Nanoparticles in the clinic

Advances in nanotechnology-assisted photodynamic therapy for neurological disorders: a comprehensive review

Neurological disorders such as neurodegenerative diseases and nervous system tumours affect more than one billion people throughout the globe. The physiological sensitivity of the nervous tissue limits the application of invasive therapies and leads to poor treatment and prognosis. One promising solution that has generated attention is Photodynamic therapy (PDT), which can potentially revolutionise the treatment landscape for neurological disorders. PDT attracted substantial recognition for anticancer efficacy and drug conjugation for targeted drug delivery. This review thoroughly explained the basic principles of PDT, scientific interventions and advances in PDT, and their complicated mechanism in treating brain-related pathologies. Furthermore, the merits and demerits of PDT in the context of neurological disorders offer a well-rounded perspective on its feasibility and challenges. In conclusion, this review encapsulates the significant potential of PDT in transforming the treatment landscape for neurological disorders, emphasising its role as a non-invasive, targeted therapeutic approach with multifaceted applications.

CB65 and novel CB65 liposomal system suppress MG63 and Saos-2 osteosarcoma cell growth in vitro

Curable approaches for primary osteosarcoma are inadequate and urge investigation of novel therapeutic formulations. Cannabinoid ligands exert antiproliferative and apoptotic effect on osteosarcoma cells via cannabinoid 2 (CB2) or transient receptor potential vanilloid type (TRPV1) receptors. In this study, we confirmed CB2 receptor expression in MG63 and Saos-2 osteosarcoma cells by qRT-PCR and flow cytometry (FCM), then reported the reduction effect of synthetic specific CB2 receptor agonist CB65 on the proliferation of osteosarcoma cells by WST-1 (water-soluble tetrazolium-1) and RTCA (real-time impedance-based proliferation). CB65 revealed an IC50 (inhibitory concentration) for MG63 and Saos-2 cells as 1.11 × 10-11 and 4.95 × 10-11 M, respectively. The specific antiproliferative effect of CB65 on osteosarcoma cells was inhibited by CB2 antagonist AM630. CB65 induced late apoptosis of MG63 and Saos-2 cells at 24 and 48 h, respectively by FCM when applied submaximal concentration. A novel CB65 liposomal system was generated by a thin film hydration method with optimal particle size (141.7 ± 0.6 nm), polydispersity index (0.451 ± 0.026), and zeta potential (-10.9 ± 0.3 mV) values. The encapsulation efficiency (EE%) of the CB65-loaded liposomal formulation was 51.12%. The CB65 and CB65-loaded liposomal formulation releasing IC50 of CB65 reduced proliferation by RTCA and invasion by scratch assay and induced late apoptosis of MG63 and Saos-2 cells, by FCM. Our results demonstrate the CB2 receptor-mediated antiproliferative and apoptotic effect of a new liposomal CB65 delivery system on osteosarcoma cells that can be used as a targeted and intelligent tool for bone tumors to ameliorate pediatric bone cancers following in vivo validation.

Physiological principles underlying the kidney targeting of renal nanomedicines

Kidney disease affects more than 10% of the global population and is associated with considerable morbidity and mortality, highlighting a need for new therapeutic options. Engineered nanoparticles for the treatment of kidney diseases (renal nanomedicines) represent one such option, enabling the delivery of targeted therapeutics to specific regions of the kidney. Although they are underdeveloped compared with nanomedicines for diseases such as cancer, findings from preclinical studies suggest that renal nanomedicines may hold promise. However, the physiological principles that govern the in vivo transport and interactions of renal nanomedicines differ from those of cancer nanomedicines, and thus a comprehensive understanding of these principles is needed to design nanomedicines that effectively and specifically target the kidney while ensuring biosafety in their future clinical translation. Herein, we summarize the current understanding of factors that influence the glomerular filtration, tubular uptake, tubular secretion and extrusion of nanoparticles, including size and charge dependency, and the role of specific transporters and processes such as endocytosis. We also describe how the transport and uptake of nanoparticles is altered by kidney disease and discuss strategic approaches by which nanoparticles may be harnessed for the detection and treatment of a variety of kidney diseases.

Reprograming Clots for In Vivo Chemical Targeting in Traumatic Brain Injury

Traumatic brain injury (TBI) is a critical public health concern, yet there are no therapeutics available to improve long-term outcomes. Drug delivery to TBI remains a challenge due to the blood-brain barrier and increased intracranial pressure. In this work, a chemical targeting approach to improve delivery of materials to the injured brain, is developed. It is hypothesized that the provisional fibrin matrix can be harnessed as an injury-specific scaffold that can be targeted by materials via click chemistry. To accomplish this, the brain clot is engineered in situ by delivering fibrinogen modified with strained cyclooctyne (SCO) moieties, which incorporated into the injury lesion and is retained there for days. Improved intra-injury capture and retention of diverse, clickable azide-materials including a small molecule azide-dye, 40 kDa azide-PEG nanomaterial, and a therapeutic azide-protein in multiple dosing regimens is subsequently observed. To demonstrate therapeutic translation of this approach, a reduction in reactive oxygen species levels in the injured brain after delivery of the antioxidant catalase, is achieved. Further, colocalization between azide and SCO-fibrinogen is specific to the brain over off-target organs. Taken together, a chemical targeting strategy leveraging endogenous clot formation is established which can be applied to improve therapeutic delivery after TBI.

Rediscovery of mononuclear phagocyte system blockade for nanoparticle drug delivery

Rapid uptake of nanoparticles by mononuclear phagocyte system (MPS) significantly hampers their therapeutic efficacy. Temporal MPS blockade is one of the few ways to overcome this barrier - the approach rediscovered many times under different names but never extensively used in clinic. Using meta-analysis of the published data we prove the efficacy of this technique for enhancing particle circulation in blood and their delivery to tumours, describe a century of its evolution and potential combined mechanism behind it. Finally, we discuss future directions of the research focusing on the features essential for successful clinical translation of the method.

Unravelling the success of transferosomes against skin cancer: Journey so far and road ahead

Skin cancer remains one of the most prominent types of cancer. Melanoma and non-melanoma skin cancer are commonly found together, with melanoma being the more deadly type. Skin cancer can be effectively treated with chemotherapy, which mostly uses small molecular medicines, phytoceuticals, and biomacromolecules. Topical delivery of these therapeutics is a non-invasive way that might be useful in effectively managing skin cancer. Different skin barriers, however, presented a major obstacle to topical cargo administration. Transferosomes have demonstrated significant potential in topical delivery by improving cargo penetration through the circumvention of diverse skin barriers. Additionally, the transferosome-based gel can prolong the residence of drug on the skin, lowering the frequency of doses and their associated side effects. However, the choice of appropriate transferosome compositions, such as phospholipids and edge activators, and fabrication technique are crucial for achieving improved entrapment efficiency, penetration, and regulated particle size. The present review discusses skin cancer overview, current treatment strategies for skin cancer and their drawbacks. Topical drug delivery against skin cancer is also covered, along with the difficulties associated with it and the importance of transferosomes in avoiding these difficulties. Additionally, a summary of transferosome compositions and fabrication methods is provided. Furthermore, topical delivery of small molecular drugs, phytoceuticals, and biomacromolecules using transferosomes and transferosomes-based gel in treating skin cancer is discussed. Thus, transferosomes can be a significant option in the topical delivery of drugs to manage skin cancer efficiently.

