis of the proportion of monocytic myeloid-derived suppressor cells in colorectal cancer patients. PLoS One 2020; 15:e0243643. [PMID: 33370317 PMCID: PMC7769251 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0243643] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/09/2020] [Accepted: 11/24/2020] [Indexed: 01/21/2023] Open
Abstract
Monocytic myeloid-derived suppressor cells (mMDSCs) are a class of immunosuppressive immune cells with prognostic value in many solid tumors. It is reported that the proportion of mMDSCs in the peripheral blood can be a predictive marker for response to cancer immunotherapy. In this study, we performed a correlation analysis of the proportion of mMDSCs in freshly-drawn peripheral blood, levels of plasma proteins, and demographic factors in colorectal cancer (CRC) patients, to find factors that could be used to predict mMDSC proportions. Freshly-drawn mMDSCs were measured using flow cytometry on peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) from healthy donors (n = 24) and CRC patients (n = 78). The plasma concentrations of 29 different cytokines, chemokines, growth factors, and enzymes were measured using a multiplex assay or enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. Correlation analysis to find mMDSC-associated factors was conducted using univariate and multivariate models. In univariate correlation analysis, there were no plasma proteins that were associated with mMDSC proportions in CRC patients. In multivariate analysis, considering all variables including age, sex, and plasma proteins, levels of inducible nitric acid synthase (iNOS) (p = 0.013) and platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF)-BB (p = 0.035) were associated with mMDSC proportion in PBMCs (mMDSC proportion [%] = 0.2929 − 0.2389 * PDGF-BB + 0.3582 * iNOS) (p < 0.005, r = 0.32). Measuring the plasma concentrations of iNOS and PDGF-BB may be useful in predicting the proportion of mMDSCs in CRC patients’ peripheral blood. Further research is required to establish and validate these predictive factors. Data registration Patient data were registered in an anonymization system at Tsukuba Clinical Research & Development Organization (T-CReDO).
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Affiliation(s)
- Kenna Shirasuna
- Drug Discovery Research, Astellas Pharma, Inc., Ibaraki, Japan
- * E-mail:
| | - Masayuki Ito
- Drug Discovery Research, Astellas Pharma, Inc., Ibaraki, Japan
| | - Takashi Matsuda
- Drug Discovery Research, Astellas Pharma, Inc., Ibaraki, Japan
| | - Tsuyoshi Enomoto
- Department of Gastrointestinal and Hepato-Biliary-Pancreatic Surgery, University of Tsukuba Hospital, Faculty of Medicine, Ibaraki, Japan
| | - Yusuke Ohara
- Department of Gastrointestinal and Hepato-Biliary-Pancreatic Surgery, University of Tsukuba Hospital, Faculty of Medicine, Ibaraki, Japan
| | | | | | - Nobuhiro Ohkohchi
- Department of Gastrointestinal and Hepato-Biliary-Pancreatic Surgery, University of Tsukuba Hospital, Faculty of Medicine, Ibaraki, Japan
| | - Sadao Kuromitsu
- Drug Discovery Research, Astellas Pharma, Inc., Ibaraki, Japan
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171
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Innamarato P, Pilon-Thomas S. Reactive myelopoiesis and the onset of myeloid-mediated immune suppression: Implications for adoptive cell therapy. Cell Immunol 2020; 361:104277. [PMID: 33476931 DOI: 10.1016/j.cellimm.2020.104277] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/30/2020] [Revised: 12/17/2020] [Accepted: 12/19/2020] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Adoptive T cell therapy (ACT) in combination with lymphodepleting chemotherapy is an effective strategy to induce the eradication of cancer, providing long-term regressions in patients. However, only a minority of patients that receive ACT with tumor-specific T cells exhibit durable benefit. Thus, there is an urgent need to characterize mechanisms of resistance and define strategies to alleviate immunosuppression in the context of ACT in cancer. This article reviews the importance of lymphodepleting regimens in promoting the optimal engraftment and expansion of T cells in hosts after adoptive transfer. In addition, we discuss the role of concomitant immunosuppression and the accumulation of myeloid derived suppressor cells (MDSCs) during immune recovery after lymphodepleting regimens and mobilization regimens.
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Affiliation(s)
- Patrick Innamarato
- Department of Immunology, H. Lee Moffitt Cancer Center and Research Institute, Tampa, FL, USA
| | - Shari Pilon-Thomas
- Department of Immunology, H. Lee Moffitt Cancer Center and Research Institute, Tampa, FL, USA.
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172
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Holokai L, Chakrabarti J, Lundy J, Croagh D, Adhikary P, Richards SS, Woodson C, Steele N, Kuester R, Scott A, Khreiss M, Frankel T, Merchant J, Jenkins BJ, Wang J, Shroff RT, Ahmad SA, Zavros Y. Murine- and Human-Derived Autologous Organoid/Immune Cell Co-Cultures as Pre-Clinical Models of Pancreatic Ductal Adenocarcinoma. Cancers (Basel) 2020; 12:E3816. [PMID: 33348809 PMCID: PMC7766822 DOI: 10.3390/cancers12123816] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/27/2020] [Revised: 12/08/2020] [Accepted: 12/10/2020] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Purpose: Pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC) has the lowest five-year survival rate of all cancers in the United States. Programmed death 1 receptor (PD-1)-programmed death ligand 1 (PD-L1) immune checkpoint inhibition has been unsuccessful in clinical trials. Myeloid-derived suppressor cells (MDSCs) are known to block anti-tumor CD8+ T cell immune responses in various cancers including pancreas. This has led us to our objective that was to develop a clinically relevant in vitro organoid model to specifically target mechanisms that deplete MDSCs as a therapeutic strategy for PDAC. Method: Murine and human pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC) autologous organoid/immune cell co-cultures were used to test whether PDAC can be effectively treated with combinatorial therapy involving PD-1 inhibition and MDSC depletion. Results: Murine in vivo orthotopic and in vitro organoid/immune cell co-culture models demonstrated that polymorphonuclear (PMN)-MDSCs promoted tumor growth and suppressed cytotoxic T lymphocyte (CTL) proliferation, leading to diminished efficacy of checkpoint inhibition. Mouse- and human-derived organoid/immune cell co-cultures revealed that PD-L1-expressing organoids were unresponsive to nivolumab in vitro in the presence of PMN-MDSCs. Depletion of arginase 1-expressing PMN-MDSCs within these co-cultures rendered the organoids susceptible to anti-PD-1/PD-L1-induced cancer cell death. Conclusions: Here we use mouse- and human-derived autologous pancreatic cancer organoid/immune cell co-cultures to demonstrate that elevated infiltration of polymorphonuclear (PMN)-MDSCs within the PDAC tumor microenvironment inhibit T cell effector function, regardless of PD-1/PD-L1 inhibition. We present a pre-clinical model that may predict the efficacy of targeted therapies to improve the outcome of patients with this aggressive and otherwise unpredictable malignancy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Loryn Holokai
- Department of Molecular Genetics, Biochemistry and Microbiology, University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, OH 45220, USA; (L.H.); (C.W.)
| | - Jayati Chakrabarti
- Department of Cellular and Molecular Medicine, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ 85719, USA; (J.C.); (P.A.)
| | - Joanne Lundy
- Centre for Innate Immunity and Infectious Diseases, Hudson Institute of Medical Research, Clayton, VIC 3168, Australia; (J.L.); (B.J.J.)
- Department of Molecular Translational Science, School of Clinical Sciences, Monash University, Clayton, VIC 3800, Australia
| | - Daniel Croagh
- Department of Surgery, School of Clinical Sciences at Monash Health, Monash University, Clayton, VIC 3800, Australia;
| | - Pritha Adhikary
- Department of Cellular and Molecular Medicine, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ 85719, USA; (J.C.); (P.A.)
| | - Scott S. Richards
- Department of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, University of Arizona College of Medicine, Tucson, AZ 85719, USA; (S.S.R.); (R.K.); (J.M.)
| | - Chantal Woodson
- Department of Molecular Genetics, Biochemistry and Microbiology, University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, OH 45220, USA; (L.H.); (C.W.)
| | - Nina Steele
- Department of Surgery, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA; (N.S.); (T.F.)
| | - Robert Kuester
- Department of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, University of Arizona College of Medicine, Tucson, AZ 85719, USA; (S.S.R.); (R.K.); (J.M.)
| | - Aaron Scott
- Division of Hematology and Oncology, University of Arizona College of Medicine, Tucson, AZ 85719, USA; (A.S.); (M.K.); (R.T.S.)
| | - Mohammad Khreiss
- Division of Hematology and Oncology, University of Arizona College of Medicine, Tucson, AZ 85719, USA; (A.S.); (M.K.); (R.T.S.)
| | - Timothy Frankel
- Department of Surgery, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA; (N.S.); (T.F.)
| | - Juanita Merchant
- Department of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, University of Arizona College of Medicine, Tucson, AZ 85719, USA; (S.S.R.); (R.K.); (J.M.)
| | - Brendan J. Jenkins
- Centre for Innate Immunity and Infectious Diseases, Hudson Institute of Medical Research, Clayton, VIC 3168, Australia; (J.L.); (B.J.J.)
- Department of Molecular Translational Science, School of Clinical Sciences, Monash University, Clayton, VIC 3800, Australia
| | - Jiang Wang
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of Cincinnati College of Medicine, Cincinnati, OH 45267, USA;
| | - Rachna T. Shroff
- Division of Hematology and Oncology, University of Arizona College of Medicine, Tucson, AZ 85719, USA; (A.S.); (M.K.); (R.T.S.)
| | - Syed A. Ahmad
- Department of Surgery, Division of Surgical Oncology, University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, OH 45221, USA;
| | - Yana Zavros
- Department of Cellular and Molecular Medicine, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ 85719, USA; (J.C.); (P.A.)
