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Liu X, Zhao T, Wang L, Li M, Sun C, Shu Y. Strategies targeting hemagglutinin cocktail as a potential universal influenza vaccine. Front Microbiol 2022; 13:1014122. [PMID: 36246271 PMCID: PMC9558277 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2022.1014122] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/08/2022] [Accepted: 09/13/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Vaccination is the most effective means of protecting people from influenza virus infection. The effectiveness of existing vaccines is very limited due to antigenic drift of the influenza virus. Therefore, there is a requirement to develop a universal vaccine that provides broad and long-lasting protection against influenza. CD8+ T-cell response played a vital role in controlling influenza virus infection, reducing viral load, and less clinical syndrome. In this study, we optimized the HA sequences of human seasonal influenza viruses (H1N1, H3N2, Victoria, and Yamagata) by designing multivalent vaccine antigen sets using a mosaic vaccine design strategy and genetic algorithms, and designed an HA mosaic cocktail containing the most potential CTL epitopes of seasonal influenza viruses. We then tested the recombinant mosaic antigen, which has a significant number of potential T-cell epitopes. Results from genetic evolutionary analyses and 3D structural simulations demonstrated its potential to be an effective immunogen. In addition, we have modified an existing neutralizing antibody-based seasonal influenza virus vaccine to include a component that activates cross-protective T cells, which would provide an attractive strategy for improving human protection against seasonal influenza virus drift and mutation and provide an idea for the development of a rationally designed influenza vaccine targeting T lymphocyte immunity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xuejie Liu
- School of Public Health (Shenzhen), Sun Yat-sen University, Shenzhen, China
| | - Tianyi Zhao
- School of Public Health (Shenzhen), Sun Yat-sen University, Shenzhen, China
| | - Liangliang Wang
- School of Public Health (Shenzhen), Sun Yat-sen University, Shenzhen, China
| | - Minchao Li
- School of Public Health (Shenzhen), Sun Yat-sen University, Shenzhen, China
| | - Caijun Sun
- School of Public Health (Shenzhen), Sun Yat-sen University, Shenzhen, China
| | - Yuelong Shu
- School of Public Health (Shenzhen), Sun Yat-sen University, Shenzhen, China
- Institute of Pathogen Biology, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College, Beijing, China
- *Correspondence: Yuelong Shu,
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2
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Prow NA, Liu L, Nakayama E, Cooper TH, Yan K, Eldi P, Hazlewood JE, Tang B, Le TT, Setoh YX, Khromykh AA, Hobson-Peters J, Diener KR, Howley PM, Hayball JD, Suhrbier A. A vaccinia-based single vector construct multi-pathogen vaccine protects against both Zika and chikungunya viruses. Nat Commun 2018; 9:1230. [PMID: 29581442 PMCID: PMC5964325 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-018-03662-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/04/2017] [Accepted: 03/01/2018] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
Abstract
Zika and chikungunya viruses have caused major epidemics and are transmitted by Aedes aegypti and/or Aedes albopictus mosquitoes. The “Sementis Copenhagen Vector” (SCV) system is a recently developed vaccinia-based, multiplication-defective, vaccine vector technology that allows manufacture in modified CHO cells. Herein we describe a single-vector construct SCV vaccine that encodes the structural polyprotein cassettes of both Zika and chikungunya viruses from different loci. A single vaccination of mice induces neutralizing antibodies to both viruses in wild-type and IFNAR−/− mice and protects against (i) chikungunya virus viremia and arthritis in wild-type mice, (ii) Zika virus viremia and fetal/placental infection in female IFNAR−/− mice, and (iii) Zika virus viremia and testes infection and pathology in male IFNAR−/− mice. To our knowledge this represents the first single-vector construct, multi-pathogen vaccine encoding large polyproteins, and offers both simplified manufacturing and formulation, and reduced “shot burden” for these often co-circulating arboviruses. Zika and chikungunya virus are co-circulating in many regions and currently there is no approved vaccine for either virus. Here, the authors engineer one vaccinia virus based vaccine for both, Zika and chikungunya, and show protection from infection and pathogenesis in mice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Natalie A Prow
- QIMR Berghofer Medical Research Institute, Brisbane, QLD, 4029, Australia.,Australian Infectious Disease Research Centre, Brisbane, QLD, 4029 and 4072, Australia
| | - Liang Liu
- Experimental Therapeutics Laboratory, Sansom Institute for Health Research, School of Pharmacy and Medical Sciences, University of South Australia, Adelaide, SA, 5000, Australia
| | - Eri Nakayama
- QIMR Berghofer Medical Research Institute, Brisbane, QLD, 4029, Australia.,Department of Virology I, National Institute of Infectious Diseases, Tokyo, 162-8640, Japan
| | - Tamara H Cooper
- Experimental Therapeutics Laboratory, Sansom Institute for Health Research, School of Pharmacy and Medical Sciences, University of South Australia, Adelaide, SA, 5000, Australia
| | - Kexin Yan
- QIMR Berghofer Medical Research Institute, Brisbane, QLD, 4029, Australia
| | - Preethi Eldi
- Experimental Therapeutics Laboratory, Sansom Institute for Health Research, School of Pharmacy and Medical Sciences, University of South Australia, Adelaide, SA, 5000, Australia
| | | | - Bing Tang
- QIMR Berghofer Medical Research Institute, Brisbane, QLD, 4029, Australia
| | - Thuy T Le
- QIMR Berghofer Medical Research Institute, Brisbane, QLD, 4029, Australia
| | - Yin Xiang Setoh
- School of Chemistry and Molecular Biosciences, University of Queensland, St Lucia, QLD, 4072, Australia
| | - Alexander A Khromykh
- Australian Infectious Disease Research Centre, Brisbane, QLD, 4029 and 4072, Australia.,School of Chemistry and Molecular Biosciences, University of Queensland, St Lucia, QLD, 4072, Australia
| | - Jody Hobson-Peters
- School of Chemistry and Molecular Biosciences, University of Queensland, St Lucia, QLD, 4072, Australia
| | - Kerrilyn R Diener
- Experimental Therapeutics Laboratory, Sansom Institute for Health Research, School of Pharmacy and Medical Sciences, University of South Australia, Adelaide, SA, 5000, Australia.,Robinson Research Institute and Adelaide Medical School, University of Adelaide, Adelaide, SA, 5005, Australia
| | | | - John D Hayball
- Experimental Therapeutics Laboratory, Sansom Institute for Health Research, School of Pharmacy and Medical Sciences, University of South Australia, Adelaide, SA, 5000, Australia. .,Robinson Research Institute and Adelaide Medical School, University of Adelaide, Adelaide, SA, 5005, Australia.