Light-Activated Nanodiamond-Based Drug Delivery Systems for Spatiotemporal Release of Antisense Oligonucleotides

Nanodiamonds (NDs) are considered promising delivery platforms, but inaccurate and uncontrolled release of drugs at target sites is the biggest challenge of NDs in precision medicine. This study presents the development of phototriggerable ND-based drug delivery systems, utilizing ortho-nitrobenzyl (o-NB) molecules as photocleavable linkers between drugs and nanocarriers. UV irradiation specifically cleaved o-NB molecules and then was followed by releasing antisense oligonucleotides from ND-based carriers in both buffer and cellular environments. This ND system carried cell nonpermeable therapeutic agents for bypassing lysosomal trapping and degradation. The presence of fluorescent nitrogen-vacancy centers also allowed NDs to serve as biological probes for tracing in cells. We successfully demonstrated phototriggered release of antisense oligonucleotides from ND-based nanocarriers, reactivating their antisense functions. This highlights the potential of NDs, photocleavable linkers, and light stimuli to create advanced drug delivery systems for controlled drug release in disease therapy, opening possibilities for targeted and personalized treatments.

Revolution in Cancer Treatment: How Are Intelligently Designed Nanostructures Changing the Game?

Nanoparticles (NPs) are extremely important tools to overcome the limitations imposed by therapeutic agents and effectively overcome biological barriers. Smart designed/tuned nanostructures can be extremely effective for cancer treatment. The selection and design of nanostructures and the adjustment of size and surface properties are extremely important, especially for some precision treatments and drug delivery (DD). By designing specific methods, an important era can be opened in the biomedical field for personalized and precise treatment. Here, we focus on advances in the selection and design of nanostructures, as well as on how the structure and shape, size, charge, and surface properties of nanostructures in biological fluids (BFs) can be affected. We discussed the applications of specialized nanostructures in the therapy of head and neck cancer (HNC), which is a difficult and aggressive type of cancer to treat, to give an impetus for novel treatment approaches in this field. We also comprehensively touched on the shortcomings, current trends, and future perspectives when using nanostructures in the treatment of cancer.

Polymeric Nanoparticles for Drug Delivery

The recent emergence of nanomedicine has revolutionized the therapeutic landscape and necessitated the creation of more sophisticated drug delivery systems. Polymeric nanoparticles sit at the forefront of numerous promising drug delivery designs, due to their unmatched control over physiochemical properties such as size, shape, architecture, charge, and surface functionality. Furthermore, polymeric nanoparticles have the ability to navigate various biological barriers to precisely target specific sites within the body, encapsulate a diverse range of therapeutic cargo and efficiently release this cargo in response to internal and external stimuli. However, despite these remarkable advantages, the presence of polymeric nanoparticles in wider clinical application is minimal. This review will provide a comprehensive understanding of polymeric nanoparticles as drug delivery vehicles. The biological barriers affecting drug delivery will be outlined first, followed by a comprehensive description of the various nanoparticle designs and preparation methods, beginning with the polymers on which they are based. The review will meticulously explore the current performance of polymeric nanoparticles against a myriad of diseases including cancer, viral and bacterial infections, before finally evaluating the advantages and crucial challenges that will determine their wider clinical potential in the decades to come.

Pancreatic cancer: from early detection to personalized treatment approaches

Pancreatic cancer is notorious for its persistently poor prognosis and health outcomes, so some of the questions that may be begged are "Why is it mostly diagnosed at end stage?", "What could we possibly do with the advancing technology in today's world to detect early pancreatic cancer and intervene?", and "Are there any implementation of the existing novel imaging technologies?". Well, to start with, this is in part because the majority of patients presented would already have reached a locally advanced or metastatic stage at the time of diagnosis due to its highly aggressive characteristics and lack of symptoms. Due to this striking disparity in survival, advancements in early detection and intervention are likely to significantly increase patients' survival. Presently, screening is frequently used in high-risk individuals in order to obtain an early pancreatic cancer diagnosis. Having a thorough understanding of the pathogenesis and risk factors of pancreatic cancer may enable us to identify individuals at high risk, diagnose the disease early, and begin treatment promptly. In this review, the authors outline the clinical hurdles to early pancreatic cancer detection, describe high-risk populations, and discuss current screening initiatives for high-risk individuals. The ultimate goal of this current review is to study the roles of both traditional and novel imaging modalities for early pancreatic cancer detection. A lot of the novel imaging techniques mentioned seem promising, but they need to be put to the test on a large scale and may need to be combined with other non-invasive biomarkers before they can be widely used.

The role of miR-155 in urologic malignancies

MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are a class of short non-coding RNAs that play a crucial role in regulating gene expression across multiple levels. They are involved in a wide range of physiological processes, including proliferation, differentiation, apoptosis, and cell cycle control. In recent years, miRNAs have emerged as pivotal regulatory molecules in the development and progression of tumors. Among these, miR-155 has garnered significant attention due to its high expression in various diseases, particularly urologic malignancies. Since an extensive corpus of studies having focused on the roles of miR-155 in various urologic malignancies, it is essential to summarize the current evidence on this topic through a comprehensive review. Altered miR-155 expression is related to various physiological and pathological processes, including immune response, inflammation, tumor development and treatment resistance. Notably, alterations in miR-155 expression have been observed in urologic malignancies as well. The up-regulation of miR-155 expression is commonly observed in urologic malignancies, contributing to their progression by targeting specific proteins and signaling pathways. This article provides a comprehensive review of the significant role played by miR-155 in the development of urologic malignancies. Furthermore, the potential of miR-155 as a biomarker and therapeutic target in urologic malignancies is also discussed.

Physiological Barriers and Strategies of Lipid-Based Nanoparticles for Nucleic Acid Drug Delivery

Lipid-based nanoparticles (LBNPs) are currently the most promising vehicles for nucleic acid drug (NAD) delivery. Although their clinical applications have achieved success, the NAD delivery efficiency and safety are still unsatisfactory, which are, to a large extent, due to the existence of multi-level physiological barriers in vivo. It is important to elucidate the interactions between these barriers and LBNPs, which will guide more rational design of efficient NAD vehicles with low adverse effects and facilitate broader applications of nucleic acid therapeutics. This review describes the obstacles and challenges of biological barriers to NAD delivery at systemic, organ, sub-organ, cellular, and subcellular levels. The strategies to overcome these barriers are comprehensively reviewed, mainly including physically/chemically engineering LBNPs and directly modifying physiological barriers by auxiliary treatments. Then the potentials and challenges for successful translation of these preclinical studies into the clinic are discussed. In the end, a forward look at the strategies on manipulating protein corona (PC) is addressed, which may pull off the trick of overcoming those physiological barriers and significantly improve the efficacy and safety of LBNP-based NADs delivery.

Iron nanoparticles as food additives and food supplements, regulatory and legislative perspectives

Recently, the use of nanotechnology in food has gained great interest. Iron nanoparticles with unique chemical, physical and structural properties allow their potential use mainly as iron fortifiers, colorants and antimicrobial agents. However, in the market we can find only supplements and food colorants based on iron nanoparticles. Their use in food fortification has so far been focused only on in vitro and in vivo experimental studies, since the toxicological evaluation of these studies has so far been the basis for the proposals of laws and regulations, which are still in an early stage of development. Therefore, the aim of this work was to summarize the use of the different forms of iron nanoparticles (oxides, oxyhydroxides, phosphates, pyrophosphates and sulfates) as food additives and supplements and to resume the perspectives of legislation regarding the use of these types of nanoparticles in the food industry.