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Ebelt ND, Zuniga E, Marzagalli M, Zamloot V, Blazar BR, Salgia R, Manuel ER. Salmonella-Based Therapy Targeting Indoleamine 2,3-Dioxygenase Restructures the Immune Contexture to Improve Checkpoint Blockade Efficacy. Biomedicines 2020; 8:biomedicines8120617. [PMID: 33339195 PMCID: PMC7765568 DOI: 10.3390/biomedicines8120617] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/19/2020] [Revised: 12/09/2020] [Accepted: 12/13/2020] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Therapeutic options for non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) treatment have changed dramatically in recent years with the advent of novel immunotherapeutic approaches. Among these, immune checkpoint blockade (ICB) using monoclonal antibodies has shown tremendous promise in approximately 20% of patients. In order to better predict patients that will respond to ICB treatment, biomarkers such as tumor-associated CD8+ T cell frequency, tumor checkpoint protein status and mutational burden have been utilized, however, with mixed success. In this study, we hypothesized that significantly altering the suppressive tumor immune landscape in NSCLC could potentially improve ICB efficacy. Using sub-therapeutic doses of our Salmonella typhimurium-based therapy targeting the suppressive molecule indoleamine 2,3-dioxygenase (shIDO-ST) in tumor-bearing mice, we observed dramatic changes in immune subset phenotypes that included increases in antigen presentation markers, decreased regulatory T cell frequency and overall reduced checkpoint protein expression. Combination shIDO-ST treatment with anti-PD-1/CTLA-4 antibodies enhanced tumor growth control, compared to either treatment alone, which was associated with significant intratumoral infiltration by CD8+ and CD4+ T cells. Ultimately, we show that increases in antigen presentation markers and infiltration by T cells is correlated with significantly increased survival in NSCLC patients. These results suggest that the success of ICB therapy may be more accurately predicted by taking into account multiple factors such as potential for antigen presentation and immune subset repertoire in addition to markers already being considered. Alternatively, combination treatment with agents such as shIDO-ST could be used to create a more conducive tumor microenvironment for improving responses to ICB.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nancy D. Ebelt
- Department of Immuno-Oncology, Beckman Research Institute of the City of Hope, Duarte, CA 91010, USA; (N.D.E.); (E.Z.); (M.M.); (V.Z.)
| | - Edith Zuniga
- Department of Immuno-Oncology, Beckman Research Institute of the City of Hope, Duarte, CA 91010, USA; (N.D.E.); (E.Z.); (M.M.); (V.Z.)
| | - Monica Marzagalli
- Department of Immuno-Oncology, Beckman Research Institute of the City of Hope, Duarte, CA 91010, USA; (N.D.E.); (E.Z.); (M.M.); (V.Z.)
| | - Vic Zamloot
- Department of Immuno-Oncology, Beckman Research Institute of the City of Hope, Duarte, CA 91010, USA; (N.D.E.); (E.Z.); (M.M.); (V.Z.)
| | - Bruce R. Blazar
- Department of Pediatrics, Division of Blood and Bone Marrow Transplantation, University of Minnesota Medical School, Minneapolis, MN 55455, USA;
| | - Ravi Salgia
- Department of Medical Oncology and Therapeutics Research, City of Hope National Medical Center, Duarte, CA 91010, USA;
| | - Edwin R. Manuel
- Department of Immuno-Oncology, Beckman Research Institute of the City of Hope, Duarte, CA 91010, USA; (N.D.E.); (E.Z.); (M.M.); (V.Z.)
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +1-(626)-218-2452
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174
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Venkatraman S, Meller J, Hongeng S, Tohtong R, Chutipongtanate S. Transcriptional Regulation of Cancer Immune Checkpoints: Emerging Strategies for Immunotherapy. Vaccines (Basel) 2020; 8:E735. [PMID: 33291616 PMCID: PMC7761936 DOI: 10.3390/vaccines8040735] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/30/2020] [Revised: 12/01/2020] [Accepted: 12/02/2020] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
The study of immune evasion has gained a well-deserved eminence in cancer research by successfully developing a new class of therapeutics, immune checkpoint inhibitors, such as pembrolizumab and nivolumab, anti-PD-1 antibodies. By aiming at the immune checkpoint blockade (ICB), these new therapeutics have advanced cancer treatment with notable increases in overall survival and tumor remission. However, recent reports reveal that 40-60% of patients fail to benefit from ICB therapy due to acquired resistance or tumor relapse. This resistance may stem from increased expression of co-inhibitory immune checkpoints or alterations in the tumor microenvironment that promotes immune suppression. Because these mechanisms are poorly elucidated, the transcription factors that regulate immune checkpoints, known as "master regulators", have garnered interest. These include AP-1, IRF-1, MYC, and STAT3, which are known to regulate PD/PD-L1 and CTLA-4. Identifying these and other potential master regulators as putative therapeutic targets or biomarkers can be facilitated by mining cancer literature, public datasets, and cancer genomics resources. In this review, we describe recent advances in master regulator identification and characterization of the mechanisms underlying immune checkpoints regulation, and discuss how these master regulators of immune checkpoint molecular expression can be targeted as a form of auxiliary therapeutic strategy to complement traditional immunotherapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Simran Venkatraman
- Graduate Program in Molecular Medicine, Faculty of Science Joint Program Faculty of Medicine Ramathibodi Hospital, Faculty of Medicine Siriraj Hospital, Faculty of Dentistry, Faculty of Tropical Medicine, Mahidol University, Bangkok 10400, Thailand;
| | - Jarek Meller
- Departments of Environmental and Public Health Sciences, University of Cincinnati College of Medicine, Cincinnati, OH 45267, USA;
- Division of Biomedical Informatics, Cincinnati Children’s Hospital Medical Center, Cincinnati, OH 45267, USA
| | - Suradej Hongeng
- Division of Hematology and Oncology, Department of Pediatrics, Faculty of Medicine Ramathibodi Hospital, Mahidol University, Bangkok 10400, Thailand;
| | - Rutaiwan Tohtong
- Graduate Program in Molecular Medicine, Faculty of Science Joint Program Faculty of Medicine Ramathibodi Hospital, Faculty of Medicine Siriraj Hospital, Faculty of Dentistry, Faculty of Tropical Medicine, Mahidol University, Bangkok 10400, Thailand;
- Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Science, Mahidol University, Bangkok 10400, Thailand
| | - Somchai Chutipongtanate
- Pediatric Translational Research Unit, Department of Pediatrics, Faculty of Medicine Ramathibodi Hospital, Mahidol University, Bangkok 10400, Thailand
- Department of Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Faculty of Medicine Ramathibodi Hospital, Mahidol University, Bangkok 10400, Thailand
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175
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Garg M, Shanmugam MK, Bhardwaj V, Goel A, Gupta R, Sharma A, Baligar P, Kumar AP, Goh BC, Wang L, Sethi G. The pleiotropic role of transcription factor STAT3 in oncogenesis and its targeting through natural products for cancer prevention and therapy. Med Res Rev 2020; 41:1291-1336. [PMID: 33289118 DOI: 10.1002/med.21761] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/07/2020] [Revised: 10/30/2020] [Accepted: 11/18/2020] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Signal transducer and activator of transcription 3 (STAT3) is one of the crucial transcription factors, responsible for regulating cellular proliferation, cellular differentiation, migration, programmed cell death, inflammatory response, angiogenesis, and immune activation. In this review, we have discussed the classical regulation of STAT3 via diverse growth factors, cytokines, G-protein-coupled receptors, as well as toll-like receptors. We have also highlighted the potential role of noncoding RNAs in regulating STAT3 signaling. However, the deregulation of STAT3 signaling has been found to be associated with the initiation and progression of both solid and hematological malignancies. Additionally, hyperactivation of STAT3 signaling can maintain the cancer stem cell phenotype by modulating the tumor microenvironment, cellular metabolism, and immune responses to favor drug resistance and metastasis. Finally, we have also discussed several plausible ways to target oncogenic STAT3 signaling using various small molecules derived from natural products.
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Affiliation(s)
- Manoj Garg
- Amity Institute of Molecular Medicine and Stem Cell Research (AIMMSCR), Amity University, Noida, Uttar Pradesh, India
| | - Muthu K Shanmugam
- Department of Pharmacology, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore, Singapore, Singapore
| | - Vipul Bhardwaj
- Amity Institute of Molecular Medicine and Stem Cell Research (AIMMSCR), Amity University, Noida, Uttar Pradesh, India
| | - Akul Goel
- La Canada High School, La Canada Flintridge, California, USA
| | - Rajat Gupta
- Amity Institute of Molecular Medicine and Stem Cell Research (AIMMSCR), Amity University, Noida, Uttar Pradesh, India
| | - Arundhiti Sharma
- Amity Institute of Molecular Medicine and Stem Cell Research (AIMMSCR), Amity University, Noida, Uttar Pradesh, India
| | - Prakash Baligar
- Amity Institute of Molecular Medicine and Stem Cell Research (AIMMSCR), Amity University, Noida, Uttar Pradesh, India
| | - Alan Prem Kumar
- Department of Pharmacology, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore, Singapore, Singapore
- Cancer Science Institute of Singapore, Center for Translational Medicine, Singapore, Singapore
| | - Boon Cher Goh
- Department of Pharmacology, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore, Singapore, Singapore
- Cancer Science Institute of Singapore, Center for Translational Medicine, Singapore, Singapore
- Department of Hematology-Oncology, National University Health System, Singapore, Singapore
| | - Lingzhi Wang
- Department of Pharmacology, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore, Singapore, Singapore
- Cancer Science Institute of Singapore, Center for Translational Medicine, Singapore, Singapore
| | - Gautam Sethi
- Department of Pharmacology, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore, Singapore, Singapore
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Long noncoding RNA HOTAIRM1 promotes myeloid-derived suppressor cell expansion and suppressive functions through up-regulating HOXA1 expression during latent HIV infection. AIDS 2020; 34:2211-2221. [PMID: 33048872 PMCID: PMC7674250 DOI: 10.1097/qad.0000000000002700] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Myeloid-derived suppressor cells (MDSCs) contribute to HIV progression by impairing antiviral immunity; however, the mechanisms responsible for MDSC development during HIV infection are incompletely understood. HOX antisense intergenic RNA myeloid 1 (HOTAIRM1) is a long noncoding RNA (lncRNA) that plays a pivotal role in regulating myeloid cell development via targeting HOXA1. The role of HOTAIRM1--HOXA1 in the differentiation and functions of MDSCs during HIV infection remains unclear. METHODS In this study, we measured MDSC induction and suppressive functions by flow cytometry, RT-PCR, and co-culture experiments using CD33 myeloid cells derived from people living with HIV (PLHIV) on antiretroviral therapy (ART). We also manipulated the HOTAIRM1--HOXA1 axis in myeloid cells using knockdown and overexpression approaches. RESULTS We demonstrate that HOTAIRM1 and HOXA1 expressions are reciprocally upregulated and are responsible for increased levels of immunosuppressive molecules, such as arginase 1 (Arg1), inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS), signal transducer and activator of transcription 3 (STAT3), and reactive oxygen species (ROS), in CD33 myeloid cells derived from PLHIV on ART. We found that overexpression of HOTAIRM1 or HOXA1 in CD33 cells isolated from healthy individuals promoted the differentiation and suppressive functions of MDSCs, whereas silencing of HOTAIRM1 or HOXA1 expression in MDSCs derived from PLHIV significantly inhibited the frequency of MDSCs and expressions of the immunosuppressive molecules and reduced their immunosuppressive effects on T cells. CONCLUSION These results indicate that the HOTAIRM1--HOXA1 axis enhances differentiation and suppressive functions of MDSCs and could be a potential therapeutic target for immunomodulation during latent HIV infection.