| | - Andreas Suhrbier
- QIMR Berghofer Medical Research Institute, Brisbane, QLD, 4029, Australia. .,Australian Infectious Disease Research Centre, Brisbane, QLD, 4029 and 4072, Australia.
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3
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Umeshappa CS, Nanjundappa RH, Xie Y, Freywald A, Xu Q, Xiang J. Differential requirements of CD4(+) T-cell signals for effector cytotoxic T-lymphocyte (CTL) priming and functional memory CTL development at higher CD8(+) T-cell precursor frequency. Immunology 2013; 138:298-306. [PMID: 23113741 DOI: 10.1111/imm.12033] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/21/2012] [Revised: 10/18/2012] [Accepted: 10/22/2012] [Indexed: 02/02/2023] Open
Abstract
Increased CD8(+) T-cell precursor frequency (PF) precludes the requirement of CD4(+) helper T (Th) cells for primary CD8(+) cytotoxic T-lymphocyte (CTL) responses. However, the key questions of whether unhelped CTLs generated at higher PF are functional effectors, and whether unhelped CTLs can differentiate into functional memory cells at higher PF are unclear. In this study, ovalbumin (OVA) -pulsed dendritic cells (DC(OVA)) derived from C57BL/6, CD40 knockout (CD40(-/-)) or CD40 ligand knockout (CD40L(-/-)) mice were used to immunize C57BL/6, Ia(b-/-), CD40(-/-) or CD40L(-/-) mice, whose PF was previously increased with transfer of 1 × 10(6) CD8(+) T cells derived from OVA-specific T-cell receptor (TCR) transgenic OTI, OTI(CD40(-/-)) or OTI(CD40L(-/-)) mice. All the immunized mice were then assessed for effector and memory CTL responses. Following DC immunization, relatively comparable CTL priming occurred without CD4(+) T-cell help and Th-provided CD40/CD40L signalling. In addition, the unhelped CTLs were functional effectors capable of inducing therapeutic immunity against established OVA-expressing tumours. In contrast, the functional memory development of CTLs was severely impaired in the absence of CD4(+) T-cell help and CD40/CD40L signalling. Finally, unhelped memory CTLs failed to protect mice against lethal tumour challenge. Taken together, these results demonstrate that CD4(+) T-cell help at higher PF, is not required for effector CTL priming, but is required for functional memory CTL development against cancer. Our data may impact the development of novel preventive and therapeutic approaches in cancer patients with compromised CD4(+) T-cell functions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Channakeshava S Umeshappa
- Cancer Research Unit, Department of Oncology, Saskatchewan Cancer Agency, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, SK, Canada
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4
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Prospects for an influenza vaccine that induces cross-protective cytotoxic T lymphocytes. Immunol Cell Biol 2009; 87:300-8. [PMID: 19308073 DOI: 10.1038/icb.2009.16] [Citation(s) in RCA: 85] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/17/2023]
Abstract
Our approach to vaccination against influenza is unique. For no other pathogen do we construct and produce a new vaccine every year in the face of uncertainty about the strains that will be circulating when it is used. The huge global cooperative effort that underpins this process reflects our awareness of the need to control this major pathogen. Moreover, the threat of devastation by a pandemic due to a newly emerging viral subtype has triggered an intense effort to improve and accelerate the production of vaccines for use if a pandemic arises. However, type A influenza viruses responsible for seasonal epidemics and those with the potential to cause a pandemic share amino acid sequences that form the targets of cytotoxic T lymphocytes (CTL). CTL activated by currently circulating viruses, therefore, offer a possible means to limit the impact of infection with future variant seasonal strains and even new subtypes. This review examines how cross-protective CTL can be exploited to improve influenza vaccination and issues that need to be considered when attempting to induce this type of immunity. We discuss the role of CTL responses in viral control and review the current knowledge relating to specificity and longevity of memory CD8(+) T cells, how vaccine antigen can be loaded into antigen-presenting cells to prime these responses and factors influencing the class of response induced. Application of these principles to the next generation of influenza vaccines should lead to much greater control of infection.