Liposome-Hydrogel Composites for Controlled Drug Delivery Applications

Various controlled delivery systems (CDSs) have been developed to overcome the shortcomings of traditional drug formulations (tablets, capsules, syrups, ointments, etc.). Among innovative CDSs, hydrogels and liposomes have shown great promise for clinical applications thanks to their cost-effectiveness, well-known chemistry and synthetic feasibility, biodegradability, biocompatibility and responsiveness to external stimuli. To date, several liposomal- and hydrogel-based products have been approved to treat cancer, as well as fungal and viral infections, hence the integration of liposomes into hydrogels has attracted increasing attention because of the benefit from both of them into a single platform, resulting in a multifunctional drug formulation, which is essential to develop efficient CDSs. This short review aims to present an updated report on the advancements of liposome-hydrogel systems for drug delivery purposes.

Nanoparticles incorporated hydrogels for delivery of antimicrobial agents: developments and trends

The prevention and treatment of microbial infections is an imminent global public health concern due to the poor antimicrobial performance of the existing antimicrobial regime and rapidly emerging antibiotic resistance in pathogenic microbes. In order to overcome these problems and effectively control bacterial infections, various new treatment modalities have been identified. To attempt this, various micro- and macro-molecular antimicrobial agents that function by microbial membrane disruption have been developed with improved antimicrobial activity and lesser resistance. Antimicrobial nanoparticle-hydrogels systems comprising antimicrobial agents (antibiotics, biological extracts, and antimicrobial peptides) loaded nanoparticles or antimicrobial nanoparticles (metal or metal oxide) constitute an important class of biomaterials for the prevention and treatment of infections. Hydrogels that incorporate nanoparticles can offer an effective strategy for delivering antimicrobial agents (or nanoparticles) in a controlled, sustained, and targeted manner. In this review, we have described an overview of recent advancements in nanoparticle-hydrogel hybrid systems for antimicrobial agent delivery. Firstly, we have provided an overview of the nanoparticle hydrogel system and discussed various advantages of these systems in biomedical and pharmaceutical applications. Thereafter, different hybrid hydrogel systems encapsulating antibacterial metal/metal oxide nanoparticles, polymeric nanoparticles, antibiotics, biological extracts, and antimicrobial peptides for controlling infections have been reviewed in detail. Finally, the challenges and future prospects of nanoparticle-hydrogel systems have been discussed.

Combination of Physicochemical Tropism and Affinity Moiety Targeting of Lipid Nanoparticles Enhances Organ Targeting

Two camps have emerged for targeting nanoparticles to specific organs and cell types: affinity moiety targeting and physicochemical tropism. Here we directly compare and combine both using intravenous (IV) lipid nanoparticles (LNPs) designed to target the lungs. We utilized PECAM antibodies as affinity moieties and cationic lipids for physicochemical tropism. These methods yield nearly identical lung uptake, but aPECAM LNPs show higher endothelial specificity. LNPs combining these targeting methods had >2-fold higher lung uptake than either method alone and markedly enhanced epithelial uptake. To determine if lung uptake is because the lungs are the first organ downstream of IV injection, we compared IV vs intra-arterial (IA) injection into the carotid artery, finding that IA combined-targeting LNPs achieve 35% of the injected dose per gram (%ID/g) in the first-pass organ, the brain, among the highest reported. Thus, combining the affinity moiety and physicochemical strategies provides benefits that neither targeting method achieves alone.

Synthesis of cationic liposome nanoparticles using a thin film dispersed hydration and extrusion method

Liposome nanoparticles can carry a wide range of therapeutic molecules including small molecules and nucleic acid-based therapeutics. Potential benefits include translocation across physiological barriers, reduced systemic toxicity, and enhanced pharmacokinetic parameters such as absorption, distribution, selective release and optimal elimination kinetics. Liposome nanoparticles can be generated with a wide range of natural and synthetic lipid-based molecules that confer desirable properties depending on the desired therapeutic application Nel et al (2023), Large (2021), Elkhoury (2020). This protocol article seeks to detail the procedures involved in the production of cationic liposomes using thin-film dispersed hydration method with an estimated uniform size of 60-70 nm for targeted drug administration in tumor cells, by modifying the previous one also published by the same authors cited here. The method was carrying out using N-[1-(2,3-dioleoyloxy)propyl]-N,N,N-trimethylammonium methyl (DOTAP, 2 mg) as cationic lipid and cholesterol (0.5 mg) in a molar ratio of 7:3 respectively. The liposomal suspension was obtained and its physical, chemical and biological properties were determined. A two-step extrusion process, using 100 nm and 50 nm polycarbonate membranes, was carried. The results demonstrate generation of liposome nanoparticles with a size of 60-70 nm stable for at least 16 weeks and with an encapsulation efficiency of approximately 81% using Doxorubicin.

Cell-Surface Binding of DNA Nanostructures for Enhanced Intracellular and Intranuclear Delivery

DNA nanostructures (DNs) have found increasing use in biosensing, drug delivery, and therapeutics because of their customizable assembly, size and shape control, and facile functionalization. However, their limited cellular uptake and nuclear delivery have hindered their effectiveness in these applications. Here, we demonstrate the potential of applying cell-surface binding as a general strategy to enable rapid enhancement of intracellular and intranuclear delivery of DNs. By targeting the plasma membrane via cholesterol anchors or the cell-surface glycocalyx using click chemistry, we observe a significant 2 to 8-fold increase in the cellular uptake of three distinct types of DNs that include nanospheres, nanorods, and nanotiles, within a short time frame of half an hour. Several factors are found to play a critical role in modulating the uptake of DNs, including their geometries, the valency, positioning and spacing of binding moieties. Briefly, nanospheres are universally preferable for cell surface attachment and internalization. However, edge-decorated nanotiles compensate for their geometry deficiency and outperform nanospheres in both categories. In addition, we confirm the short-term structural stability of DNs by incubating them with cell medium and cell lysate. Further, we investigate the endocytic pathway of cell-surface bound DNs and reveal that it is an interdependent process involving multiple pathways, similar to those of unmodified DNs. Finally, we demonstrate that cell-surface attached DNs exhibit a substantial enhancement in the intranuclear delivery. Our findings present an application that leverages cell-surface binding to potentially overcome the limitations of low cellular uptake, which may strengthen and expand the toolbox for effective cellular and nuclear delivery of DNA nanostructure systems.

Nanocarriers address intracellular barriers for efficient drug delivery, overcoming drug resistance, subcellular targeting and controlled release

The cellular barriers are major bottlenecks for bioactive compounds entering into cells to accomplish their biological functions, which limits their biomedical applications. Nanocarriers have demonstrated high potential and benefits for encapsulating bioactive compounds and efficiently delivering them into target cells by overcoming a cascade of intracellular barriers to achieve desirable therapeutic and diagnostic effects. In this review, we introduce the cellular barriers ahead of drug delivery and nanocarriers, as well as summarize recent advances and strategies of nanocarriers for increasing internalization with cells, promoting intracellular trafficking, overcoming drug resistance, targeting subcellular locations and controlled drug release. Lastly, the future perspectives of nanocarriers for intracellular drug delivery are discussed, which mainly focus on potential challenges and future directions. Our review presents an overview of intracellular drug delivery by nanocarriers, which may encourage the future development of nanocarriers for efficient and precision drug delivery into a wide range of cells and subcellular targets.