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177
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Weber R, Groth C, Lasser S, Arkhypov I, Petrova V, Altevogt P, Utikal J, Umansky V. IL-6 as a major regulator of MDSC activity and possible target for cancer immunotherapy. Cell Immunol 2020; 359:104254. [PMID: 33296753 DOI: 10.1016/j.cellimm.2020.104254] [Citation(s) in RCA: 138] [Impact Index Per Article: 34.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/23/2020] [Revised: 11/12/2020] [Accepted: 11/13/2020] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Myeloid-derived suppressor cells (MDSC) are generated during tumor progression and suppress the anti-tumor functions of T and natural killer (NK) cells. Their enrichment is associated with a bad prognosis and a worse outcome of immunotherapy in cancer patients. The cytokine interleukin (IL)-6 was found to be a crucial regulator of MDSC accumulation and activation as well as a factor, stimulating tumor cell proliferation, survival, invasiveness and metastasis. Accordingly, IL-6 can serve as a negative prognostic marker in cancer. On the other hand, this cytokine is also involved in T cell activation. This review discusses the pleiotropic effects of IL-6 on immune cell populations that are critical for tumor development, such as MDSC and T cells, and summarizes the data on targeting IL-6 or IL-6 receptor (IL-6R) for tumor immunotherapy to block MDSC-mediated immunosuppression in cancer patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rebekka Weber
- Skin Cancer Unit, German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ), Heidelberg, Germany and Department of Dermatology, Venereology and Allergology, University Medical Center Mannheim, Ruprecht-Karl University of Heidelberg, Mannheim, Germany
| | - Christopher Groth
- Skin Cancer Unit, German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ), Heidelberg, Germany and Department of Dermatology, Venereology and Allergology, University Medical Center Mannheim, Ruprecht-Karl University of Heidelberg, Mannheim, Germany
| | - Samantha Lasser
- Skin Cancer Unit, German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ), Heidelberg, Germany and Department of Dermatology, Venereology and Allergology, University Medical Center Mannheim, Ruprecht-Karl University of Heidelberg, Mannheim, Germany
| | - Ihor Arkhypov
- Skin Cancer Unit, German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ), Heidelberg, Germany and Department of Dermatology, Venereology and Allergology, University Medical Center Mannheim, Ruprecht-Karl University of Heidelberg, Mannheim, Germany
| | - Vera Petrova
- Skin Cancer Unit, German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ), Heidelberg, Germany and Department of Dermatology, Venereology and Allergology, University Medical Center Mannheim, Ruprecht-Karl University of Heidelberg, Mannheim, Germany
| | - Peter Altevogt
- Skin Cancer Unit, German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ), Heidelberg, Germany and Department of Dermatology, Venereology and Allergology, University Medical Center Mannheim, Ruprecht-Karl University of Heidelberg, Mannheim, Germany
| | - Jochen Utikal
- Skin Cancer Unit, German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ), Heidelberg, Germany and Department of Dermatology, Venereology and Allergology, University Medical Center Mannheim, Ruprecht-Karl University of Heidelberg, Mannheim, Germany
| | - Viktor Umansky
- Skin Cancer Unit, German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ), Heidelberg, Germany and Department of Dermatology, Venereology and Allergology, University Medical Center Mannheim, Ruprecht-Karl University of Heidelberg, Mannheim, Germany.
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178
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NOX2-Derived Reactive Oxygen Species in Cancer. OXIDATIVE MEDICINE AND CELLULAR LONGEVITY 2020; 2020:7095902. [PMID: 33312338 PMCID: PMC7721506 DOI: 10.1155/2020/7095902] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/02/2019] [Accepted: 10/21/2019] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
The formation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) by the myeloid cell NADPH oxidase NOX2 is critical for the destruction of engulfed microorganisms. However, recent studies imply that ROS, formed by NOX2+ myeloid cells in the malignant microenvironment, exert multiple actions of relevance to the growth and spread of neoplastic cells. By generating ROS, tumor-infiltrating myeloid cells and NOX2+ leukemic myeloid cells may thus (i) compromise the function and viability of adjacent cytotoxic lymphocytes, including natural killer (NK) cells and T cells, (ii) oxidize DNA to trigger cancer-promoting somatic mutations, and (iii) affect the redox balance in cancer cells to control their proliferation and survival. Here, we discuss the impact of NOX2-derived ROS for tumorigenesis, tumor progression, regulation of antitumor immunity, and metastasis. We propose that NOX2 may be a targetable immune checkpoint in cancer.
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179
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Achmus L, Ruhnau J, Grothe S, von Sarnowski B, Bröker BM, Dressel A, Schulze J, Vogelgesang A. Stroke-Induced Modulation of Myeloid-Derived Suppressor Cells (MDSCs) and IL-10-Producing Regulatory Monocytes. Front Neurol 2020; 11:577971. [PMID: 33329318 PMCID: PMC7732608 DOI: 10.3389/fneur.2020.577971] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2020] [Accepted: 10/12/2020] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Background: Stroke patients are at risk of acquiring secondary infections due to stroke-induced immune suppression (SIIS). Immunosuppressive cells comprise myeloid-derived suppressor cells (MDSCs) and immunosuppressive interleukin 10 (IL-10)-producing monocytes. MDSCs represent a small but heterogeneous population of monocytic, polymorphonuclear (or granulocytic), and early progenitor cells (“early” MDSC), which can expand extensively in pathophysiological conditions. MDSCs have been shown to exert strong immune-suppressive effects. The role of IL-10-producing immunosuppressive monocytes after stroke has not been investigated, but monocytes are impaired in oxidative burst and downregulate human leukocyte antigen—DR isotype (HLA-DR) on the cell surface. Objectives: The objective of this work was to investigate the regulation and function of MDSCs as well as the immunosuppressive IL-10-producing monocytes in experimental and human stroke. Methods: This longitudinal, monocentric, non-interventional prospective explorative study used multicolor flow cytometry to identify MDSC subpopulations and IL-10 expression in monocytes in the peripheral blood of 19 healthy controls and 27 patients on days 1, 3, and 5 post-stroke. Quantification of intracellular STAT3p and Arginase-1 by geometric mean fluorescence intensity was used to assess the functionality of MDSCs. In experimental stroke induced by electrocoagulation in middle-aged mice, monocytic (CD11b+Ly6G−Ly6Chigh) and polymorphonuclear (CD11b+Ly6G+Ly6Clow) MDSCs in the spleen were analyzed by flow cytometry. Results: Compared to the controls, stroke patients showed a relative increase in monocytic MDSCs (percentage of CD11b+ cells) in whole blood without evidence for an altered function. The other MDSC subgroups did not differ from the control. Also, in experimental stroke, monocytic, and in addition, polymorphonuclear MDSCs were increased. The numbers of IL-10-positive monocytes did not differ between the patients and controls. However, we provide a new insight into monocytic function post-stroke since we can report that a differential regulation of HLA-DR and PD-L1 was found depending on the IL-10 production of monocytes. IL-10-positive monocytes are more activated post-stroke, as indicated by their increased HLA-DR expression. Conclusions: MDSC and IL-10+ monocytes can induce immunosuppression within days after stroke.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lennart Achmus
- Department of Neurology, University Medicine Greifswald, Greifswald, Germany
| | - Johanna Ruhnau
- Department of Neurology, University Medicine Greifswald, Greifswald, Germany
| | - Sascha Grothe
- Department of Diagnostic Radiology and Neuroradiology, University Medicine Greifswald, Greifswald, Germany
| | | | - Barbara M Bröker
- Department of Immunology, University Medicine Greifswald, Greifswald, Germany
| | - Alexander Dressel
- Department of Neurology, University Medicine Greifswald, Greifswald, Germany.,Department of Neurology, Carl-Thiem Klinikum, Cottbus, Germany
| | - Juliane Schulze
- Department of Neurology, University Medicine Greifswald, Greifswald, Germany
| | - Antje Vogelgesang
- Department of Neurology, University Medicine Greifswald, Greifswald, Germany
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180
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Grohová A, Dáňová K, Adkins I, Šumník Z, Petruželková L, Obermannová B, Koloušková S, Špíšek R, Palová-Jelínková L. Myeloid - derived suppressor cells in Type 1 diabetes are an expanded population exhibiting diverse T-cell suppressor mechanisms. PLoS One 2020; 15:e0242092. [PMID: 33206686 PMCID: PMC7673497 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0242092] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/14/2020] [Accepted: 10/26/2020] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Myeloid-derived suppressor cells (MDSC) represent a heterogeneous group of immature myeloid cells with immunoregulatory function in cancer and autoimmune diseases. In humans, two subsets of MDSC were determined based on the characteristic surface markers, monocytic MDSC (M-MDSC) and granulocytic MDSC (G-MDSC). Expansion of MDSC has been reported in some murine models and patients with autoimmune diseases and their immune-suppressive properties were characterized. However, the exact role of MDSC in the pathogenesis of autoimmune diseases is more complex and/or controversial. In type 1 diabetes mellitus (T1D), the increased frequency of MDSC was found in the blood of T1D patients but their suppressor capacity was diminished. In our study, we assessed the role of M-MDSC in the pathogenesis of T1D and showed for the first time the increased frequency of M-MDSC not only in the blood of T1D patients but also in their at-risk relatives compared to healthy donors. T1D patients with inadequate long term metabolic control showed an elevation of M-MDSC compared to patients with better disease control. Furthermore, we described the positive correlation between the percentage of M-MDSC and Th17 cells and IFN-γ producing T cells in T1D patients and their at-risk relatives. Finally, we found that the ability of M-MDSC to suppress autologous T cells is efficient only at the high MDSC: T cells ratio and dependent on cell-cell-contact and TGF-β production. Our data show that the engagement of MDSC in the pathogenesis of T1D is evident, yet not entirely explored and more experiments are required to clarify whether MDSC are beneficial or harmful in T1D.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna Grohová
- Department of Immunology, Second Faculty of Medicine, Charles University and Motol University Hospital, Prague, Czech Republic
| | - Klára Dáňová
- Department of Immunology, Second Faculty of Medicine, Charles University and Motol University Hospital, Prague, Czech Republic.,SOTIO a.s., Prague, Czech Republic
| | - Irena Adkins
- Department of Immunology, Second Faculty of Medicine, Charles University and Motol University Hospital, Prague, Czech Republic.,SOTIO a.s., Prague, Czech Republic
| | - Zdeněk Šumník
- Department of Pediatrics, Second Faculty of Medicine, Charles University and Motol University Hospital, Prague, Czech Republic
| | - Lenka Petruželková