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5
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Phase I trial of a CD8+ T-cell peptide epitope-based vaccine for infectious mononucleosis. J Virol 2007; 82:1448-57. [PMID: 18032491 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.01409-07] [Citation(s) in RCA: 108] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
A single blind, randomized, placebo-controlled, single-center phase I clinical trial of a CD8(+) T-cell peptide epitope vaccine against infectious mononucleosis was conducted with 14 HLA B*0801-positive, Epstein-Barr virus (EBV)-seronegative adults. The vaccine comprised the HLA B*0801-restricted peptide epitope FLRGRAYGL and tetanus toxoid formulated in a water-in-oil adjuvant, Montanide ISA 720. FLRGRAYGL-specific responses were detected in 8/9 peptide-vaccine recipients and 0/4 placebo vaccine recipients by gamma interferon enzyme-linked immunospot assay and/or limiting-dilution analysis. The same T-cell receptor Vbeta CDR3 sequence that is found in FLRGRAYGL-specific T cells from most EBV-seropositive individuals could also be detected in the peripheral blood of vaccine recipients. The vaccine was well tolerated, with the main side effect being mild to moderate injection site reactions. After a 2- to 12-year follow-up, 1/2 placebo vaccinees who acquired EBV developed infectious mononucleosis, whereas 4/4 vaccinees who acquired EBV after completing peptide vaccination seroconverted asymptomatically. Single-epitope vaccination did not predispose individuals to disease, nor did it significantly influence development of a normal repertoire of EBV-specific CD8(+) T-cell responses following seroconversion.
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6
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Altfeld M, Kalife ET, Qi Y, Streeck H, Lichterfeld M, Johnston MN, Burgett N, Swartz ME, Yang A, Alter G, Yu XG, Meier A, Rockstroh JK, Allen TM, Jessen H, Rosenberg ES, Carrington M, Walker BD. HLA Alleles Associated with Delayed Progression to AIDS Contribute Strongly to the Initial CD8(+) T Cell Response against HIV-1. PLoS Med 2006; 3:e403. [PMID: 17076553 PMCID: PMC1626551 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pmed.0030403] [Citation(s) in RCA: 252] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/20/2006] [Accepted: 08/01/2006] [Indexed: 01/31/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Very little is known about the immunodominance patterns of HIV-1-specific T cell responses during primary HIV-1 infection and the reasons for human lymphocyte antigen (HLA) modulation of disease progression. METHODS AND FINDINGS In a cohort of 104 individuals with primary HIV-1 infection, we demonstrate that a subset of CD8(+) T cell epitopes within HIV-1 are consistently targeted early after infection, while other epitopes subsequently targeted through the same HLA class I alleles are rarely recognized. Certain HLA alleles consistently contributed more than others to the total virus-specific CD8(+) T cell response during primary infection, and also reduced the absolute magnitude of responses restricted by other alleles if coexpressed in the same individual, consistent with immunodomination. Furthermore, individual HLA class I alleles that have been associated with slower HIV-1 disease progression contributed strongly to the total HIV-1-specific CD8(+) T cell response during primary infection. CONCLUSIONS These data demonstrate consistent immunodominance patterns of HIV-1-specific CD8(+) T cell responses during primary infection and provide a mechanistic explanation for the protective effect of specific HLA class I alleles on HIV-1 disease progression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marcus Altfeld
- Partners AIDS Research Center, Infectious Disease Unit, Massachusetts General Hospital and Division of AIDS, Harvard Medical School Boston, Boston, Massachusetts, United States of America
- * To whom correspondence should be addressed. E-mail:
| | - Elizabeth T Kalife
- Partners AIDS Research Center, Infectious Disease Unit, Massachusetts General Hospital and Division of AIDS, Harvard Medical School Boston, Boston, Massachusetts, United States of America
| | - Ying Qi
- Basic Research Program, SAIC-Frederick, Laboratory of Genomic Diversity, National Cancer Institute, Frederick, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Hendrik Streeck
- Partners AIDS Research Center, Infectious Disease Unit, Massachusetts General Hospital and Division of AIDS, Harvard Medical School Boston, Boston, Massachusetts, United States of America
- Gemeinschaftspraxis Jessen, Berlin, Germany
| | - Mathias Lichterfeld
- Partners AIDS Research Center, Infectious Disease Unit, Massachusetts General Hospital and Division of AIDS, Harvard Medical School Boston, Boston, Massachusetts, United States of America
| | - Mary N Johnston
- Partners AIDS Research Center, Infectious Disease Unit, Massachusetts General Hospital and Division of AIDS, Harvard Medical School Boston, Boston, Massachusetts, United States of America
| | - Nicole Burgett
- Partners AIDS Research Center, Infectious Disease Unit, Massachusetts General Hospital and Division of AIDS, Harvard Medical School Boston, Boston, Massachusetts, United States of America
| | - Martha E Swartz
- Partners AIDS Research Center, Infectious Disease Unit, Massachusetts General Hospital and Division of AIDS, Harvard Medical School Boston, Boston, Massachusetts, United States of America
| | - Amy Yang
- Partners AIDS Research Center, Infectious Disease Unit, Massachusetts General Hospital and Division of AIDS, Harvard Medical School Boston, Boston, Massachusetts, United States of America
| | - Galit Alter
- Partners AIDS Research Center, Infectious Disease Unit, Massachusetts General Hospital and Division of AIDS, Harvard Medical School Boston, Boston, Massachusetts, United States of America
| | - Xu G Yu
- Partners AIDS Research Center, Infectious Disease Unit, Massachusetts General Hospital and Division of AIDS, Harvard Medical School Boston, Boston, Massachusetts, United States of America
| | - Angela Meier
- Partners AIDS Research Center, Infectious Disease Unit, Massachusetts General Hospital and Division of AIDS, Harvard Medical School Boston, Boston, Massachusetts, United States of America
| | | | - Todd M Allen
- Partners AIDS Research Center, Infectious Disease Unit, Massachusetts General Hospital and Division of AIDS, Harvard Medical School Boston, Boston, Massachusetts, United States of America
| | | | - Eric S Rosenberg
- Partners AIDS Research Center, Infectious Disease Unit, Massachusetts General Hospital and Division of AIDS, Harvard Medical School Boston, Boston, Massachusetts, United States of America
| | - Mary Carrington
- Basic Research Program, SAIC-Frederick, Laboratory of Genomic Diversity, National Cancer Institute, Frederick, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Bruce D Walker
- Partners AIDS Research Center, Infectious Disease Unit, Massachusetts General Hospital and Division of AIDS, Harvard Medical School Boston, Boston, Massachusetts, United States of America
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Chevy Chase, Maryland, United States of America
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7
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Mueller SN, Jones CM, Stock AT, Suter M, Heath WR, Carbone FR. CD4+ T Cells Can Protect APC from CTL-Mediated Elimination. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2006; 176:7379-84. [PMID: 16751382 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.176.12.7379] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/31/2023]
Abstract
Professional APC play a central role in generating antiviral CD8(+) CTL immunity. However, the fate of such APC following interaction with these same CTL remains poorly understood. We have shown previously that prolonged Ag presentation persists in the presence of a strong CTL response following HSV infection. In this study, we examined the mechanism of survival of APC in vivo when presenting an immunodominant determinant from HSV. We show that transferred peptide-labeled dendritic cells were eliminated from draining lymph nodes in the presence of HSV-specific CTL. Maturation of dendritic cells with LPS or anti-CD40 before injection protected against CTL lysis in vivo. Furthermore, endogenous APC could be eliminated from draining lymph nodes early after HSV infection by adoptive transfer of HSV-specific CTL, yet the cotransfer of significant virus-specific CD4(+) T cell help promoted prolonged Ag presentation. This suggests that Th cells may assist in prolonging class I-restricted Ag presentation, potentially enhancing CTL recruitment and allowing more efficient T cell priming.