A Journey of Challenges and Victories: A Bibliometric Worldview of Nanomedicine since the 21st Century

Nanotechnology profoundly affects the advancement of medicine. Limitations in diagnosing and treating cancer and chronic diseases promote the growth of nanomedicine. However, there are very few analytical and descriptive studies regarding the trajectory of nanomedicine, key research powers, present research landscape, focal investigative points, and future outlooks. Herein, articles and reviews published in the Science Citation Index Expanded of Web of Science Core Collection from first January 2000 to 18th July 2023 are analyzed. Herein, a bibliometric visualization of publication trends, countries/regions, institutions, journals, research categories, themes, references, and keywords is produced and elaborated. Nanomedicine-related academic output is increasing since the COVID-19 pandemic, solidifying the uneven global distribution of research performance. While China leads in terms of publication quantity and has numerous highly productive institutions, the USA has advantages in academic impact, commercialization, and industrial value. Nanomedicine integrates with other disciplines, establishing interdisciplinary platforms, in which drug delivery and nanoparticles remain focal points. Current research focuses on integrating nanomedicine and cell ferroptosis induction in cancer immunotherapy. The keyword "burst testing" identifies promising research directions, including immunogenic cell death, chemodynamic therapy, tumor microenvironment, immunotherapy, and extracellular vesicles. The prospects, major challenges, and barriers to addressing these directions are discussed.

Conjugation to gold nanoparticles of methionine gamma-lyase, a cancer-starving enzyme. Physicochemical characterization of the nanocomplex for prospective nanomedicine applications

The pyridoxal 5'-dependent enzyme methionine γ-lyase (MGL) catalyzes the degradation of methionine. This activity has been profitable to develop an antitumor agent exploiting the strict dependence of most malignant cells on the availability of methionine. Indeed, methionine depletion blocks tumor proliferation and leads to an increased susceptibility to anticancer drugs. Here, we explore the conjugation of MGL to gold nanoparticles capped with citrate (AuNPs) as a novel strategy to deliver MGL to cancer cells. Measurements of Transmission Electron Microscopy, Dynamic Light Scattering, Asymmetrical Flow Field-Flow Fractionation, X-ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy, and Circular Dichroism allowed to achieve an extensive biophysical and biochemical characterization of the MGL-AuNP complex including particle size, size distribution, MGL loading yield, enzymatic activity, and impact of gold surface on protein structure. Noticeably, we found that activity retention was improved over time for the enzyme adsorbed to AuNPs with respect to the enzyme free in solution. The acquired body of knowledge on the nanocomplex properties and this encouraging stabilizing effect upon conjugation are the necessary basis for further studies aimed at the evaluation of the therapeutic potential of MGL-AuNP complex in a biological milieu.

Polyethylene Glycol-Based Polymer-Drug Conjugates: Novel Design and Synthesis Strategies for Enhanced Therapeutic Efficacy and Targeted Drug Delivery

Due to their potential to enhance therapeutic results and enable targeted drug administration, polymer-drug conjugates that use polyethylene glycol (PEG) as both the polymer and the linker for drug conjugation have attracted much research. This study seeks to investigate recent developments in the design and synthesis of PEG-based polymer-drug conjugates, emphasizing fresh ideas that fill in existing knowledge gaps and satisfy the increasing need for more potent drug delivery methods. Through an extensive review of the existing literature, this study identifies key challenges and proposes innovative strategies for future investigations. The paper presents a comprehensive framework for designing and synthesizing PEG-based polymer-drug conjugates, including rational molecular design, linker selection, conjugation methods, and characterization techniques. To further emphasize the importance and adaptability of PEG-based polymer-drug conjugates, prospective applications are highlighted, including cancer treatment, infectious disorders, and chronic ailments.

Fe3O4SPIONs in cancer theranostics-structure versus interactions with proteins and methods of their investigation

As the second leading cause of death worldwide, neoplastic diseases are one of the biggest challenges for public health care. Contemporary medicine seeks potential tools for fighting cancer within nanomedicine, as various nanomaterials can be used for both diagnostics and therapies. Among those of particular interest are superparamagnetic iron oxide nanoparticles (SPIONs), due to their unique magnetic properties,. However, while the number of new SPIONs, suitably modified and functionalized, designed for medical purposes, has been gradually increasing, it has not yet been translated into the number of approved clinical solutions. The presented review covers various issues related to SPIONs of potential theranostic applications. It refers to structural considerations (the nanoparticle core, most often used modifications and functionalizations) and the ways of characterizing newly designed nanoparticles. The discussion about the phenomenon of protein corona formation leads to the conclusion that the scarcity of proper tools to investigate the interactions between SPIONs and human serum proteins is the reason for difficulties in introducing them into clinical applications. The review emphasizes the importance of understanding the mechanism behind the protein corona formation, as it has a crucial impact on the effectiveness of designed SPIONs in the physiological environment.

Versatile Nanoparticulate Systems as a Prosperous Platform for Targeted Nose-Brain Drug Delivery

The intranasal route has proven to be a reliable and promising route for delivering therapeutics to the central nervous system (CNS), averting the blood-brain barrier (BBB) and avoiding extensive first-pass metabolism of some drugs, with minimal systemic exposure. This is considered to be the main problem associated with other routes of drug delivery such as oral, parenteral, and transdermal, among other administration methods. The intranasal route maximizes drug bioavailability, particularly those susceptible to enzymatic degradation such as peptides and proteins. This review will stipulate an overview of the intranasal route as a channel for drug delivery, including its benefits and drawbacks, as well as different mechanisms of CNS drug targeting using nanoparticulate drug delivery systems devices; it also focuses on pharmaceutical dosage forms such as drops, sprays, or gels via the nasal route comprising different polymers, absorption promoters, CNS ligands, and permeation enhancers.

Benefits and Pitfalls of a Glycosylation Inhibitor Tunicamycin in the Therapeutic Implication of Cancers

The aberrant glycosylation is a hallmark of cancer progression and chemoresistance. It is also an immune therapeutic target for various cancers. Tunicamycin (TM) is one of the potent nucleoside antibiotics and an inhibitor of aberrant glycosylation in various cancer cells, including breast cancer, gastric cancer, and pancreatic cancer, parallel with the inhibition of cancer cell growth and progression of tumors. Like chemotherapies such as doxorubicin (DOX), 5'fluorouracil, etoposide, and cisplatin, TM induces the unfolded protein response (UPR) by blocking aberrant glycosylation. Consequently, stress is induced in the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) that promotes apoptosis. TM can thus be considered a potent antitumor drug in various cancers and may promote chemosensitivity. However, its lack of cell-type-specific cytotoxicity impedes its anticancer efficacy. In this review, we focus on recent advances in our understanding of the benefits and pitfalls of TM therapies in various cancers, including breast, colon, and pancreatic cancers, and discuss the mechanisms identified by which TM functions. Finally, we discuss the potential use of nano-based drug delivery systems to overcome non-specific toxicity and enhance the therapeutic efficacy of TM as a targeted therapy.

A Review of the Potential of Poly-(lactide-co-glycolide) Nanoparticles as a Delivery System for an Active Antimycobacterial Compound, 7-Methyljuglone

7-Methyljuglone (7-MJ) is a pure compound isolated from the roots of Euclea natalensis A. DC., a shrub indigenous to South Africa. It exhibits significant promise as a potential treatment for the highly communicable disease tuberculosis (TB), owing to its effective antimycobacterial activity against Mycobacterium tuberculosis. Despite its potential therapeutic benefits, 7-MJ has demonstrated in vitro cytotoxicity against various cancerous and non-cancerous cell lines, raising concerns about its safety for consumption by TB patients. Therefore, this review focuses on exploring the potential of poly-(lactide-co-glycolic) acid (PLGA) nanoparticles as a delivery system, which has been shown to decrease in vitro cytotoxicity, and 7-MJ as an effective antimycobacterial compound.