- Department of Pediatrics, Second Faculty of Medicine, Charles University and Motol University Hospital, Prague, Czech Republic
| | - Barbora Obermannová
- Department of Pediatrics, Second Faculty of Medicine, Charles University and Motol University Hospital, Prague, Czech Republic
| | - Stanislava Koloušková
- Department of Pediatrics, Second Faculty of Medicine, Charles University and Motol University Hospital, Prague, Czech Republic
| | - Radek Špíšek
- Department of Immunology, Second Faculty of Medicine, Charles University and Motol University Hospital, Prague, Czech Republic.,SOTIO a.s., Prague, Czech Republic
| | - Lenka Palová-Jelínková
- Department of Immunology, Second Faculty of Medicine, Charles University and Motol University Hospital, Prague, Czech Republic.,SOTIO a.s., Prague, Czech Republic
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181
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Wang L, Kuang Z, Zhang D, Gao Y, Ying M, Wang T. Reactive oxygen species in immune cells: A new antitumor target. Biomed Pharmacother 2020; 133:110978. [PMID: 33176269 DOI: 10.1016/j.biopha.2020.110978] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/06/2020] [Revised: 10/29/2020] [Accepted: 11/03/2020] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Immune cells have the potential to control the growth of tumor. However, this effect could be offset by immunosuppression associated with an increased production of reactive oxygen species. Multiple studies indicate that the antitumor effect of immune cells is correlated with their antioxidant capacity. This review discusses the role of reactive oxygen species in the tumor microenvironment by describing their distinct effects on different immune cells, including myeloid-derived suppressor cells, regulatory T cells, tumor-associated macrophages, cytotoxic T lymphocytes, natural killer cells, and dendritic cells. In the end, we conclude with the prospect of treatment for cancer by targeting antioxidant defense in immune cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ling Wang
- Department of Stem Cells and Regenerative Medicine, Center for Translational Medicine, Naval Medical University, Shanghai 200433, PR China
| | - Zheng Kuang
- School of Basic Medical Sciences, Naval Medical University, Shanghai 200433, PR China
| | - Duo Zhang
- The First Clinical Medical College, Guangzhou University of Chinese Medicine, Guangzhou 510006, PR China
| | - Yifan Gao
- Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing 210095, PR China
| | - Mingzhen Ying
- Department of Oncology, Changhai Hospital, Naval Medical University, Shanghai 200433, PR China.
| | - Tengjiao Wang
- Department of Bioinformatics, Center for Translational Medicine, Naval Medical University, Shanghai 200433, PR China.
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182
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Jackson K, Milner RJ, Doty A, Hutchison S, Cortes-Hinojosa G, Riva A, Sahay B, Lejeune A, Bechtel S. Analysis of canine myeloid-derived suppressor cells (MDSCs) utilizing fluorescence-activated cell sorting, RNA protection mediums to yield quality RNA for single-cell RNA sequencing. Vet Immunol Immunopathol 2020; 231:110144. [PMID: 33278779 DOI: 10.1016/j.vetimm.2020.110144] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/06/2020] [Revised: 10/15/2020] [Accepted: 10/27/2020] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Fluorescence-activated cell sorting (FACS) is a branch of flow cytometry that allows for the isolation of specific cell populations that can then be further analyzed by single-cell RNA sequencing (scRNA-seq). When utilizing FACS for population isolation prior to sequencing, it is essential to consider the protection of RNA from RNase activity, environmental conditions, and the sorting efficiency to ensure optimum sample quality. This study aimed to optimize a previously published MDSC flow cytometry strategy to FACS sort canine Myeloid-Derived Suppressor Cells (MDSC) with various permutations of RNAlater ™ and RiboLock™ before and after FACS sorting. Concentrations of RNAlater™ greater than 2 % applied before flow analysis affected cell survival and fluorescence, whereas concentrations ≤ 2 % and time ≤ 4 h had little to no effect on cells. To shorten the procedural time and to enhance the sorting of rare populations, we used a primary PE-conjugated CD11b antibody and magnetic column. The combination of RiboLock™ pre- and post-sorting for FACS provided the best quality RNA as determined by the RNA integrity number (RIN ≥ 7) for scRNA-seq in a normal and dog and a dog with untreated oral melanoma dog. As proof of principle, we sequenced two samples, one from a normal dog another from a dog with untreated oral melanoma. Applying scRNA-Seq analysis using the 10X Genomic platform, we identified 6 clusters in the Seurat paired analysis of MDSC sorted samples. Two clusters, with the majority of the cells coming from the melanoma sample, had genes that were upregulated (> log2); these included MMP9, MMP1, HPGD, CPA3, and GATA3 and CYBB, CSTB, COX2, ATP6, and COX 17 for cluster 5 and 6 respectively. All genes have known associations with MDSCs. Further characterization using pathway analysis tools was not attempted due to the lower number of cells sequenced in the normal sample. The benefit deriving from the results of the study helped to gain data consistency when working with cells prone to RNase activity, and the scRNA-seq provided data showing transcriptional heterogeneity in MDSC populations and potentially identifying previously unreported or rare cell populations.
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Affiliation(s)
- K Jackson
- Department of Small Animal Clinical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Florida, United States
| | - R J Milner
- Department of Small Animal Clinical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Florida, United States.
| | - A Doty
- Flow Cytometry and Imaging Core Lab, Interdisciplinary Center for Biotechnology Research, University of Florida, United States
| | - S Hutchison
- Department of Small Animal Clinical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Florida, United States
| | - G Cortes-Hinojosa
- Department of Small Animal Clinical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Florida, United States
| | - A Riva
- Bioinformatics Core, Interdisciplinary Center for Biotechnology Research, University of Florida, United States
| | - B Sahay
- Department of Infectious Diseases and Immunology, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Florida, United States
| | - A Lejeune
- Department of Small Animal Clinical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Florida, United States
| | - S Bechtel
- Department of Small Animal Clinical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Florida, United States
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183
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Mohamed E, Sierra RA, Trillo-Tinoco J, Cao Y, Innamarato P, Payne KK, de Mingo Pulido A, Mandula J, Zhang S, Thevenot P, Biswas S, Abdalla SK, Costich TL, Hänggi K, Anadon CM, Flores ER, Haura EB, Mehrotra S, Pilon-Thomas S, Ruffell B, Munn DH, Cubillos-Ruiz JR, Conejo-Garcia JR, Rodriguez PC. The Unfolded Protein Response Mediator PERK Governs Myeloid Cell-Driven Immunosuppression in Tumors through Inhibition of STING Signaling. Immunity 2020; 52:668-682.e7. [PMID: 32294407 DOI: 10.1016/j.immuni.2020.03.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 115] [Impact Index Per Article: 28.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/14/2019] [Revised: 01/14/2020] [Accepted: 03/12/2020] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
The primary mechanisms supporting immunoregulatory polarization of myeloid cells upon infiltration into tumors remain largely unexplored. Elucidation of these signals could enable better strategies to restore protective anti-tumor immunity. Here, we investigated the role of the intrinsic activation of the PKR-like endoplasmic reticulum (ER) kinase (PERK) in the immunoinhibitory actions of tumor-associated myeloid-derived suppressor cells (tumor-MDSCs). PERK signaling increased in tumor-MDSCs, and its deletion transformed MDSCs into myeloid cells that activated CD8+ T cell-mediated immunity against cancer. Tumor-MDSCs lacking PERK exhibited disrupted NRF2-driven antioxidant capacity and impaired mitochondrial respiratory homeostasis. Moreover, reduced NRF2 signaling in PERK-deficient MDSCs elicited cytosolic mitochondrial DNA elevation and, consequently, STING-dependent expression of anti-tumor type I interferon. Reactivation of NRF2 signaling, conditional deletion of STING, or blockade of type I interferon receptor I restored the immunoinhibitory potential of PERK-ablated MDSCs. Our findings demonstrate the pivotal role of PERK in tumor-MDSC functionality and unveil strategies to reprogram immunosuppressive myelopoiesis in tumors to boost cancer immunotherapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eslam Mohamed
- Department of Immunology, H. Lee Moffitt Cancer Center & Research Institute, Tampa, FL 33612, USA
| | - Rosa A Sierra
- Department of Immunology, H. Lee Moffitt Cancer Center & Research Institute, Tampa, FL 33612, USA
| | | | - Yu Cao
- Department of Immunology, H. Lee Moffitt Cancer Center & Research Institute, Tampa, FL 33612, USA
| | - Patrick Innamarato
- Department of Immunology, H. Lee Moffitt Cancer Center & Research Institute, Tampa, FL 33612, USA
| | - Kyle K Payne
- Department of Immunology, H. Lee Moffitt Cancer Center & Research Institute, Tampa, FL 33612, USA
| | - Alvaro de Mingo Pulido
- Department of Immunology, H. Lee Moffitt Cancer Center & Research Institute, Tampa, FL 33612, USA
| | - Jessica Mandula
- Department of Immunology, H. Lee Moffitt Cancer Center & Research Institute, Tampa, FL 33612, USA
| | - Shuzhong Zhang
- Center for Microbial Pathogenesis, Nationwide Children's Hospital, Columbus, OH 43205, USA
| | - Paul Thevenot
- Institute of Translational Research, Ochsner Health System, New Orleans, LA 70121, USA
| | - Subir Biswas
- Department of Immunology, H. Lee Moffitt Cancer Center & Research Institute, Tampa, FL 33612, USA
| | - Sarah K Abdalla
- Department of Immunology, H. Lee Moffitt Cancer Center & Research Institute, Tampa, FL 33612, USA
| | - Tara Lee Costich
- Department of Immunology, H. Lee Moffitt Cancer Center & Research Institute, Tampa, FL 33612, USA
| | - Kay Hänggi
- Department of Immunology, H. Lee Moffitt Cancer Center & Research Institute, Tampa, FL 33612, USA
| | - Carmen M Anadon
- Department of Immunology, H. Lee Moffitt Cancer Center & Research Institute, Tampa, FL 33612, USA
| | - Elsa R Flores
- Department of Molecular Oncology, H. Lee Moffitt Cancer Center & Research Institute, Tampa, FL 33612, USA
| | - Eric B Haura
- Department of Molecular Oncology, H. Lee Moffitt Cancer Center & Research Institute, Tampa, FL 33612, USA
| | - Shikhar Mehrotra
- Department of Surgery, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston, SC 29425, USA
| | - Shari Pilon-Thomas
- Department of Immunology, H. Lee Moffitt Cancer Center & Research Institute, Tampa, FL 33612, USA
| | - Brian Ruffell
- Department of Immunology, H. Lee Moffitt Cancer Center & Research Institute, Tampa, FL 33612, USA
| | - David H Munn
- Department of Pediatrics, Georgia Cancer Center, Augusta University, Augusta, GA 30912, USA
| | - Juan R Cubillos-Ruiz
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Weill Cornell Medicine, New York, NY 10065, USA; Sandra and Edward Meyer Cancer Center, Weill Cornell Medicine, New York, NY 10065, USA
| | - Jose R Conejo-Garcia
- Department of Immunology, H. Lee Moffitt Cancer Center & Research Institute, Tampa, FL 33612, USA
| | - Paulo C Rodriguez
- Department of Immunology, H. Lee Moffitt Cancer Center & Research Institute, Tampa, FL 33612, USA.