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Affiliation(s)
- Scott N Mueller
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Melbourne, Parkville, Australia
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8
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Chen W, McCluskey J. Immunodominance and Immunodomination: Critical Factors in Developing Effective CD8+ T‐Cell–Based Cancer Vaccines. Adv Cancer Res 2006; 95:203-47. [PMID: 16860659 DOI: 10.1016/s0065-230x(06)95006-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 66] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
The focusing of cellular immunity toward one, or just a few, antigenic determinant, even during immune responses to complex microorganisms or antigens, is known as immunodominance. Although described in many systems, the mechanisms of determinant immunodominance are only just beginning to be appreciated, especially in relation to the interplay between T cells of differing specificities and the interactions between T cells and the antigen-presenting cells (APCs). The outcome of these cellular interactions can lead to a form of immune suppression of one specificity by another-described as "immunodomination". The specific and detailed mechanisms involved in this process are now partly defined. A full understanding of all the factors that control immunodominance and influence immunodomination will help us to develop better viral and cancer vaccines.
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Affiliation(s)
- Weisan Chen
- T Cell Laboratory, Ludwig Institute for Cancer Research, Austin Health, Heidelberg, VIC 3084, Australia
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9
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Meyer RG, Britten CM, Siepmann U, Petzold B, Sagban TA, Lehr HA, Weigle B, Schmitz M, Mateo L, Schmidt B, Bernhard H, Jakob T, Hein R, Schuler G, Schuler-Thurner B, Wagner SN, Drexler I, Sutter G, Arndtz N, Chaplin P, Metz J, Enk A, Huber C, Wölfel T. A phase I vaccination study with tyrosinase in patients with stage II melanoma using recombinant modified vaccinia virus Ankara (MVA-hTyr). Cancer Immunol Immunother 2005; 54:453-67. [PMID: 15627214 PMCID: PMC11033008 DOI: 10.1007/s00262-004-0616-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/15/2004] [Accepted: 08/15/2004] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
A significant percentage of patients with stage II melanomas suffer a relapse after surgery and therefore need the development of adjuvant therapies. In the study reported here, safety and immunological response were analyzed after vaccination in an adjuvant setting with recombinant modified vaccinia virus Ankara carrying the cDNA for human tyrosinase (MVA-hTyr). A total of 20 patients were included and vaccinated three times at 4-week intervals with 5x10(8) IU of MVA-hTyr each time. The responses to the viral vector, to known HLA class I-restricted tyrosinase peptides, and to dendritic cells transfected with tyrosinase mRNA, were investigated by ELISpot assay on both ex vivo T cells and on T cells stimulated in vitro prior to testing. The delivery of MVA-hTyr was safe and did not cause any side effects above grade 2. A strong response to the viral vector was achieved, indicated by an increase in the frequency of MVA-specific CD4+ and CD8+ T cells and an increase in virus-specific antibody titers. However, no tyrosinase-specific T-cell or antibody response was observed with MVA-hTyr in any of the vaccinated patients. Although MVA-hTyr provides a safe and effective antigen-delivery system, it does not elicit a measurable immune response to its transgene product in patients with stage II melanoma after repeated combined intradermal and subcutaneous vaccination. We presume that modification of the antigen and/or prime-boost vaccination applying different approaches to antigen delivery may be required to induce an effective tyrosinase-specific immune response.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ralf G. Meyer
- III. Medizinische Klinik, Johannes Gutenberg-Universitaet, Langenbeckstrasse 1, 55116 Mainz, Germany
| | - Cedrik M. Britten
- III. Medizinische Klinik, Johannes Gutenberg-Universitaet, Langenbeckstrasse 1, 55116 Mainz, Germany
| | - Ulrike Siepmann
- III. Medizinische Klinik, Johannes Gutenberg-Universitaet, Langenbeckstrasse 1, 55116 Mainz, Germany
| | | | - Tolga A. Sagban
- Institut fuer Pathologie, Johannes Gutenberg-Universitaet, Mainz, Germany
| | - Hans A. Lehr
- Institut fuer Pathologie, Johannes Gutenberg-Universitaet, Mainz, Germany
| | - Bernd Weigle
- Institut fuer Immunologie, Technische Universitaet, Dresden, Germany
| | - Marc Schmitz
- Institut fuer Immunologie, Technische Universitaet, Dresden, Germany
| | - Luis Mateo
- Bavarian Nordic GmbH, Martinsried, Germany
| | - Burkhard Schmidt
- III. Medizinische Klinik, Technische Universitaet, Munich, Germany
| | - Helga Bernhard
- III. Medizinische Klinik, Technische Universitaet, Munich, Germany
| | - Thilo Jakob
- Klinische Kooperationsgruppe Umweltdermatologie und Allergologie GSF/TUM, Klinik und Poliklinik fuer Dermatologie und Allergologie, Technische Universitaet Muenchen, Munich, Germany
| | - Rüdiger Hein
- Klinik und Poliklinik fuer Dermatologie und Allergologie, Technische Universitaet Muenchen, Munich, Germany
| | | | | | | | - Ingo Drexler
- GSF, Institut fuer Molekulare Virologie, Munich, Germany
| | - Gerd Sutter
- GSF, Institut fuer Molekulare Virologie, Munich, Germany
| | | | | | - Jost Metz
- HSK-Aukammallee, Wilhelm Fresenius Klinik, Wiesbaden, Germany
| | - Alexander Enk
- Hautklinik, Johannes Gutenberg-Universitaet, Mainz, Germany
| | - Christoph Huber
- III. Medizinische Klinik, Johannes Gutenberg-Universitaet, Langenbeckstrasse 1, 55116 Mainz, Germany
| | - Thomas Wölfel
- III. Medizinische Klinik, Johannes Gutenberg-Universitaet, Langenbeckstrasse 1, 55116 Mainz, Germany
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10
