Interactions between Entamoeba histolytica, bacteria and intestinal cells

Escherichia coli mediated resistance of Entamoeba histolytica to oxidative stress is triggered by oxaloacetate

Amebiasis, a global intestinal parasitic disease, is due to Entamoeba histolytica. This parasite, which feeds on bacteria in the large intestine of its human host, can trigger a strong inflammatory response upon invasion of the colonic mucosa. Whereas information about the mechanisms which are used by the parasite to cope with oxidative and nitrosative stresses during infection is available, knowledge about the contribution of bacteria to these mechanisms is lacking. In a recent study, we demonstrated that enteropathogenic Escherichia coli O55 protects E. histolytica against oxidative stress. Resin-assisted capture (RAC) of oxidized (OX) proteins coupled to mass spectrometry (OX-RAC) was used to investigate the oxidation status of cysteine residues in proteins present in E. histolytica trophozoites incubated with live or heat-killed E. coli O55 and then exposed to H2O2-mediated oxidative stress. We found that the redox proteome of E. histolytica exposed to heat-killed E. coli O55 is enriched with proteins involved in redox homeostasis, lipid metabolism, small molecule metabolism, carbohydrate derivative metabolism, and organonitrogen compound biosynthesis. In contrast, we found that proteins associated with redox homeostasis were the only OX-proteins that were enriched in E. histolytica trophozoites which were incubated with live E. coli O55. These data indicate that E. coli has a profound impact on the redox proteome of E. histolytica. Unexpectedly, some E. coli proteins were also co-identified with E. histolytica proteins by OX-RAC. We demonstrated that one of these proteins, E. coli malate dehydrogenase (EcMDH) and its product, oxaloacetate, are key elements of E. coli-mediated resistance of E. histolytica to oxidative stress and that oxaloacetate helps the parasite survive in the large intestine. We also provide evidence that the protective effect of oxaloacetate against oxidative stress extends to Caenorhabditis elegans.

Immune Response of Amebiasis and Immune Evasion by Entamoeba histolytica

Entamoeba histolytica is a protozoan parasite and the causative agent of amebiasis. It is estimated approximately 1% of humans are infected with E. histolytica, resulting in an estimate of 100,000 deaths annually. Clinical manifestations of amebic infection range widely from asymptomatic to severe symptoms, including dysentery and extra-intestinal abscesses. Like other infectious diseases, it is assumed that only ~20% of infected individuals develop symptoms, and genetic factors of both the parasite and humans as well as the environmental factors, e.g., microbiota, determine outcome of infection. There are multiple essential steps in amebic infection: degradation of and invasion into the mucosal layer, adherence to the intestinal epithelium, invasion into the tissues, and dissemination to other organs. While the mechanisms of invasion and destruction of the host tissues by the amebae during infection have been elucidated at the molecular levels, it remains largely uncharacterized how the parasite survive in the host by evading and attacking host immune system. Recently, the strategies for immune evasion by the parasite have been unraveled, including immunomodulation to suppress IFN-γ production, elimination of immune cells and soluble immune mediators, and metabolic alterations against reactive oxygen and nitrogen species to fend off the attack from immune system. In this review, we summarized the latest knowledge on immune reaction and immune evasion during amebiasis.

The Interplay of Host Microbiota and Parasitic Protozoans at Mucosal Interfaces: Implications for the Outcomes of Infections and Diseases

Infections by parasitic protozoans are largely neglected, despite threatening millions of people, particularly in developing countries. With descriptions of the microbiota in humans, a new frontier of investigation is developing to decipher the complexity of host-parasite-microbiota relationships, instead of the classic reductionist approach, which considers host-parasite in isolation. Here, we review with specific examples the potential roles that the resident microbiota can play at mucosal interfaces in the transmission of parasitic protozoans and in the progress of infection and disease. Although the mechanisms underlying these relationships remain poorly understood, some examples provide compelling evidence that specific components of the microbiota can potentially alter the outcomes of parasitic infections and diseases in humans. Most findings suggest a protective role of the microbiota, which might lead to exploratory research comprising microbiota-based interventions to prevent and treat protozoal infections in the future. However, these infections are often accompanied by an unbalanced microbiota and, in some specific cases, apparently, these bacteria may contribute synergistically to disease progression. Taken together, these findings provide a different perspective on the ecological nature of protozoal infections. This review focuses attention on the importance of considering polymicrobial associations, i.e., parasitic protozoans and the host microbiota, for understanding these human infections in their natural microbial context.