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184
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Seltzer ES, Watters AK, MacKenzie D, Granat LM, Zhang D. Cannabidiol (CBD) as a Promising Anti-Cancer Drug. Cancers (Basel) 2020; 12:E3203. [PMID: 33143283 PMCID: PMC7693730 DOI: 10.3390/cancers12113203] [Citation(s) in RCA: 108] [Impact Index Per Article: 27.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/12/2020] [Revised: 10/15/2020] [Accepted: 10/27/2020] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Recently, cannabinoids, such as cannabidiol (CBD) and Δ9 -tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), have been the subject of intensive research and heavy scrutiny. Cannabinoids encompass a wide array of organic molecules, including those that are physiologically produced in humans, synthesized in laboratories, and extracted primarily from the Cannabis sativa plant. These organic molecules share similarities in their chemical structures as well as in their protein binding profiles. However, pronounced differences do exist in their mechanisms of action and clinical applications, which will be briefly compared and contrasted in this review. The mechanism of action of CBD and its potential applications in cancer therapy will be the major focus of this review article.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emily S. Seltzer
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, College of Osteopathic Medicine, New York Institute of Technology, Old Westbury, NY 11568, USA; (E.S.S.); (A.K.W.); (D.M.J.)
| | - Andrea K. Watters
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, College of Osteopathic Medicine, New York Institute of Technology, Old Westbury, NY 11568, USA; (E.S.S.); (A.K.W.); (D.M.J.)
| | - Danny MacKenzie
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, College of Osteopathic Medicine, New York Institute of Technology, Old Westbury, NY 11568, USA; (E.S.S.); (A.K.W.); (D.M.J.)
| | - Lauren M. Granat
- Department of Internal Medicine, Cleveland Clinic, Cleveland, OH 44195, USA;
| | - Dong Zhang
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, College of Osteopathic Medicine, New York Institute of Technology, Old Westbury, NY 11568, USA; (E.S.S.); (A.K.W.); (D.M.J.)
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185
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Inhibitory effect of ginsenoside Rg3 on cancer stemness and mesenchymal transition in breast cancer via regulation of myeloid-derived suppressor cells. PLoS One 2020; 15:e0240533. [PMID: 33091036 PMCID: PMC7580975 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0240533] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/07/2020] [Accepted: 09/28/2020] [Indexed: 01/21/2023] Open
Abstract
Ginsenoside Rg3 (Rg3) has been studied in several cancer models and is suggested to act through various pharmacological effects. We investigated the anticancer properties of Rg3 through myeloid-derived suppressor cell (MDSC) modulation in FM3A mouse mammary carcinoma cells. The effects of Rg3 on MDSCs and consequent changes in cancer stem-like cells (CSCs) and epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) were evaluated by diverse methods. MDSCs promoted cancer by enhancing breast cancer stemness and promoting EMT. Rg3 at a dose without obvious cytotoxicity downregulated MDSCs and repressed MDSC-induced cancer stemness and EMT. Mechanistic investigations suggested that these inhibitory effects of Rg3 on MDSCs and corresponding cancer progression depend upon suppression of the STAT3-dependent pathway, tumor-derived cytokines, and the NOTCH signaling pathway. In a mouse model, MDSCs accelerated tumor progression, and Rg3 delayed tumor growth, which is consistent with the results of in vitro experiments. These results indicated that Rg3 could effectively inhibit the progression of breast cancer. The anticancer effect of Rg3 might be partially due to its downregulation of MDSCs and consequent repression of cancer stemness and EMT in breast cancer. Hence, we suggest the regulation of MDSCs through Rg3 treatment as an effective therapeutic strategy for breast cancer patients.
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186
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Lee HJ, Park JS, Yoo HJ, Lee HM, Lee BC, Kim JH. The Selenoprotein MsrB1 Instructs Dendritic Cells to Induce T-Helper 1 Immune Responses. Antioxidants (Basel) 2020; 9:antiox9101021. [PMID: 33092166 PMCID: PMC7589095 DOI: 10.3390/antiox9101021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/11/2020] [Revised: 10/09/2020] [Accepted: 10/17/2020] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Immune activation associates with the intracellular generation of reactive oxygen species(ROS). To elicit effective immune responses, ROS levels must be balanced. Emerging evidenceshows that ROS-mediated signal transduction can be regulated by selenoproteins such asmethionine sulfoxide reductase B1 (MsrB1). However, how the selenoprotein shapes immunityremains poorly understood. Here, we demonstrated that MsrB1 plays a crucial role in the ability ofdendritic cells (DCs) to provide the antigen presentation and costimulation that are needed forcluster of differentiation antigen four (CD4) T-cell priming in mice. We found that MsrB1 regulatedsignal transducer and activator of transcription-6 (STAT6) phosphorylation in DCs. Moreover, bothin vitro and in vivo, MsrB1 potentiated the lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced Interleukin-12 (IL-12)production by DCs and drove T-helper 1 (Th1) differentiation after immunization. We propose thatMsrB1 activates the STAT6 pathway in DCs, thereby inducing the DC maturation and IL-12production that promotes Th1 differentiation. Additionally, we showed that MsrB1 promotedfollicular helper T-cell (Tfh) differentiation when mice were immunized with sheep red blood cells.This study unveils as yet unappreciated roles of the MsrB1 selenoprotein in the innate control ofadaptive immunity. Targeting MsrB1 may have therapeutic potential in terms of controllingimmune reactions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ho-Jae Lee
- Department of Biosystems and Biotechnology, College of Life Sciences and Biotechnology, Korea University, Seoul 02841, Korea;
| | - Joon Seok Park
- Department of Immunology, Blavatnik Institute, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115, USA;
| | - Hyun Jung Yoo
- Department of Biotechnology, College of Life Sciences and Biotechnology, Korea University, Seoul 02841, Korea; (H.J.Y.); (H.M.L.); (B.C.L.)
| | - Hae Min Lee
- Department of Biotechnology, College of Life Sciences and Biotechnology, Korea University, Seoul 02841, Korea; (H.J.Y.); (H.M.L.); (B.C.L.)
| | - Byung Cheon Lee
- Department of Biotechnology, College of Life Sciences and Biotechnology, Korea University, Seoul 02841, Korea; (H.J.Y.); (H.M.L.); (B.C.L.)
| | - Ji Hyung Kim
- Department of Biotechnology, College of Life Sciences and Biotechnology, Korea University, Seoul 02841, Korea; (H.J.Y.); (H.M.L.); (B.C.L.)
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +82-2-3290-3045
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187
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Increased immunosuppression impairs tissue homeostasis with aging and age-related diseases. J Mol Med (Berl) 2020; 99:1-20. [PMID: 33025106 PMCID: PMC7782450 DOI: 10.1007/s00109-020-01988-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/01/2020] [Revised: 09/21/2020] [Accepted: 09/29/2020] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
Abstract
Abstract Chronic low-grade inflammation is a common hallmark of the aging process and many age-related diseases. There is substantial evidence that persistent inflammation is associated with a compensatory anti-inflammatory response which prevents excessive tissue damage. Interestingly, the inflammatory state encountered with aging, called inflammaging, is associated with the anti-inflammaging process. The age-related activation of immunosuppressive network includes an increase in the numbers of myeloid-derived suppressor cells (MDSC), regulatory T cells (Treg), and macrophages (Mreg/M2c). Immunosuppressive cells secrete several anti-inflammatory cytokines, e.g., TGF-β and IL-10, as well as reactive oxygen and nitrogen species (ROS/RNS). Moreover, immunosuppressive cells suppress the function of effector immune cells by catabolizing l-arginine and tryptophan through the activation of arginase 1 (ARG1) and indoleamine 2,3-dioxygenase (IDO), respectively. Unfortunately, the immunosuppressive armament also induces harmful bystander effects in neighboring cells by impairing host tissue homeostasis. For instance, TGF-β signaling can trigger many age-related degenerative changes, e.g., cellular senescence, fibrosis, osteoporosis, muscle atrophy, and the degeneration of the extracellular matrix. In addition, changes in the levels of ROS, RNS, and the metabolites of the kynurenine pathway can impair tissue homeostasis. This review will examine in detail the harmful effects of the immunosuppressive cells on host tissues. It seems that this age-related immunosuppression prevents inflammatory damage but promotes the tissue degeneration associated with aging and age-related diseases. Key messages • Low-grade inflammation is associated with the aging process and age-related diseases. • Persistent inflammation activates compensatory immunosuppression with aging. • The numbers of immunosuppressive cells increase with aging and age-related diseases. • Immunosuppressive mechanisms evoke harmful bystander effects in host tissues. • Immunosuppression promotes tissue degeneration with aging and age-related diseases.