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Starks H, Bruhn KW, Shen H, Barry RA, Dubensky TW, Brockstedt D, Hinrichs DJ, Higgins DE, Miller JF, Giedlin M, Bouwer HGA. Listeria monocytogenes as a vaccine vector: virulence attenuation or existing antivector immunity does not diminish therapeutic efficacy. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2004; 173:420-7. [PMID: 15210801 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.173.1.420] [Citation(s) in RCA: 77] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
The bacterium L. monocytogenes is a proposed vaccine carrier based upon the observation that this pathogen replicates within the intracytoplasmic environment facilitating delivery of Ag to the endogenous Ag processing and presentation pathway with subsequent stimulation of peptide specific MHC class I-restricted CD8(+) effector cells. In this report, we evaluate virulence-attenuated strains of Listeria monocytogenes as vaccine vectors and examine whether existing antivector (antilisterial) immunity limits or alters its efficacy as a therapeutic cancer vaccine. Following immunization with virulence-attenuated mutants, we found that the effectiveness of L. monocytogenes as a recombinant cancer vaccine remains intact. In addition, we found that antibiotic treatment initiated 24 or 36 h following therapeutic immunization with recombinant L. monocytogenes allows full development of the antitumor response. We also demonstrate that the vaccine vector potential of L. monocytogenes is not limited in animals with existing antilisterial immunity. For these latter studies, mice previously immunized with wild-type L. monocytogenes were infused with melanoma cells and then 5 days later challenged with recombinant tumor Ag expressing L. monocytogenes. Collectively, these results add additional support for the use of L. monocytogenes as a vaccine vector and underscore its potential to be used repeatedly for stimulation of recall responses concomitant with primary cell-mediated responses to newly delivered heterologous tumor-associated epitopes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Holly Starks
- Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Earle A. Chiles Research Institute, Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, Oregon Health Sciences University, Portland, OR 97201, USA
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11
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Herd KA, Harvey T, Khromykh AA, Tindle RW. Recombinant Kunjin virus replicon vaccines induce protective T-cell immunity against human papillomavirus 16 E7-expressing tumour. Virology 2004; 319:237-48. [PMID: 14980484 DOI: 10.1016/j.virol.2003.10.032] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/15/2003] [Revised: 08/28/2003] [Accepted: 10/23/2003] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
The persistence of the E7 oncoprotein in transformed cells in human papillomavirus (HPV)-associated cervical cancer provides a tumour-specific antigen to which immunotherapeutic strategies may be directed. Self-replicating RNA (replicon) vaccine vectors derived from the flavivirus Kunjin (KUN) have recently been reported to induce T-cell immunity. Here, we report that inclusion of a CTL epitope of HPV16 E7 protein into a polyepitope encoded by a KUN vector induced E7-directed T-cell responses and protected mice against challenge with an E7-expressing epithelial tumour. We found replicon RNA packaged into virus-like particles to be more effective than naked replicon RNA or plasmid DNA constructed to allow replicon RNA transcription in vivo. Protective immunity was induced although the E7 CTL epitope was subdominant in the context of other CTL epitopes in the polyepitope. The results demonstrate the efficacy of the KUN replicon vector system for inducing protective immunity directed towards a virally encoded human tumour-specific antigen, and for inducing multi-epitopic CTL responses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Karen A Herd
- Sir Albert Sakzewski Virus Research Centre, Royal Children's Hospital, and Clinical Medical Virology Centre, University of Queensland, Brisbane, Australia
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12
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Liu XS, Xu Y, Hardy L, Khammanivong V, Zhao W, Fernando GJP, Leggatt GR, Frazer IH. IL-10 mediates suppression of the CD8 T cell IFN-gamma response to a novel viral epitope in a primed host. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2004; 171:4765-72. [PMID: 14568953 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.171.9.4765] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Priming to Ag can inhibit subsequent induction of an immune response to a new epitope incorporated into that Ag, a phenomenon referred to as original antigenic sin. In this study, we show that prior immunity to a virus capsid can inhibit subsequent induction of the IFN-gamma effector T cell response to a novel CD8-restricted antigenic epitope associated with the virus capsid. Inhibition does not involve Ab to the virus capsid, as it is observed in animals lacking B cells. CD8-restricted virus-specific T cell responses are not required, as priming to virus without CTL induction is associated with inhibition. However, IL-10(-/-) mice, in contrast to IL-10(+/+) mice, generate CD8 T cell and Ab responses to novel epitopes incorporated into a virus capsid, even when priming to the capsid has resulted in high titer Ab to the capsid. Furthermore, capsid-primed mice, unable to mount a response to a novel epitope in the capsid protein, are nevertheless able to respond to the same novel epitope delivered independently of the capsid. Thus, inhibition of responsiveness to a novel epitope in a virus-primed animal is a consequence of secretion of IL-10 in response to presented Ag, which inhibits local generation of new CD8 IFN-gamma-secreting effector T cells. Induction of virus- or tumor Ag-specific CD8 effector T cells in the partially Ag-primed host may thus be facilitated by local neutralization of IL-10.