Engineered extracellular vesicles: A new approach for targeted therapy of tumors and overcoming drug resistance

Targeted delivery of anti-tumor drugs and overcoming drug resistance in malignant tumor cells remain significant clinical challenges. However, there are only few effective methods to address these issues. Extracellular vesicles (EVs), actively secreted by cells, play a crucial role in intercellular information transmission and cargo transportation. Recent studies have demonstrated that engineered EVs can serve as drug delivery carriers and showed promising application prospects. Nevertheless, there is an urgent need for further improvements in the isolation and purification of EVs, surface modification techniques, drug assembly processes, and precise recognition of tumor cells for targeted drug delivery purposes. In this review, we summarize the applications of engineered EVs in cancer treatment and overcoming drug resistance, and current challenges associated with engineered EVs are also discussed. This review aims to provide new insights and potential directions for utilizing engineered EVs as targeted delivery systems for anti-tumor drugs and overcoming drug resistance in the near future.

Recent progress in drug delivery systems for tyrosine kinase inhibitors in the treatment of lung cancer

Lung cancer ranks as the second most commonly diagnosed cancer in both men and women worldwide. Despite the availability of diverse diagnostic and treatment strategies, it remains the leading cause of cancer-related deaths globally. The current treatment approaches for lung cancer involve the utilization of first generation (e.g., erlotinib, gefitinib) and second generation (e.g., afatinib) tyrosine kinase inhibitors (TKIs). These TKIs exert their effects by inhibiting a crucial enzyme called tyrosine kinase, which is responsible for cell survival signaling. However, their clinical effectiveness is hindered by limited solubility and oral bioavailability. Nanotechnology has emerged as a significant application in modern cancer therapy. Nanoparticle-based drug delivery systems, including lipid, polymeric, hybrid, inorganic, dendrimer, and micellar nanoparticles, have been designed to enhance the bioavailability, stability, and retention of these drugs within the targeted lung area. Furthermore, these nanoparticle-based delivery systems offer several advantages, such as increased therapeutic efficacy and reduced side effects and toxicity. This review focuses on the recent advancements in drug delivery systems for some of the most important TKIs, shedding light on their potential in improving lung cancer treatment.

Diverse drug delivery systems for the enhancement of cancer immunotherapy: an overview

Despite the clear benefits demonstrated by immunotherapy, there is still an inevitable off-target effect resulting in serious adverse immune reactions. In recent years, the research and development of Drug Delivery System (DDS) has received increased prominence. In decades of development, DDS has demonstrated the ability to deliver drugs in a precisely targeted manner to mitigate side effects and has the advantages of flexible control of drug release, improved pharmacokinetics, and drug distribution. Therefore, we consider that combining cancer immunotherapy with DDS can enhance the anti-tumor ability. In this paper, we provide an overview of the latest drug delivery strategies in cancer immunotherapy and briefly introduce the characteristics of DDS based on nano-carriers (liposomes, polymer nano-micelles, mesoporous silica, extracellular vesicles, etc.) and coupling technology (ADCs, PDCs and targeted protein degradation). Our aim is to show readers a variety of drug delivery platforms under different immune mechanisms, and analyze their advantages and limitations, to provide more superior and accurate targeting strategies for cancer immunotherapy.

Exploring the Impact of Nanoparticle Stealth Coatings in Cancer Models: From PEGylation to Cell Membrane-Coating Nanotechnology

Nanotechnological platforms offer advantages over conventional therapeutic and diagnostic modalities. However, the efficient biointerfacing of nanomaterials for biomedical applications remains challenging. In recent years, nanoparticles (NPs) with different coatings have been developed to reduce nonspecific interactions, prolong circulation time, and improve therapeutic outcomes. This study aims to compare various NP coatings to enhance surface engineering for more effective nanomedicines. We prepared and characterized polystyrene NPs with different coatings of poly(ethylene glycol), bovine serum albumin, chitosan, and cell membranes from a human breast cancer cell line. The coating was found to affect the colloidal stability, adhesion, and elastic modulus of NPs. Protein corona formation and cellular uptake of NPs were also investigated, and a 3D tumor model was employed to provide a more realistic representation of the tumor microenvironment. The prepared NPs were found to reduce protein adsorption, and cell-membrane-coated NPs showed significantly higher cellular uptake. The secretion of proinflammatory cytokines in human monocytes after incubation with the prepared NPs was evaluated. Overall, the study demonstrates the importance of coatings in affecting the behavior and interaction of nanosystems with biological entities. The findings provide insight into bionano interactions and are important for the effective implementation of stealth surface engineering designs.

Harnessing Nanotechnology: Emerging Strategies for Multiple Myeloma Therapy

Advances in nanotechnology have provided novel avenues for the diagnosis and treatment of multiple myeloma (MM), a hematological malignancy characterized by the clonal proliferation of plasma cells in the bone marrow. This review elucidates the potential of nanotechnology to revolutionize myeloma therapy, focusing on nanoparticle-based drug delivery systems, nanoscale imaging techniques, and nano-immunotherapy. Nanoparticle-based drug delivery systems offer enhanced drug targeting, reduced systemic toxicity, and improved therapeutic efficacy. We discuss the latest developments in nanocarriers, such as liposomes, polymeric nanoparticles, and inorganic nanoparticles, used for the delivery of chemotherapeutic agents, siRNA, and miRNA in MM treatment. We delve into nanoscale imaging techniques which provide spatial multi-omic data, offering a holistic view of the tumor microenvironment. This spatial resolution can help decipher the complex interplay between cancer cells and their surrounding environment, facilitating the development of highly targeted therapies. Lastly, we explore the burgeoning field of nano-immunotherapy, which employs nanoparticles to modulate the immune system for myeloma treatment. Specifically, we consider how nanoparticles can be used to deliver tumor antigens to antigen-presenting cells, thus enhancing the body's immune response against myeloma cells. In conclusion, nanotechnology holds great promise for improving the prognosis and quality of life of MM patients. However, several challenges remain, including the need for further preclinical and clinical trials to assess the safety and efficacy of these emerging strategies. Future research should also focus on developing personalized nanomedicine approaches, which could tailor treatments to individual patients based on their genetic and molecular profiles.

Targosomes: Anti-HER2 PLGA nanocarriers for bioimaging, chemotherapy and local photothermal treatment of tumors and remote metastases

Developing combined cancer therapy strategies is of utmost importance as it can enhance treatment efficacy, overcome drug resistance, and ultimately improve patient outcomes by targeting multiple pathways and mechanisms involved in cancer growth and progression. Specifically, the potential of developing a combination chemo&photothermal therapy using targeted polymer nanoparticles as nanocarriers offers a promising approach for synergistic cancer treatment by combining the benefits of both therapies, such as targeted drug delivery and localized hyperthermia. Here, we report the first targeted anti-HER2 PLGA nanocarriers, called targosomes, that simultaneously possess photothermal, chemotherapeutic and diagnostic properties using only molecular payloads. Biocompatible poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid), PLGA, nanoparticles were loaded with photosensitizer phthalocyanine, diagnostic dye Nile Blue, and chemotherapeutic drug irinotecan, which was chosen as a result of screening a panel of theragnostic nanoparticles. The targeted delivery to cell surface oncomarker HER2 was ensured by nanoparticle modification with the anti-HER2 monoclonal antibody, trastuzumab, using the one-pot synthesis method without chemical conjugation. The irradiation tests revealed prominent photothermal properties of nanoparticles, namely heating by 35 °C in 10 min. Nanoparticles exhibited a 7-fold increase in binding and nearly an 18-fold increase in cytotoxicity for HER2-overexpressing cells compared to cells lacking HER2 expression. This enhancement of cytotoxicity was further amplified by >20-fold under NIR light irradiation. In vivo studies proved the efficacy of nanoparticles for bioimaging of primary tumor and metastasis sites and demonstrated 93% tumor growth inhibition, making these nanoparticles excellent candidates for translation into theragnostic applications.