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188
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A Perspective on Therapeutic Pan-Resistance in Metastatic Cancer. Int J Mol Sci 2020; 21:ijms21197304. [PMID: 33022920 PMCID: PMC7582598 DOI: 10.3390/ijms21197304] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/29/2020] [Revised: 09/29/2020] [Accepted: 10/01/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Metastatic spread represents the leading cause of disease-related mortality among cancer patients. Many cancer patients suffer from metastatic relapse years or even decades after radical surgery for the primary tumor. This clinical phenomenon is explained by the early dissemination of cancer cells followed by a long period of dormancy. Although dormancy could be viewed as a window of opportunity for therapeutic interventions, dormant disseminated cancer cells and micrometastases, as well as emergent outgrowing macrometastases, exhibit a generalized, innate resistance to chemotherapy and even immunotherapy. This therapeutic pan-resistance, on top of other adaptive responses to targeted agents such as acquired mutations and lineage plasticity, underpins the current difficulties in eradicating cancer. In the present review, we attempt to provide a framework to understand the underlying biology of this major issue.
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189
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Li L, Yu R, Cai T, Chen Z, Lan M, Zou T, Wang B, Wang Q, Zhao Y, Cai Y. Effects of immune cells and cytokines on inflammation and immunosuppression in the tumor microenvironment. Int Immunopharmacol 2020; 88:106939. [PMID: 33182039 DOI: 10.1016/j.intimp.2020.106939] [Citation(s) in RCA: 139] [Impact Index Per Article: 34.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/15/2020] [Revised: 08/17/2020] [Accepted: 08/23/2020] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Chronic inflammation and immune responses are two core element that characterize the tumor microenvironment. A large number of immune/inflammatory cells (including tumor associated macrophages, neutrophils and myeloid derived suppressor cells) as well as cytokines (such as IL-6, IL-10, TGF-β) are present in the tumor microenvironment, which results in both a chronic inflammatory state and immunosuppression. As a consequence tumor cell migration, invasion, metastasis and anticancer drug sensitivity are modulated. On the one hand, secreted cytokines change the function of cytotoxic T lymphocytes and antigen presenting cells, thereby inhibiting tumor specific immune responses and consequently inducing a special immunosuppressive microenvironment for tumor cells. On the other hand, tumor cells change the differentiation and function of immune/inflammatory cells in the tumor microenvironment especially via the NF-κB and STAT3 signaling pathways. This may promote proliferation of tumor cells. Here we review these double edged effects of immune/inflammatory cells and cytokines on tumor cells, and explored their interactions with inflammation, hypoxia, and immune responses in the tumor microenvironment. The tumor inflammatory or immunosuppressive reactions mediated by the high activity of NF-κB or STAT3 can occur alone or simultaneously, and there is a certain connection between them. Inhibiting the NF-κB or STAT3 signaling pathway is likely to curb the growth of tumor cells, reduce the secretion of pro-inflammatory factors, and enhance the anti-tumor immune response.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lihong Li
- College of Pharmacy, Jinan University, Guangzhou 510632, China
| | - Rui Yu
- Liaoning University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Shenyang 110847, China
| | - Tiange Cai
- College of Life Sciences, Liaoning University, Shenyang 110036, China
| | - Zhen Chen
- Department of Integrative Oncology, Cancer Center, Fudan University, Shanghai 200032, China; Department of Integrative Oncology, Shanghai Medical College, Fudan University, Shanghai 200032, China
| | - Meng Lan
- College of Pharmacy, Jinan University, Guangzhou 510632, China
| | - Tengteng Zou
- College of Pharmacy, Jinan University, Guangzhou 510632, China
| | - Bingyue Wang
- Guangzhou Jiayuan Pharmaceutical Technology Co., Ltd., Guangzhou 510663, China
| | - Qi Wang
- Guangzhou Jiayuan Pharmaceutical Technology Co., Ltd., Guangzhou 510663, China
| | - Yiye Zhao
- Integrated Hospital of Traditonal Chinese Medicine, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou 510315, China.
| | - Yu Cai
- College of Pharmacy, Jinan University, Guangzhou 510632, China; Cancer Research Institute of Jinan University, Guangzhou 510632, China; International Cooperative Laboratory of Traditional Chinese Medicine Modernization and Innovative Drug Development of Chinese Ministry of Education (MOE), School of Pharmacy, Jinan University, Guangzhou 510632, China.
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190
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Nevin JT, Moussa M, Corwin WL, Mandoiu II, Srivastava PK. Sympathetic nervous tone limits the development of myeloid-derived suppressor cells. Sci Immunol 2020; 5:5/51/eaay9368. [PMID: 32917793 DOI: 10.1126/sciimmunol.aay9368] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/30/2019] [Accepted: 07/29/2020] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Sympathetic nerves that innervate lymphoid organs regulate immune development and function by releasing norepinephrine that is sensed by immune cells via their expression of adrenergic receptors. Here, we demonstrate that ablation of sympathetic nervous system (SNS) signaling suppresses tumor immunity, and we dissect the mechanism of such immune suppression. We report that disruption of the SNS in mice removes a critical α-adrenergic signal required for maturation of myeloid cells in normal and tumor-bearing mice. In tumor-bearing mice, disruption of the α-adrenergic signal leads to the accumulation of immature myeloid-derived suppressor cells (MDSCs) that suppress tumor immunity and promote tumor growth. Furthermore, we show that these SNS-responsive MDSCs drive expansion of regulatory T cells via secretion of the alarmin heterodimer S100A8/A9, thereby compounding their immunosuppressive activity. Our results describe a regulatory framework in which sympathetic tone controls the development of innate and adaptive immune cells and influences their activity in health and disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- James T Nevin
- Department of Immunology and Carole and Ray Neag Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of Connecticut School of Medicine, Farmington, CT, USA.
| | - Marmar Moussa
- Department of Computer Science and Engineering, University of Connecticut, Farmington, CT, USA
| | - William L Corwin
- Department of Immunology and Carole and Ray Neag Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of Connecticut School of Medicine, Farmington, CT, USA
| | - Ion I Mandoiu
- Department of Computer Science and Engineering, University of Connecticut, Farmington, CT, USA
| | - Pramod K Srivastava
- Department of Immunology and Carole and Ray Neag Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of Connecticut School of Medicine, Farmington, CT, USA.
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191
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Yan D, Wang J, Sun H, Zamani A, Zhang H, Chen W, Tang A, Ruan Q, Yang X, Chen YH, Wan X. TIPE2 specifies the functional polarization of myeloid-derived suppressor cells during tumorigenesis. J Exp Med 2020; 217:jem.20182005. [PMID: 31662347 PMCID: PMC7041705 DOI: 10.1084/jem.20182005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/24/2018] [Revised: 06/13/2019] [Accepted: 10/01/2019] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Myeloid-derived suppressor cells (MDSCs) are "polarized" myeloid cells that effectively promote tumorigenesis by inhibiting antitumor immunity. How myeloid cells acquire the protumoral properties during tumorigenesis is poorly understood. We report here that the polarity protein TIPE2 (tumor necrosis factor-α-induced protein 8-like 2) mediates the functional polarization of murine and human MDSCs by specifying their pro- and antitumoral properties. Tumor cells induced the expression of TIPE2 in Gr1+CD11b+ cells through reactive oxygen species (ROS). TIPE2 in turn increased the expression of protumoral mediators such as CCAAT/enhancer-binding protein-β while inhibiting the expression of antitumoral mediators. Consequently, tumor growth in TIPE2-deficient mice was significantly diminished, and TIPE2-deficient MDSCs markedly inhibited tumor growth upon adoptive transfer. Pharmaceutical blockade of ROS inhibited TIPE2 expression in MDSCs and reduced tumor growth in mice. These findings indicate that TIPE2 plays a key role in the functional polarization of MDSCs and represents a new therapeutic target for cancer immunotherapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dehong Yan
- Shenzhen Laboratory for Human Antibody Engineering, Center for Protein and Cell-based Drugs, Shenzhen Institutes of Advanced Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shenzhen, China
| | - Jinghui Wang
- Shenzhen Laboratory for Human Antibody Engineering, Center for Protein and Cell-based Drugs, Shenzhen Institutes of Advanced Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shenzhen, China.,College of Life Science and Technology, Jinan University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Honghong Sun
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA
| | - Ali Zamani
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA
| | - Honglin Zhang
- Shenzhen Laboratory for Human Antibody Engineering, Center for Protein and Cell-based Drugs, Shenzhen Institutes of Advanced Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shenzhen, China
| | - Weihong Chen
- Department of Hematology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Shenzhen University, Shenzhen Second People's Hospital, Shenzhen, China
| | - Aifa Tang
- Department of Hematology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Shenzhen University, Shenzhen Second People's Hospital, Shenzhen, China
| | - Qingguo Ruan
- Shenzhen Laboratory for Human Antibody Engineering, Center for Protein and Cell-based Drugs, Shenzhen Institutes of Advanced Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shenzhen, China