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MESH Headings
- Animals
- Antibodies, Viral/biosynthesis
- Antibodies, Viral/physiology
- Bovine papillomavirus 1/genetics
- Bovine papillomavirus 1/immunology
- CD8-Positive T-Lymphocytes/immunology
- CD8-Positive T-Lymphocytes/metabolism
- CD8-Positive T-Lymphocytes/virology
- Capsid Proteins/administration & dosage
- Capsid Proteins/genetics
- Capsid Proteins/immunology
- Cattle
- Cell Line
- Cytotoxicity, Immunologic/genetics
- Epitopes, T-Lymphocyte/administration & dosage
- Epitopes, T-Lymphocyte/genetics
- Epitopes, T-Lymphocyte/immunology
- Female
- Growth Inhibitors/administration & dosage
- Growth Inhibitors/genetics
- Growth Inhibitors/immunology
- Haptens/administration & dosage
- Haptens/immunology
- Humans
- Interferon-gamma/antagonists & inhibitors
- Interferon-gamma/biosynthesis
- Interferon-gamma/metabolism
- Interleukin-10/deficiency
- Interleukin-10/genetics
- Interleukin-10/physiology
- Mice
- Mice, Inbred BALB C
- Mice, Inbred C57BL
- Mice, Knockout
- Oncogene Proteins, Viral/administration & dosage
- Oncogene Proteins, Viral/genetics
- Oncogene Proteins, Viral/immunology
- Papillomavirus E7 Proteins
- Suppressor Factors, Immunologic/deficiency
- Suppressor Factors, Immunologic/genetics
- Suppressor Factors, Immunologic/physiology
- Vaccines, Subunit/administration & dosage
- Vaccines, Subunit/genetics
- Vaccines, Subunit/immunology
- Vaccines, Synthetic/administration & dosage
- Vaccines, Synthetic/genetics
- Vaccines, Synthetic/immunology
- Virion/genetics
- Virion/immunology
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiao Song Liu
- Centre for Immunology and Cancer Research, Princess Alexandra Hospital, University of Queensland, Woolloongabba, Brisbane, Australia
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13
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Palmer M, Parker J, Modi S, Butts C, Smylie M, Meikle A, Kehoe M, MacLean G, Longenecker M. Phase I study of the BLP25 (MUC1 peptide) liposomal vaccine for active specific immunotherapy in stage IIIB/IV non-small-cell lung cancer. Clin Lung Cancer 2003; 3:49-57; discussion 58. [PMID: 14656392 DOI: 10.3816/clc.2001.n.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 129] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Active specific immunotherapy with liposomal vaccines targeted to the mucinous carcinoma-associated glycoprotein MUC1 have shown promising results in animal models. The aim of this phase I study was to evaluate the safety and immunogenicity of 2 dose levels of the MUC1 liposomal vaccine preparation BLP25. Patients with stage IIIB or IV non-small-cell lung cancer received either 20 microg or 200 microg of the liposomal BLP25 vaccine preparation. Injections were administered subcutaneously at weeks 0, 2, 5, and 9. Immunological responses to vaccination were measured by antibody production, cytotoxic T lymphocytes (CTL), and proliferative T-helper cells. Seventeen patients were entered on study; 12 patients completed the vaccination protocol. Two patients, 1 in each dose group, developed clinically insignificant grade 3 lymphopenia during the study. Nonhematologic toxicities were mild and self-limiting, and there were no significant long-term injection site reactions. Immunological assays revealed the generation of CTLs against MUC1-positive tumor cell lines in 5 of 12 evaluable patients. These patients did not have CTLs prior to receiving the vaccine. No significant humoral response to the vaccination was observed. No objective antitumor responses were observed. Of the 12 patients completing all the vaccinations, 4 had stable disease. Median survival time was 5.4 months in the 20 microg group and 14.6 months in the 200 microg group. In summary, the BLP25 liposomal vaccine was well tolerated and elicited a primarily cellular immune response in these lung cancer patients. This study forms the basis for further clinical exploration of the MUC1 liposomal vaccine, BLP25.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Palmer
- Cross Cancer Institute, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada.