Satellite-Type Sulfur Atom Distribution in Trithiocarbonate Bond-Bridged Dimeric Prodrug Nanoassemblies: Achieving Both Stability and Activatability

Homodimeric prodrug nanoassemblies (HDPNs) hold promise for improving the delivery efficiency of chemo-drugs. However, the key challenge lies in designing rational chemical linkers that can simultaneously ensure the chemical stability, self-assembly stability, and site-specific activation of prodrugs. The "in series" increase in sulfur atoms, such as trisulfide bond, can improve the assembly stability of HDPNs to a certain extent, but limits the chemical stability of prodrugs. Herein, trithiocarbonate bond (─SC(S)S─), with a stable "satellite-type" distribution of sulfur atoms, is developed via the insertion of a central carbon atom in trisulfide bonds. ─SC(S)S─ bond effectively addresses the existing predicament of HDPNs by improving the chemical and self-assembly stability of homodimeric prodrugs while maintaining the on-demand bioactivation. Furthermore, ─SC(S)S─ bond inhibits antioxidant defense system, leading to up-regulation of the cellular ROS and apoptosis of tumor cells. These improvements of ─SC(S)S─ bond endow the HDPNs with in vivo longevity and tumor specificity, ultimately enhancing the therapeutic outcomes. ─SC(S)S─ bond is, therefore, promising for overcoming the bottleneck of HDPNs for efficient oncological therapy.

Nanoparticle Isolation from Biological Media for Protein Corona Analysis: The Impact of Incubation and Recovery Protocols on Nanoparticle Properties

Nanoparticles are increasingly implemented in biomedical applications, including the diagnosis and treatment of disease. When exposed to complex biological media, nanoparticles spontaneously interact with their surrounding environment, leading to the surface-adsorption of small and bio- macromolecules- termed the "corona". Corona composition is governed by nanoparticle properties and incubation parameters. While the focus of most studies is on the protein signature of the nanoparticle corona, the impact of experimental protocols on nanoparticle size in the presence of complex biological media, and the impact of nanoparticle recovery from biological media has not yet been reported. Here using a non-degradable robust model, we show how centrifugation-resuspension protocols used for the isolation of nanoparticles from incubation media, incubation duration and shear flow conditions alter nanoparticle parameters including particle size, zeta potential and total protein content. Our results show significant changes in nanoparticle size following exposure to media containing protein under different flow conditions, which also altered the composition of surface-adsorbed proteins profiled by SDS-PAGE. Our in situ analysis of nanoparticle size in media containing protein using particle tracking analysis highlights that centrifugation-resuspension is disruptive to agglomerates that are spontaneously formed in protein containing media, highlighting the need for in situ analytical methods that do not alter the intermediates formed following nanoparticle exposure to biological media. Nanomedicines are mostly intended for parenteral administration, and our findings show that parameters such as shear flow can significantly alter nanoparticle physicochemical parameters. Overall, we show that the centrifugation-resuspension isolation of nanoparticles from media significantly alters particle parameters in addition to the overall protein composition of surface-adsorbed proteins. We recommend that nanoparticle characterization pipelines studying bio-nano interactions during early nanomedicine development consider biologically-relevant shear flow conditions and media composition that can significantly alter particle physical parameters and subsequent conclusions from these studies.

Laser-Synthesized Elemental Boron Nanoparticles for Efficient Boron Neutron Capture Therapy

Boron neutron capture therapy (BNCT) is one of the most appealing radiotherapy modalities, whose localization can be further improved by the employment of boron-containing nanoformulations, but the fabrication of biologically friendly, water-dispersible nanoparticles (NPs) with high boron content and favorable physicochemical characteristics still presents a great challenge. Here, we explore the use of elemental boron (B) NPs (BNPs) fabricated using the methods of pulsed laser ablation in liquids as sensitizers of BNCT. Depending on the conditions of laser-ablative synthesis, the used NPs were amorphous (a-BNPs) or partially crystallized (pc-BNPs) with a mean size of 20 nm or 50 nm, respectively. Both types of BNPs were functionalized with polyethylene glycol polymer to improve colloidal stability and biocompatibility. The NPs did not initiate any toxicity effects up to concentrations of 500 µg/mL, based on the results of MTT and clonogenic assay tests. The cells with BNPs incubated at a 10B concentration of 40 µg/mL were then irradiated with a thermal neutron beam for 30 min. We found that the presence of BNPs led to a radical enhancement in cancer cell death, namely a drop in colony forming capacity of SW-620 cells down to 12.6% and 1.6% for a-BNPs and pc-BNPs, respectively, while the relevant colony-forming capacity for U87 cells dropped down to 17%. The effect of cell irradiation by neutron beam uniquely was negligible under these conditions. Finally, to estimate the dose and regimes of irradiation for future BNCT in vivo tests, we studied the biodistribution of boron under intratumoral administration of BNPs in immunodeficient SCID mice and recorded excellent retention of boron in tumors. The obtained data unambiguously evidenced the effect of a neutron therapy enhancement, which can be attributed to efficient BNP-mediated generation of α-particles.

A detailed insight of the tumor targeting using nanocarrier drug delivery system

Human struggle against the deadly disease conditions is continued since ages. The contribution of science and technology in fighting against these diseases cannot be ignored exclusively due to the invention of novel procedure and products, extending their size ranges from micro to nano. Recently nanotechnology has been gaining more consideration for its ability to diagnose and treat different cancers. Different nanoparticles have been used to evade the issues related with conservative anticancer delivery systems, including their nonspecificity, adverse effects and burst release. These nanocarriers including, solid lipid nanoparticles (SLNs), liposomes, nano lipid carriers (NLCs), nano micelles, nanocomposites, polymeric and magnetic nanocarriers, have brought revolutions in antitumor drug delivery. Nanocarriers improved the therapeutic efficacy of anticancer drugs with better accumulation at the specific site with sustained release, improved bioavailability and apoptosis of the cancer cells while bypassing the normal cells. In this review, the cancer targeting techniques and surface modification on nanoparticles are discussed briefly with possible challenges and opportunities. It can be concluded that understanding the role of nanomedicine in tumor treatment is significant, and therefore, the modern progressions in this arena is essential to be considered for a prosperous today and an affluent future of tumor patients.

Old age as a risk factor for liver diseases: Modern therapeutic approaches

Recent scientific interest has been directed towards age-related diseases, driven by the significant increase in global life expectancy and the growing population of individuals aged 65 and above. The ageing process encompasses various biological, physiological, environmental, psychological, behavioural, and social changes, leading to an augmented susceptibility to chronic illnesses. Cardiovascular, neurological, musculoskeletal, liver and oncological diseases are prevalent in the elderly. Moreover, ageing individuals demonstrate reduced regenerative capacity and decreased tolerance towards therapeutic interventions, including organ transplantation. Liver diseases, such as non-alcoholic fatty liver disease, alcoholic liver disease, hepatitis, fibrosis, and cirrhosis, have emerged as significant public health concerns. Paradoxically, these conditions remain underestimated despite their substantial global impact. Age-related factors are closely associated with the severity and unfavorable prognosis of various liver diseases, warranting further investigation to enhance clinical management and develop novel therapeutic strategies. This comprehensive review focuses specifically on age-related liver diseases, their treatment strategies, and contemporary practices. It provides a detailed account of the global burden, types, molecular mechanisms, and epigenetic alterations underlying these liver pathologies.