| | - Xiaolu Yang
- Abramson Family Cancer Research Institute, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA
| | - Youhai H Chen
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA
| | - Xiaochun Wan
- Shenzhen Laboratory for Human Antibody Engineering, Center for Protein and Cell-based Drugs, Shenzhen Institutes of Advanced Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shenzhen, China
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192
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Furumaya C, Martinez-Sanz P, Bouti P, Kuijpers TW, Matlung HL. Plasticity in Pro- and Anti-tumor Activity of Neutrophils: Shifting the Balance. Front Immunol 2020; 11:2100. [PMID: 32983165 PMCID: PMC7492657 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2020.02100] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/27/2020] [Accepted: 08/03/2020] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Over the last decades, cancer immunotherapies such as checkpoint blockade and adoptive T cell transfer have been a game changer in many aspects and have improved the treatment for various malignancies considerably. Despite the clinical success of harnessing the adaptive immunity to combat the tumor, the benefits of immunotherapy are still limited to a subset of patients and cancer types. In recent years, neutrophils, the most abundant circulating leukocytes, have emerged as promising targets for anti-cancer therapies. Traditionally regarded as the first line of defense against infections, neutrophils are increasingly recognized as critical players during cancer progression. Evidence shows the functional plasticity of neutrophils in the tumor microenvironment, allowing neutrophils to exert either pro-tumor or anti-tumor effects. This review describes the tumor-promoting roles of neutrophils, focusing on their myeloid-derived suppressor cell activity, as well as their role in tumor elimination, exerted mainly via antibody-dependent cellular cytotoxicity. We will discuss potential approaches to therapeutically target neutrophils in cancer. These include strategies in humans to either silence the pro-tumor activity of neutrophils, or to activate or enhance their anti-tumor functions. Redirecting neutrophils seems a promising approach to harness innate immunity to improve treatment for cancer patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Charita Furumaya
- Department of Blood Cell Research, Sanquin Research, Amsterdam University Medical Center, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, Netherlands
| | - Paula Martinez-Sanz
- Department of Blood Cell Research, Sanquin Research, Amsterdam University Medical Center, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, Netherlands
| | - Panagiota Bouti
- Department of Blood Cell Research, Sanquin Research, Amsterdam University Medical Center, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, Netherlands
| | - Taco W Kuijpers
- Department of Blood Cell Research, Sanquin Research, Amsterdam University Medical Center, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, Netherlands.,Department of Pediatric Immunology, Rheumatology and Infectious Diseases, Emma Children's Hospital, Amsterdam University Medical Center, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, Netherlands
| | - Hanke L Matlung
- Department of Blood Cell Research, Sanquin Research, Amsterdam University Medical Center, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, Netherlands
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193
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Madreiter-Sokolowski CT, Thomas C, Ristow M. Interrelation between ROS and Ca 2+ in aging and age-related diseases. Redox Biol 2020; 36:101678. [PMID: 32810740 PMCID: PMC7451758 DOI: 10.1016/j.redox.2020.101678] [Citation(s) in RCA: 157] [Impact Index Per Article: 39.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/25/2020] [Revised: 07/26/2020] [Accepted: 08/05/2020] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Calcium (Ca2+) and reactive oxygen species (ROS) are versatile signaling molecules coordinating physiological and pathophysiological processes. While channels and pumps shuttle Ca2+ ions between extracellular space, cytosol and cellular compartments, short-lived and highly reactive ROS are constantly generated by various production sites within the cell. Ca2+ controls membrane potential, modulates mitochondrial adenosine triphosphate (ATP) production and affects proteins like calcineurin (CaN) or calmodulin (CaM), which, in turn, have a wide area of action. Overwhelming Ca2+ levels within mitochondria efficiently induce and trigger cell death. In contrast, ROS comprise a diverse group of relatively unstable molecules with an odd number of electrons that abstract electrons from other molecules to gain stability. Depending on the type and produced amount, ROS act either as signaling molecules by affecting target proteins or as harmful oxidative stressors by damaging cellular components. Due to their wide range of actions, it is little wonder that Ca2+ and ROS signaling pathways overlap and impact one another. Growing evidence suggests a crucial implication of this mutual interplay on the development and enhancement of age-related disorders, including cardiovascular and neurodegenerative diseases as well as cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Corina T Madreiter-Sokolowski
- Energy Metabolism Laboratory, Institute of Translational Medicine, Department of Health Sciences and Technology, Swiss Federal Institute of Technology (ETH), Zurich, Switzerland; Holder of an Erwin Schroedinger Abroad Fellowship, Austrian Science Fund (FWF), Austria.
| | - Carolin Thomas
- Energy Metabolism Laboratory, Institute of Translational Medicine, Department of Health Sciences and Technology, Swiss Federal Institute of Technology (ETH), Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Michael Ristow
- Energy Metabolism Laboratory, Institute of Translational Medicine, Department of Health Sciences and Technology, Swiss Federal Institute of Technology (ETH), Zurich, Switzerland
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194
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Abstract
Significance: The primary function of NADPH oxidases (NOX1-5 and dual oxidases DUOX1/2) is to produce reactive oxygen species (ROS). If inadequately regulated, NOX-associated ROS can promote oxidative stress, aberrant signaling, and genomic instability. Correspondingly, NOX isoforms are known to be overexpressed in multiple malignancies, thus constituting potential therapeutic targets in cancer. Recent Advances: Multiple genetic studies aimed at suppressing the expression of NOX proteins in cellular and animal models of cancer have provided support for the notion that NOXs play a pro-tumorigenic role. Further, large drug screens and rational design efforts have yielded inhibitor compounds, such as the diphenylene iodonium (DPI) analog series developed by our group, with increased selectivity and potency over "first generation" NOX inhibitors such as apocynin and DPI. Critical Issues: The precise role of NOX enzymes in tumor biology remains poorly defined. The tumorigenic properties of NOXs vary with cancer type, and precise tools, such as selective inhibitors, are needed to deconvolute NOX contribution to cancer development. Most NOX inhibitors developed to date are unspecific, and/or their mechanistic and pharmacological characteristics are not well defined. A lack of high-resolution crystal structures for NOX functional domains has hindered the development of potent and selective inhibitors. Future Directions: In-depth studies of NOX interactions with the tumor microenvironment (e.g., cytokines, cell-surface antigens) will help identify new approaches for NOX inhibition in cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mariam M Konaté
- Division of Cancer Treatment and Diagnosis, National Cancer Institute, NIH, Bethesda, Maryland, USA
| | - Smitha Antony
- Division of Cancer Treatment and Diagnosis, National Cancer Institute, NIH, Bethesda, Maryland, USA
| | - James H Doroshow
- Division of Cancer Treatment and Diagnosis, National Cancer Institute, NIH, Bethesda, Maryland, USA.,Developmental Therapeutics Branch, Center for Cancer Research, National Cancer Institute, NIH, Bethesda, Maryland, USA
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195
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Hepatocellular carcinoma-derived high mobility group box 1 triggers M2 macrophage polarization via a TLR2/NOX2/autophagy axis. Sci Rep 2020; 10:13582. [PMID: 32788720 PMCID: PMC7423894 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-020-70137-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/22/2019] [Accepted: 07/24/2020] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
In many human cancers, including hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC), high density of infiltrating tumor-associated macrophages (TAM) is associated with poor prognosis. Most TAMs express a M2 phenotype subsequently supporting tumor growth. How tumor cells polarize these TAMs to a pro-tumor M2 phenotype is still poorly understood. Our previous studies have revealed that a Toll-like receptor 2 (TLR2)-dependent autophagy triggered by hepatoma-derived factors down-regulates NF-κB p65 and drives M2 macrophage differentiation. However, the underlying mechanisms and potential hepatoma-derived TLR2 ligands are not clear. Here, we provide evidence to reveal that NADPH oxidase 2 (NOX2)-dependent reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation is crucial for HCC-induced autophagy, NF-κB p65 down-regulation and M2 phenotype polarization in primary macrophages. This NOX2-generated ROS production in abolished in TLR2-deficient macrophages. HCC-derived or recombinant high-mobility group box 1 (HMGB1) is able to trigger this TLR2-mediated M2 macrophage polarization. Blockage of HMGB1 and ROS by inhibitors, ethyl pyruvate and N-acetylcysteine amide, respectively, significantly reduces both M2 macrophage accumulation and liver nodule formation in HCC-bearing mice. Our findings uncover a HMGB1/TLR2/NOX2/autophagy axis to trigger M2 macrophage polarization in HCC that can be considered as a novel therapeutic target for treating HCC.