Evidence for a bacterial lipopolysaccharide-recognizing G-protein-coupled receptor in the bacterial engulfment by Entamoeba histolytica

Entamoeba histolytica is the causative agent of amoebic dysentery, a worldwide protozoal disease that results in approximately 100,000 deaths annually. The virulence of E. histolytica may be due to interactions with the host bacterial flora, whereby trophozoites engulf colonic bacteria as a nutrient source. The engulfment process depends on trophozoite recognition of bacterial epitopes that activate phagocytosis pathways. E. histolytica GPCR-1 (EhGPCR-1) was previously recognized as a putative G-protein-coupled receptor (GPCR) used by Entamoeba histolytica during phagocytosis. In the present study, we attempted to characterize EhGPCR-1 by using heterologous GPCR expression in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. We discovered that bacterial lipopolysaccharide (LPS) is an activator of EhGPCR-1 and that LPS stimulates EhGPCR-1 in a concentration-dependent manner. Additionally, we demonstrated that Entamoeba histolytica prefers to engulf bacteria with intact LPS and that this engulfment process is sensitive to suramin, which prevents the interactions of GPCRs and G-proteins. Thus, EhGPCR-1 is an LPS-recognizing GPCR that is a potential drug target for treatment of amoebiasis, especially considering the well-established drug targeting to GPCRs.

Interactions between parasites and microbial communities in the human gut

The interactions between intestinal microbiota, immune system, and pathogens describe the human gut as a complex ecosystem, where all components play a relevant role in modulating each other and in the maintenance of homeostasis. The balance among the gut microbiota and the human body appear to be crucial for health maintenance. Intestinal parasites, both protozoans and helminths, interact with the microbial community modifying the balance between host and commensal microbiota. On the other hand, gut microbiota represents a relevant factor that may strongly interfere with the pathophysiology of the infections. In addition to the function that gut commensal microbiota may have in the processes that determine the survival and the outcome of many parasitic infections, including the production of nutritive macromolecules, also probiotics can play an important role in reducing the pathogenicity of many parasites. On these bases, there is a growing interest in explaining the rationale on the possible interactions between the microbiota, immune response, inflammatory processes, and intestinal parasites.

Common pathways for receptor-mediated ingestion of Escherichia coli and LDL cholesterol by Entamoeba histolytica regulated in part by transmembrane kinase 39

The single-celled parasite, Entamoeba histolytica, is an enteric pathogen that ingests bacteria and host cells. Inhibition of phagocytosis renders the parasite avirulent. The ligand/receptor interactions that allow E. histolytica to phagocytose are not well understood. We hypothesised that E. histolytica trophozoites might accomplish ingestion through the utilisation of a scavenger receptor for cholesterol. Here we show that acetylated low density lipoprotein cholesterol was phagocytosed by amoebae via receptor mediated mechanisms. Acetylated low density lipoprotein cholesterol competitively inhibited by 31 ± 1.3% (P < 0.005) the ingestion of Escherichia coli, but not erythrocytes and Jurkat T lymphocytes, suggesting a partially redundant phagocytic pathway for E. coli and cholesterol. Inducible expression ofa signalling-dead dominant-negative version of E. histolytica transmembrane kinase 39 inhibited ingestion of E. coli by 55 ± 3% (P < 0.005) but not LDL particles. We concluded that ingestion of E. coli was regulated by TMK39 and partially shared the acetylated low density lipoprotein cholesterol uptake pathway.

Cytopathogenicity of Entamoeba histolytica: the role of amebic adherence and contact-dependent cytolysis in pathogenesis

The mechanisms by which Entamoeba histolytica trophozoites adhere to and lyse target cells are reviewed from the perspective of pathogenesis. Adherence via the galactose and N-acetyl-galactosamine inhibitable amebic lectin and possible additional amebic adhesin molecules is followed by target cell death. Inhibition of the Gal/GalNAc lectin with GalNAc inhibits amebic cytolysis of target cells. Amebic activities implicated in the cytolytic event include vesicle exocytosis and maintenance of an acid pH, pore forming proteins, phospholipase A and proteases. Increased knowledge of the sequence of events leading to target cell lysis should lead to more effective treatment or prevention of infection by this enteric parasite and add to our basic understanding of eukaryotic cell-cell interactions.