Advance in placenta drug delivery: concern for placenta-originated disease therapy

In the therapy of placenta-originated diseases during pregnancy, the main challenges are fetal exposure to drugs, which can pass through the placenta and cause safety concerns for fetal development. The design of placenta-resident drug delivery system is an advantageous method to minimize fetal exposure as well as reduce adverse maternal off-target effects. By utilizing the placenta as a biological barrier, the placenta-resident nanodrugs could be trapped in the local placenta to concentrate on the treatment of this abnormal originated tissue. Therefore, the success of such systems largely depends on the placental retention capacity. This paper expounds on the transport mechanism of nanodrugs in the placenta, analyzes the factors that affect the placental retention of nanodrugs, and summarizes the advantages and concerns of current nanoplatforms in the treatment of placenta-originated diseases. In general, this review aims to provide a theoretical basis for the construction of placenta-resident drug delivery systems, which will potentially enable safe and efficient clinical treatment for placenta-originated diseases in the future.

Recent progress in the development of nanomaterials targeting multiple cancer metabolic pathways: a review of mechanistic approaches for cancer treatment

Cancer is a very heterogeneous disease, and uncontrolled cell division is the main characteristic of cancer. Cancerous cells need a high nutrition intake to enable aberrant growth and survival. To do so, cancer cells modify metabolic pathways to produce energy and anabolic precursors and preserve redox balance. Due to the importance of metabolic pathways in tumor growth and malignant transformation, metabolic pathways have also been given promising perspectives for cancer treatment, providing more effective treatment strategies, and target-specific with minimum side effects. Metabolism-based therapeutic nanomaterials for targeted cancer treatment are a promising option. Numerous types of nanoparticles (NPs) are employed in the research and analysis of various cancer therapies. The current review focuses on cutting-edge strategies and current cancer therapy methods based on nanomaterials that target various cancer metabolisms. Additionally, it highlighted the primacy of NPs-based cancer therapies over traditional ones, the challenges, and the future potential.

Silica nanoparticles: A review of their safety and current strategies to overcome biological barriers

Silica nanoparticles (SNP) have gained tremendous attention in the recent decades. They have been used in many different biomedical fields including diagnosis, biosensing and drug delivery. Medical uses of SNP for anti-cancer, anti-microbial and theranostic applications are especially prominent due to their exceptional performance to deliver many different small molecules and recently biologics (mRNA, siRNA, antigens, antibodies, proteins, and peptides) at targeted sites. The physical and chemical properties of SNP such as large specific surface area, tuneable particle size and porosity, excellent biodegradability and biocompatibility make them an ideal drug delivery and diagnostic platform. Based on the available data and the pre-clinical performance of SNP, recent interest has driven these innovative materials towards clinical application with many of the formulations already in Phase I and Phase II trials. Herein, the progress of SNP in biomedical field is reviewed, and their safety aspects are analysed. Importantly, we critically evaluate the key structural characteristics of SNP to overcome different biological barriers including the blood-brain barrier (BBB), skin, tumour barrier and mucosal barrier. Future directions, potential pathways, and target areas towards rapid clinical translation of SNP are also recommended.

Ligand-based active targeting strategies for cancer theranostics

In the past decades, for the intermediate or advanced cancerous stages, preclinical and clinical applications of nanomedicines in cancer theranostics have been extensively studied. Nevertheless, decreased specificity and poor targeting efficiency with low target concentration of theranostic are the major drawbacks of nanomedicine in employing clinical substitution over conventional systemic therapy. Consequently, ligand decorated nanocarrier-mediated targeted drug delivery system can transcend the obstructions through their enhanced retention activity and increased permeability with effective targeting. The highly efficient and specific nanocarrier-mediated ligand-based active therapy is one of the novel and promising approaches for delivery of the therapeutics for different cancers in recent years to restrict various cancer growth in vivo without harming healthy cells. The article encapsulates the features of nanocarrier-mediated ligands in augmentation of active targeting approaches of various cancers and summarizes ligand-based targeted delivery systems in treatment of cancer as plausible theranostics.

Emerging drug delivery systems with traditional routes - A roadmap to chronic inflammatory diseases

Inflammation is prevalent and inevitable in daily life but can generally be accommodated by the immune systems. However, incapable self-healing and persistent inflammation can progress to chronic inflammation, leading to prevalent or fatal chronic diseases. This review comprehensively covers the topic of emerging drug delivery systems (DDSs) for the treatment of chronic inflammatory diseases (CIDs). First, we introduce the basic biology of the chronic inflammatory process and provide an overview of the main CIDs of the major organs. Next, up-to-date information on various DDSs and the associated strategies for ensuring targeted delivery and stimuli-responsiveness applied to CIDs are discussed extensively. The implementation of traditional routes of drug administration to maximize their therapeutic effects against CIDs is then summarized. Finally, perspectives on future DDSs against CIDs are presented.

Smart nanoparticles for cancer therapy

Smart nanoparticles, which can respond to biological cues or be guided by them, are emerging as a promising drug delivery platform for precise cancer treatment. The field of oncology, nanotechnology, and biomedicine has witnessed rapid progress, leading to innovative developments in smart nanoparticles for safer and more effective cancer therapy. In this review, we will highlight recent advancements in smart nanoparticles, including polymeric nanoparticles, dendrimers, micelles, liposomes, protein nanoparticles, cell membrane nanoparticles, mesoporous silica nanoparticles, gold nanoparticles, iron oxide nanoparticles, quantum dots, carbon nanotubes, black phosphorus, MOF nanoparticles, and others. We will focus on their classification, structures, synthesis, and intelligent features. These smart nanoparticles possess the ability to respond to various external and internal stimuli, such as enzymes, pH, temperature, optics, and magnetism, making them intelligent systems. Additionally, this review will explore the latest studies on tumor targeting by functionalizing the surfaces of smart nanoparticles with tumor-specific ligands like antibodies, peptides, transferrin, and folic acid. We will also summarize different types of drug delivery options, including small molecules, peptides, proteins, nucleic acids, and even living cells, for their potential use in cancer therapy. While the potential of smart nanoparticles is promising, we will also acknowledge the challenges and clinical prospects associated with their use. Finally, we will propose a blueprint that involves the use of artificial intelligence-powered nanoparticles in cancer treatment applications. By harnessing the potential of smart nanoparticles, this review aims to usher in a new era of precise and personalized cancer therapy, providing patients with individualized treatment options.

Engineered mesenchymal stem cell-derived extracellular vesicles constitute a versatile platform for targeted drug delivery

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are promising therapeutic carriers owing to their ideal size range and intrinsic biocompatibility. However, limited targeting ability has caused major setbacks in the clinical application of EV therapeutics. To overcome this, we genetically engineered natural free streptavidin (SA) on the cellular surface of bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells (BMSCs) and obtained typical EVs from these cells (BMSC-EVs). Biotin-coated gold nanoparticles confirmed the expression of SA on the membrane of EVs, which has a high affinity for biotinylated molecules. Using a squamous cell carcinoma model, we demonstrated that a pH-sensitive fusogenic peptide -modification of BMSC-EVs achieved targetability in the microenvironment of a hypoxic tumor to deliver anti-tumor drugs. Using EGFR+HER2- and EGFR-HER2+ breast cancer models, we demonstrated that anti-EGFR and anti-HER2 modifications of BMSC-EVs were able to specifically deliver drugs to EGFR+ and HER2+ tumors, respectively. Using a collagen-induced arthritis model, we confirmed that anti-IL12/IL23-modified BMSC-EVs specifically accumulated in the arthritic joint and alleviated inflammation. Administration of SA-overexpressing BMSC-EVs has limited immunogenicity and high safety in vivo, suggesting that BMSC-derived EVs are ideal drug delivery vehicle. These representative scenarios of targeting modification suggest that, using different biotinylated molecules, the SA-overexpressing BMSC-EVs could be endowed with different targetabilities, which allows BMSC-EVs to serve as a versatile platform for targeted drug delivery under various situations.