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14
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Harvey TJ, Anraku I, Linedale R, Harrich D, Mackenzie J, Suhrbier A, Khromykh AA. Kunjin virus replicon vectors for human immunodeficiency virus vaccine development. J Virol 2003; 77:7796-803. [PMID: 12829819 PMCID: PMC161953 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.77.14.7796-7803.2003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
We have previously demonstrated the ability of the vaccine vectors based on replicon RNA of the Australian flavivirus Kunjin (KUN) to induce protective antiviral and anticancer CD8+ T-cell responses using murine polyepitope as a model immunogen (I. Anraku, T. J. Harvey, R. Linedale, J. Gardner, D. Harrich, A. Suhrbier, and A. A. Khromykh, J. Virol. 76:3791-3799, 2002). Here we showed that immunization of BALB/c mice with KUN replicons encoding HIV-1 Gag antigen resulted in induction of both Gag-specific antibody and protective Gag-specific CD8+ T-cell responses. Two immunizations with KUNgag replicons in the form of virus-like particles (VLPs) induced anti-Gag antibodies with titers of > or =1:10,000. Immunization with KUNgag replicons delivered as plasmid DNA, naked RNA, or VLPs induced potent Gag-specific CD8+ T-cell responses, with one immunization of KUNgag VLPs inducing 4.5-fold-more CD8+ T cells than the number induced after immunization with recombinant vaccinia virus carrying the gag gene (rVVgag). Two immunizations with KUNgag VLPs also provided significant protection against challenge with rVVgag. Importantly, KUN replicon VLP vaccinations induced long-lasting immune responses with CD8+ T cells able to secrete gamma interferon and to mediate protection 6 to 10 months after immunization. These results illustrate the potential value of the KUN replicon vectors for human immunodeficiency virus vaccine design.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tracey J Harvey
- Sir Albert Sakzewski Virus Research Centre, Royal Children's Hospital, University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland, 4029 Australia
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15
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Abstract
Vaccines against a number of diseases, including HIV, Epstein Barr virus, malaria and several cancers, are believed to require the coinduction of multiple alphabeta CD8+ cytotoxic T-lymphocyte responses that are directed towards a number of different target antigens. The difficulties associated with making large recombinant vaccines that contain numerous antigens has led to the development of alphabeta CD8+ cytotoxic T-lymphocyte polyepitope or polytope vaccine approach, where multiple (usually 8-10 amino acids long) alphabeta CD8+ cytotoxic T-lymphocyte epitopes, derived from several antigens are conjoined into single artificial constructs. Such polytope constructs can be delivered using a number of different vaccine vector modalities with each epitope in the construct emerging as individually immunogenic.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andreas Suhrbier
- Cooperative Research Center for Vaccine Technology, Queensland Institute of Medical Research, University of Queensland, Australia.
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16
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Wolkers MC, Toebes M, Okabe M, Haanen JBAG, Schumacher TNM. Optimizing the efficacy of epitope-directed DNA vaccination. JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY (BALTIMORE, MD. : 1950) 2002; 168:4998-5004. [PMID: 11994451 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.168.10.4998] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
An increasing number of clinical trials has been initiated to test the potential of prophylactic or curative vaccination with tumor Ag-encoding DNA vaccines. However, in the past years it has become apparent that for many Ags and in particular for tumor Ags the intracellular processing and presentation are suboptimal. To improve epitope-directed DNA vaccines we have developed a murine model system in which epitope-specific, DNA vaccine-induced T cell immunity can be followed by MHC tetramer technology directly ex vivo. We have used this well-defined model to dissect the parameters that are crucial for the induction of strong cytotoxic T cell immunity using two independent model Ags. These experiments have led to a set of five guidelines for the design of epitope-directed DNA vaccines, indicating that carboxyl-terminal fusion of the epitope to a carrier protein of foreign origin is the most favorable strategy. DNA vaccines that are based on these guidelines induce high-magnitude CD8(+) T cell responses in >95% of vaccinated animals. Moreover, T cell immunity induced by this type of optimized DNA vaccine provides long-term protection against otherwise lethal tumor challenges.
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MESH Headings
- Animals
- Antigen Presentation/genetics
- Artificial Gene Fusion
- Carrier Proteins/administration & dosage
- Carrier Proteins/genetics
- Carrier Proteins/immunology
- Epitopes, T-Lymphocyte/administration & dosage
- Epitopes, T-Lymphocyte/genetics
- Epitopes, T-Lymphocyte/immunology
- Green Fluorescent Proteins
- Immunity, Active/genetics
- Luminescent Proteins/administration & dosage
- Luminescent Proteins/genetics
- Luminescent Proteins/immunology
- Male
- Mice
- Mice, Inbred C57BL
- Mice, Transgenic
- Neoplasm Transplantation/immunology
- Nucleocapsid Proteins
- Nucleoproteins/administration & dosage
- Nucleoproteins/genetics
- Nucleoproteins/immunology
- Papillomaviridae/immunology
- Papillomavirus Infections/genetics
- Papillomavirus Infections/prevention & control
- Peptide Fragments/administration & dosage
- Peptide Fragments/genetics
- Peptide Fragments/immunology
- RNA-Binding Proteins
- Recombinant Fusion Proteins/administration & dosage
- Recombinant Fusion Proteins/genetics
- Recombinant Fusion Proteins/immunology
- T-Lymphocytes/immunology
- Tumor Cells, Cultured/transplantation
- Tumor Virus Infections/genetics
- Tumor Virus Infections/prevention & control
- Vaccines, DNA/administration & dosage
- Vaccines, DNA/genetics
- Vaccines, DNA/immunology
- Viral Core Proteins/administration & dosage
- Viral Core Proteins/genetics
- Viral Core Proteins/immunology
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Affiliation(s)
- Monika C Wolkers
- Department of Immunology, The Netherlands Cancer Institute, Plesmanlaan 121, 1066 CX Amsterdam, The Netherlands
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17
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Liu H, Andreansky S, Diaz G, Hogg T, Doherty PC. Reduced functional capacity of CD8+ T cells expanded by post-exposure vaccination of gamma-herpesvirus-infected CD4-deficient mice. JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY (BALTIMORE, MD. : 1950) 2002; 168:3477-83. [PMID: 11907108 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.168.7.3477] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Mice (I-A(b-/-)) that lack CD4(+) T cells remain healthy for at least three months after respiratory exposure to the murine gamma-herpesvirus 68 (gammaHV68), then succumb with symptoms of chronic wasting disease. Postexposure challenge of gammaHV68-infected I-A(b+/+) and I-A(b-/-) mice with a recombinant vaccinia virus (Vacc-p56) expressing an antigenic gammaHV68 peptide caused a massive increase in the numbers of D(b)p56-specific CD8(+) T cells. Previous experiments showed that, despite the large numbers of potential CTL effectors, there was little effect on the long-term survival of the CD4-deficient group and no diminution in the level of persistent virus shedding and latency. Comparison of the expanded CD8(+)D(b)p56(+) sets in the I-A(b+/+) and I-A(b-/-) mice indicated that these two T cell populations were not identical. More CD69(high)CD8(+) D(b)p56(+) T cells were found in the CD4-deficient mice, an effect that might be thought to reflect higher Ag load. By contrast, the mean fluorescence intensity of staining for the CD44 glycoprotein was diminished on CD8(+)D(b)p56(+) T cells from the I-A(b-/-) group, the level of CTL activity was lower on a per cell basis, and the relative prevalence of IFN-gamma(+)TNF-alpha(+) T cells detected after in vitro stimulation with the p56 peptide was decreased. Given that this experimental system provides an accessible model for evaluating postexposure vaccination protocols that might be used in diseases like HIV/AIDS, the further need is to clarify the underlying molecular mechanisms and the relative significance of lack of CD4(+) T help vs higher Ag load for these expanded CD8(+) effector populations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Haiyan Liu
- Department of Immunology, St. Jude Children's Research Hospital, Memphis, TN 38105, USA.