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196
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Weber R, Riester Z, Hüser L, Sticht C, Siebenmorgen A, Groth C, Hu X, Altevogt P, Utikal JS, Umansky V. IL-6 regulates CCR5 expression and immunosuppressive capacity of MDSC in murine melanoma. J Immunother Cancer 2020; 8:jitc-2020-000949. [PMID: 32788238 PMCID: PMC7422659 DOI: 10.1136/jitc-2020-000949] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 07/02/2020] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Myeloid-derived suppressor cells (MDSC) play a major role in the immunosuppressive melanoma microenvironment. They are generated under chronic inflammatory conditions characterized by the constant production of inflammatory cytokines, chemokines and growth factors, including IL-6. Recruitment of MDSC to the tumor is mediated by the interaction between chemokines and chemokine receptors, in particular C–C chemokine receptor (CCR)5. Here, we studied the mechanisms of CCR5 upregulation and increased immunosuppressive function of CCR5+ MDSC. Methods The immortalized myeloid suppressor cell line MSC-2, primary immature myeloid cells and in vitro differentiated MDSC were used to determine factors and molecular mechanisms regulating CCR5 expression and immunosuppressive markers at the mRNA and protein levels. The relevance of the identified pathways was validated on the RET transgenic mouse melanoma model, which was also used to target the identified pathways in vivo. Results IL-6 upregulated the expression of CCR5 and arginase 1 in MDSC by a STAT3-dependent mechanism. MDSC differentiated in the presence of IL-6 strongly inhibited CD8+ T cell functions compared with MDSC differentiated without IL-6. A correlation between IL-6 levels, phosphorylated STAT3 and CCR5 expression in tumor-infiltrating MDSC was demonstrated in the RET transgenic melanoma mouse model. Surprisingly, IL-6 overexpressing tumors grew significantly slower in mice accompanied by CD8+ T cell activation. Moreover, transgenic melanoma-bearing mice treated with IL-6 blocking antibodies showed significantly accelerated tumor development. Conclusion Our in vitro and ex vivo findings demonstrated that IL-6 induced CCR5 expression and a strong immunosuppressive activity of MDSC, highlighting this cytokine as a promising target for melanoma immunotherapy. However, IL-6 blocking therapy did not prove to be effective in RET transgenic melanoma-bearing mice but rather aggravated tumor progression. Further studies are needed to identify particular combination therapies, cancer entities or patient subsets to benefit from the anti-IL-6 treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rebekka Weber
- Skin Cancer Unit, German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ), Heidelberg and Department of Dermatology, Venereology and Allergology, University Medical Center, Mannheim, Baden-Württemberg, Germany.,Faculty of Biosciences, University of Heidelberg, Heidelberg, Baden-Württemberg, Germany
| | - Zeno Riester
- Skin Cancer Unit, German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ), Heidelberg and Department of Dermatology, Venereology and Allergology, University Medical Center, Mannheim, Baden-Württemberg, Germany
| | - Laura Hüser
- Skin Cancer Unit, German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ), Heidelberg and Department of Dermatology, Venereology and Allergology, University Medical Center, Mannheim, Baden-Württemberg, Germany.,Faculty of Biosciences, University of Heidelberg, Heidelberg, Baden-Württemberg, Germany
| | - Carsten Sticht
- Medical Research Center (ZMF), Medical Faculty Mannheim, University of Heidelberg, Heidelberg, Baden-Württemberg, Germany
| | - Alina Siebenmorgen
- Skin Cancer Unit, German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ), Heidelberg and Department of Dermatology, Venereology and Allergology, University Medical Center, Mannheim, Baden-Württemberg, Germany.,Faculty of Biosciences, University of Heidelberg, Heidelberg, Baden-Württemberg, Germany
| | - Christopher Groth
- Skin Cancer Unit, German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ), Heidelberg and Department of Dermatology, Venereology and Allergology, University Medical Center, Mannheim, Baden-Württemberg, Germany.,Faculty of Biosciences, University of Heidelberg, Heidelberg, Baden-Württemberg, Germany
| | - Xiaoying Hu
- Skin Cancer Unit, German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ), Heidelberg and Department of Dermatology, Venereology and Allergology, University Medical Center, Mannheim, Baden-Württemberg, Germany
| | - Peter Altevogt
- Skin Cancer Unit, German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ), Heidelberg and Department of Dermatology, Venereology and Allergology, University Medical Center, Mannheim, Baden-Württemberg, Germany
| | - Jochen S Utikal
- Skin Cancer Unit, German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ), Heidelberg and Department of Dermatology, Venereology and Allergology, University Medical Center, Mannheim, Baden-Württemberg, Germany
| | - Viktor Umansky
- Skin Cancer Unit, German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ), Heidelberg and Department of Dermatology, Venereology and Allergology, University Medical Center, Mannheim, Baden-Württemberg, Germany
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197
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Díaz-Montero CM, Rini BI, Finke JH. The immunology of renal cell carcinoma. Nat Rev Nephrol 2020; 16:721-735. [PMID: 32733094 DOI: 10.1038/s41581-020-0316-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 210] [Impact Index Per Article: 52.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 06/22/2020] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Renal cell carcinoma (RCC) is the most common type of kidney cancer and comprises several subtypes with unique characteristics. The most common subtype (~70% of cases) is clear-cell RCC. RCC is considered to be an immunogenic tumour but is known to mediate immune dysfunction in large part by eliciting the infiltration of immune-inhibitory cells, such as regulatory T cells and myeloid-derived suppressor cells, into the tumour microenvironment. Several possible mechanisms have been proposed to explain how these multiple tumour-infiltrating cell types block the development of an effective anti-tumour immune response, including inhibition of the activity of effector T cells and of antigen presenting cells via upregulation of suppressive factors such as checkpoint molecules. Targeting immune suppression using checkpoint inhibition has resulted in clinical responses in some patients with RCC and combinatorial approaches involving checkpoint blockade are now standard of care in patients with advanced RCC. However, a substantial proportion of patients do not benefit from checkpoint blockade. The identification of reliable biomarkers of response to checkpoint blockade is crucial to facilitate improvements in the clinical efficacy of these therapies. In addition, there is a need for the development of other immune-based strategies that address the shortcomings of checkpoint blockade, such as adoptive cell therapies.
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Affiliation(s)
- C Marcela Díaz-Montero
- Department of Inflammation and Immunity, Lerner Research Institute, Cleveland Clinic, Cleveland, OH, USA.
| | - Brian I Rini
- Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, TN, USA
| | - James H Finke
- Department of Inflammation and Immunity, Lerner Research Institute, Cleveland Clinic, Cleveland, OH, USA.
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198
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Jo Y, Ali LA, Shim JA, Lee BH, Hong C. Innovative CAR-T Cell Therapy for Solid Tumor; Current Duel between CAR-T Spear and Tumor Shield. Cancers (Basel) 2020; 12:cancers12082087. [PMID: 32731404 PMCID: PMC7464778 DOI: 10.3390/cancers12082087] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/09/2020] [Revised: 07/21/2020] [Accepted: 07/23/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Novel engineered T cells containing chimeric antigen receptors (CAR-T cells) that combine the benefits of antigen recognition and T cell response have been developed, and their effect in the anti-tumor immunotherapy of patients with relapsed/refractory leukemia has been dramatic. Thus, CAR-T cell immunotherapy is rapidly emerging as a new therapy. However, it has limitations that prevent consistency in therapeutic effects in solid tumors, which accounts for over 90% of all cancer patients. Here, we review the literature regarding various obstacles to CAR-T cell immunotherapy for solid tumors, including those that cause CAR-T cell dysfunction in the immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment, such as reactive oxygen species, pH, O2, immunosuppressive cells, cytokines, and metabolites, as well as those that impair cell trafficking into the tumor microenvironment. Next-generation CAR-T cell therapy is currently undergoing clinical trials to overcome these challenges. Therefore, novel approaches to address the challenges faced by CAR-T cell immunotherapy in solid tumors are also discussed here.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuna Jo
- Department of Anatomy, Pusan National University School of Medicine, Yangsan 50612, Korea; (Y.J.); (L.A.A.); (J.A.S.)
| | - Laraib Amir Ali
- Department of Anatomy, Pusan National University School of Medicine, Yangsan 50612, Korea; (Y.J.); (L.A.A.); (J.A.S.)
| | - Ju A Shim
- Department of Anatomy, Pusan National University School of Medicine, Yangsan 50612, Korea; (Y.J.); (L.A.A.); (J.A.S.)
| | - Byung Ha Lee
- NeoImmuneTech, Inc., 2400 Research Blvd., Suite 250, Rockville, MD 20850, USA;
| | - Changwan Hong
- Department of Anatomy, Pusan National University School of Medicine, Yangsan 50612, Korea; (Y.J.); (L.A.A.); (J.A.S.)
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +82-51-510-8041
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199
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Domka K, Goral A, Firczuk M. cROSsing the Line: Between Beneficial and Harmful Effects of Reactive Oxygen Species in B-Cell Malignancies. Front Immunol 2020; 11:1538. [PMID: 32793211 PMCID: PMC7385186 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2020.01538] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/02/2020] [Accepted: 06/11/2020] [Indexed: 01/06/2023] Open
Abstract
B-cell malignancies are a heterogeneous group of hematological neoplasms derived from cells at different stages of B-cell development. Recent studies revealed that dysregulated redox metabolism is one of the factors contributing to the pathogenesis and progression of B-cell malignancies. Elevated levels of oxidative stress markers usually correlate with the advanced stage of various B-cell malignancies. In the complex tumor microenvironment, reactive oxygen species affect not only malignant cells but also bystander cells, including immune cells. Importantly, malignant cells, due to genetic dysregulation, are able to adapt to the increased demands for energy and reducing equivalents via metabolic reprogramming and upregulation of antioxidants. The immune cells, however, are more sensitive to oxidative imbalance. This may cause their dysfunction, leading to immune evasion and tumor progression. On the other hand, the already imbalanced redox homeostasis renders malignant B-cells particularly sensitive to further elevation of reactive oxygen species. Indeed, targeting antioxidant systems has already presented anti-leukemic efficacy in preclinical models. Moreover, the prooxidant treatment that triggers immunogenic cell death has been utilized to generate autologous anti-leukemic vaccines. In this article, we review novel research on the dual role of the reactive oxygen species in B-cell malignancies. We highlight the mechanisms of maintaining redox homeostasis by malignant B-cells along with the antioxidant shield provided by the microenvironment. We summarize current findings regarding therapeutic targeting of redox metabolism in B-cell malignancies. We also discuss how the oxidative stress affects antitumor immune response and how excessive reactive oxygens species influence anticancer prooxidant treatments and immunotherapies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Krzysztof Domka
- Department of Immunology, Medical University of Warsaw, Warsaw, Poland
| | - Agnieszka Goral
- Department of Immunology, Medical University of Warsaw, Warsaw, Poland
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200
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Lebegge E, Arnouk SM, Bardet PMR, Kiss M, Raes G, Van Ginderachter JA. Innate Immune Defense Mechanisms by Myeloid Cells That Hamper Cancer Immunotherapy. Front Immunol 2020; 11:1395. [PMID: 32733461 PMCID: PMC7363805 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2020.01395] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/06/2020] [Accepted: 06/01/2020] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Over the past decade, cancer immunotherapy has been steering immune responses toward cancer cell eradication. However, these immunotherapeutic approaches are hampered by the tumor-promoting nature of myeloid cells, including monocytes, macrophages, and neutrophils. Despite the arsenal of defense strategies against foreign invaders, myeloid cells succumb to the instructions of an established tumor. Interestingly, the most primordial defense responses employed by myeloid cells against pathogens, such as complement activation, antibody-dependent cell cytotoxicity and phagocytosis, actually seem to favor cancer progression. In this review, we discuss how rudimentary defense mechanisms deployed by myeloid cells can promote tumor progression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Els Lebegge
- Laboratory of Cellular and Molecular Immunology, Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Brussels, Belgium.,Myeloid Cell Immunology Laboratory, VIB Center for Inflammation Research, Brussels, Belgium
| | - Sana M Arnouk
- Laboratory of Cellular and Molecular Immunology, Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Brussels, Belgium.,Myeloid Cell Immunology Laboratory, VIB Center for Inflammation Research, Brussels, Belgium
| | - Pauline M R Bardet
- Laboratory of Cellular and Molecular Immunology, Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Brussels, Belgium.,Myeloid Cell Immunology Laboratory, VIB Center for Inflammation Research, Brussels, Belgium
| | - Máté Kiss
- Laboratory of Cellular and Molecular Immunology, Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Brussels, Belgium.,Myeloid Cell Immunology Laboratory, VIB Center for Inflammation Research, Brussels, Belgium
| | - Geert Raes
- Laboratory of Cellular and Molecular Immunology, Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Brussels, Belgium.,Myeloid Cell Immunology Laboratory, VIB Center for Inflammation Research, Brussels, Belgium
| | - Jo A Van Ginderachter
- Laboratory of Cellular and Molecular Immunology, Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Brussels, Belgium.,Myeloid Cell Immunology Laboratory, VIB Center for Inflammation Research, Brussels, Belgium
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