Ameba-bacterium relationship in amebiasis

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Rapid polymerization of Entamoeba histolytica actin induced by interaction with target cells

Within 5 s of challenge of Entamoeba histolytica trophozoites with red blood cells (RBC), attachment and deformation of target cells occurred at multiple sites on the amoeba surface. Many trophozoite-target interfaces were outlined with a ring of polymerized amoeba actin, revealed by rhodamine-phalloidin staining of glutaraldehyde-fixed and Triton-X 100-extracted cells. The beginnings of phagocytic pseudopods rimmed many targets. The phagocytic membrane and underlying actin network grew uniformly about a target cell, which became dramatically elongated and constricted, sometimes severed, as it entered the amoeba. Total engulfment of RBC targets occurred within 10 s. By methanol extraction and spectrofluorimetric measurement of bound rhodamine-phalloidin we were able to quantitate polymerized actin in amoebae. Interaction with target cells was accompanied by a net increase of up to twofold in the average polymerized actin content of trophozoites. This reached a maximum during the period of most active phagocytosis (4 min after challenge at 25 degrees C), and declined as phagocytic activity diminished (8-16 min). Challenge with latex beads of similar size and number, which E. histolytica phagocytized more slowly than RBC, induced neither a detectable increase in polymerized actin content nor appearance of polymerized actin at the contact interface. RBC inhibited phagocytosis of latex beads, but the reverse did not occur. The results demonstrate a rapid, recognition-specific stimulation of reorganization of the actin cytoskeleton of E. histolytica induced by binding to target cells. Vigorous phagocytic activity is frequently an immediate consequence of cell-cell contact, which emphasizes the importance of this process in the contact-mediated attack mechanism of this pathogen. The quantitative assay of polymerized actin may be useful in further studies of this mechanism.

Isolation, purification, and partial characterization of an enterotoxin from extracts of Entamoeba histolytica trophozoites

Soluble cell-free extracts of pathogenic Entamoeba histolytica, as well as serum-free minimal media in which trophozoites are incubated, contain substances that cause the rapid rounding up and detachment of tissue-cultured monolayers of mammalian cells (cytopathic activity) and induce fluid secretion in ligated intestinal loops of indomethacin-pretreated rats (enterotoxic activity). A semiquantitative assay for the determination of the cytopathic activity based on the rate of detachment of tissue-cultured baby hamster kidney cells was developed. Two peaks containing cytopathic activity were obtained upon gel filtration of the soluble extracts: peak I, with over 60% of the activity, emerged in the 30,000 to 50,000 molecular weight region, and peak II, containing the remaining activity, was in the 15,000 to 25,000 molecular weight region. The activity of peak I was found to be heat labile and inhibited by sialoglycoproteins such as fetuin and mucin (5 mg/ml), as well as by sialic acid. Protease inhibitors such as antitrypsin, pepstatin, phenylmethylsulfonyl fluoride, metaloprotease inhibitors, and bacitracin had no effect on the cytopathic activity. Marked inhibition of cytopathic activity was observed, however, with iodoacetamide and p-chloromercuribenzoate, which affect sulfhydryl groups. The toxic material in peak II was found to have ionophoric activity and was not inhibited by sialic acid-containing compounds. The materials from both peaks had enterotoxic activity in intestinal ligated loops. The active substance from peak I was further purified (200X) on an agarose-fetuin affinity column, yielding one major protein band with an apparent molecular weight of ca. 30,000 on sodium dodecyl sulfate. Amino acid analysis revealed that the protein was very poor in sulfur amino acids. The sialic acid-sensitive toxic activity was higher in known virulent strains such as HM-1:IMSS and could be markedly augmented after preincubation of the trophozoites with certain Escherichia coli strains.

Virulence of Entamoeba histolytica trophozoites. Effects of bacteria, microaerobic conditions, and metronidazole

The association of axenically grown trophozoites of Entamoeba histolytica strains HK-9 or HM-1:IMSS with various types of gram-negative bacteria for relatively short periods markedly increased their virulence, as evidenced by their ability to destroy monolayers of tissue-cultured cells. Interaction of trophozoites with bacteria that were heat inactivated, glutaraldehyde fixed, or disrupted by sonication, or bacteria treated with inhibitors of protein synthesis, did not augment amebic virulence. Lethally irradiated bacteria, however, retained their stimulative properties and trophozoites that ingested bacteria were protected from the toxic effects of added hydrogen peroxide. An increase in virulent properties of amebae was also found in experiments carried out under microaerobic conditions (5% O2, 10% CO2). The augmentation of amebic virulence due to association with bacteria was specifically blocked by metronidazole, but not by tetracycline or aminoglycosides, and the rate of metronidazole uptake in stimulated trophozoites was two to three times higher. The results obtained suggest that virulence of axenically grown E. histolytica trophozoites may depend to a considerable extent on the cell's reducing power. Both microaerobic conditions and the association with bacteria apparently stimulate the electron transport system of the ameba. Bacteria may function as broad range scavengers for oxidized molecules and metabolites through the contribution of enzymatic systems, components, or products.