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18
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Anraku I, Harvey TJ, Linedale R, Gardner J, Harrich D, Suhrbier A, Khromykh AA. Kunjin virus replicon vaccine vectors induce protective CD8+ T-cell immunity. J Virol 2002; 76:3791-9. [PMID: 11907219 PMCID: PMC136104 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.76.8.3791-3799.2002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 64] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
The ability of self-replicating RNA (replicon) vaccine vectors derived from the Australian flavivirus Kunjin (KUN) to induce protective alphabeta CD8+ T-cell responses was examined. KUN replicons encoding a model immunogen were delivered by three different vaccine modalities: (i) as naked RNA transcribed in vitro, (ii) as plasmid DNA constructed to allow in vivo transcription of replicon RNA by cellular RNA polymerase II (DNA based), and (iii) as replicon RNA encapsidated into virus-like particles. A single immunization with any of these KUN replicon vaccines induced CD8+ T-cell responses at levels comparable to those induced by recombinant vaccinia virus encoding the same immunogen. Immunization with only 0.1 microg of DNA-based KUN replicons elicited CD8+ T-cell responses similar to those seen after immunization with 100 microg of a conventional DNA vaccine. Naked RNA immunization with KUN replicons also protected mice against challenges with recombinant vaccinia virus and B16 tumor cells. These results demonstrate the value of KUN replicon vectors for inducing protective antiviral and anticancer CD8+ T-cell responses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Itaru Anraku
- Sir Albert Sakzewski Virus Research Centre, Royal Children's Hospital, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
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19
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Mintern JD, Davey GM, Belz GT, Carbone FR, Heath WR. Cutting edge: precursor frequency affects the helper dependence of cytotoxic T cells. JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY (BALTIMORE, MD. : 1950) 2002; 168:977-80. [PMID: 11801627 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.168.3.977] [Citation(s) in RCA: 88] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/23/2023]
Abstract
Generation of CTL immunity often depends on the availability of CD4 T cell help. In this report, we show that CTL responses induced by cross-priming can be converted from CD4-dependent to CD4-independent by increasing the frequency of CTL precursors. In the absence of CD4 T cells, high numbers of CTL precursors were able to expand in number and become effector CTL. The ability of high frequencies of CD8 T cells to override help was not due to their ability to signal CD40 via expression of CD154. These findings suggest that when precursor frequencies are high, priming of CD8 T cell responses may not require CD4 T cell help.
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Affiliation(s)
- Justine D Mintern
- Immunology Division, Walter and Eliza Hall Institute of Medical Research, Royal Melbourne Hospital, Parkville 3050, Victoria, Australia
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20
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Le TT, Drane D, Malliaros J, Cox JC, Rothel L, Pearse M, Woodberry T, Gardner J, Suhrbier A. Cytotoxic T cell polyepitope vaccines delivered by ISCOMs. Vaccine 2001; 19:4669-75. [PMID: 11535315 DOI: 10.1016/s0264-410x(01)00243-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/17/2022]
Abstract
CD8 alphabeta cytotoxic T lymphocyte (CTL) polyepitope or polytope vaccines have traditionally been delivered using recombinant vector or DNA based delivery modalities. Here we show the delivery of polytope vaccines in the form of either synthetic polypeptides or recombinant polytope proteins by ImmunoStimulatory COMplexes (ISCOMs(R)). Induction of multiple protective CTL responses by these polytope-ISCOM formulations were comparable to viral vector or DNA based delivery modalities as assessed by IFNgamma ELISpot, chromium release and viral challenge assays. Measurement of CTL responses specific for the different epitopes revealed immunodominance patterns, which were largely independent of the vaccine vector or the order of the epitopes in the polytope. ISCOMs thus emerge as a viable human delivery modality for protein-based polytope vaccines.
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Affiliation(s)
- T T Le
- Cooperative Research Centre for Vaccine Technology, Australian National Centre for International and Tropical Health and Nutrition, Queensland Institute of Medical Research and the University of Queensland, Post Office Royal Brisbane Hospital, Brisbane
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