Neuroinflammation in the Evolution of Motor Function in Stroke and Trauma Patients: Treatment and Potential Biomarkers

Neuroinflammation has a significant impact on different pathologies, such as stroke or spinal cord injury, intervening in their pathophysiology: expansion, progression, and resolution. Neuroinflammation involves oxidative stress, damage, and cell death, playing an important role in neuroplasticity and motor dysfunction by affecting the neuronal connection responsible for motor control. The diagnosis of this pathology is performed using neuroimaging techniques and molecular diagnostics based on identifying and measuring signaling molecules or specific markers. In parallel, new therapeutic targets are being investigated via the use of bionanomaterials and electrostimulation to modulate the neuroinflammatory response. These novel diagnostic and therapeutic strategies have the potential to facilitate the development of anticipatory patterns and deliver the most beneficial treatment to improve patients' quality of life and directly impact their motor skills. However, important challenges remain to be solved. Hence, the goal of this study was to review the implication of neuroinflammation in the evolution of motor function in stroke and trauma patients, with a particular focus on novel methods and potential biomarkers to aid clinicians in diagnosis, treatment, and therapy. A specific analysis of the strengths, weaknesses, threats, and opportunities was conducted, highlighting the key challenges to be faced in the coming years.

Biotin-decorated hollow gold nanoshells for dual-modal imaging-guided NIR-II photothermal and radiosensitizing therapy toward breast cancer

Radiotherapy (RT) is dominantly used in breast cancer therapy but is facing fierce side effects because of the limited difference between tumor and normal tissues in response to ionizing radiation. Herein, we construct a core-shell nanoparticle of UiO-66-NH2@AuNS. Then the solid gold shell was etched into hollow AuNS (HAuNS) and further modified with biotin-PEG-SH (PEG-bio) to obtain HAuNS@PEG-bio. HAuNS@PEG-bio demonstrates effective near infrared II (NIR-II) region photothermal therapy (PTT) performance, and the increase of temperature at the tumor site promotes the blood circulation to alleviate the hypoxia in the tumor microenvironment (TME). Meanwhile, HAuNS exhibits strong X-ray absorption and deposition ability due to the high atomic coefficient of elemental Au (Z = 79) and hollowed-out structure. Through the dual radiosensitization of the high atomic coefficient of Au and the hypoxia alleviation from PTT of HAuNS, the breast cancer cells could undergo immunogenic cell death (ICD) to activate the immune response. At the in vivo level, HAuNS@PEG-bio performs NIR-II photothermal, radiosensitization, and ICD therapies through cellular targeting, guided by infrared heat and CT imaging. This work highlights that the constructed biotin-decorated hollow gold nanoshell has a promising potential as a diagnostic and treatment integration reagents for the breast cancer.

Inorganic Nanoparticles: Tools to Emphasize the Janus Face of Amphotericin B

Amphotericin B is the oldest antifungal molecule which is still currently widely used in clinical practice, in particular for the treatment of invasive diseases, even though it is not devoid of side effects (particularly nephrotoxicity). Recently, its redox properties (i.e., both prooxidant and antioxidant) have been highlighted in the literature as mechanisms involved in both its activity and its toxicity. Interestingly, similar properties can be described for inorganic nanoparticles. In the first part of the present review, the redox properties of Amphotericin B and inorganic nanoparticles are discussed. Then, in the second part, inorganic nanoparticles as carriers of the drug are described. A special emphasis is given to their combined redox properties acting either as a prooxidant or as an antioxidant and their connection to the activity against pathogens (i.e., fungi, parasites, and yeasts) and to their toxicity. In a majority of the published studies, inorganic nanoparticles carrying Amphotericin B are described as having a synergistic activity directly related to the rupture of the redox homeostasis of the pathogen. Due to the unique properties of inorganic nanoparticles (e.g., magnetism, intrinsic anti-infectious properties, stimuli-triggered responses, etc.), these nanomaterials may represent a new generation of medicine that can synergistically enhance the antimicrobial properties of Amphotericin B.

Prospects of nanoparticle-based radioenhancement for radiotherapy

Radiotherapy is a key pillar of solid cancer treatment. Despite a high level of conformal dose deposition, radiotherapy is limited due to co-irradiation of organs at risk and subsequent normal tissue toxicities. Nanotechnology offers an attractive opportunity for increasing the efficacy and safety of cancer radiotherapy. Leveraging the freedom of design and the growing synthetic capabilities of the nanomaterial-community, a variety of engineered nanomaterials have been designed and investigated as radiosensitizers or radioenhancers. While research so far has been primarily focused on gold nanoparticles and other high atomic number materials to increase the absorption cross section of tumor tissue, recent studies are challenging the traditional concept of high-Z nanoparticle radioenhancers and highlight the importance of catalytic activity. This review provides a concise overview on the knowledge of nanoparticle radioenhancement mechanisms and their quantification. It critically discusses potential radioenhancer candidate materials and general design criteria for different radiation therapy modalities, and concludes with research priorities in order to advance the development of nanomaterials, to enhance the efficacy of radiotherapy and to increase at the same time the therapeutic window.

Impact of interferon-γ on the target cell tropism of nanoparticles

Interferon-γ (IFN-γ) is well known to reduce the infectivity of viral pathogens by altering their tissue tropism. This effect is induced by upregulation of cholesterol 25-hydroxylase (CH25H). Given the similarity of viral pathogens and ligand-functionalized nanoparticles in the underlying strategy of receptor-mediated cell recognition, it appears conceivable that IFN-γ exceeds similar effects on nanoparticles. Concretely, IFN-γ-induced activation of CH25H could decrease nanoparticle avidity for target cells via depletion of clathrin-coated pits. We hypothesized that this effect would cause deterioration of target-cell specific accumulation of nanoparticles. To prove our hypothesis, we investigated the cell tropism of angiotensin II functionalized nanoparticles (NPLys-Ang II) in a co-culture system of angiotensin II subtype 1 receptor (AT1R) positive rat mesangial target cells (rMCs) and AT1R-negative HeLa off-target cells. In the presence of IFN-γ we observed an up to 5-fold loss of target cell preference for NPLys-Ang II. Thus, our in vitro results suggest a strong influence of IFN-γ on nanoparticle distribution, which is relevant in the context of nanotherapeutic approaches to cancer treatment, as IFN-γ is strongly expressed in tumors. For the target cell tropism of viruses, our results provide a conclusive hypothesis for the underlying mechanism behind non-directed viral distribution in the presence of IFN-γ.

Tumor-microenvironment responsive nano-carrier system for therapy of prostate cancer

Poor selectivity, low bioavailability and serious systemic side-effects have limited the application of traditional chemotherapy method for treatment of prostate cancer. Stimuli-responsive drug delivery systems for chemotherapy are mainly based on the unique characteristics of tumor microenvironment. In this study, the GSH-sensitive poly-TTG-SS@DTX NPs (DTX-loaded poly-Tetraethylene glycol nanoparticles) were designed and synthesized, which were characterized with nanosized diameter (92.8 ± 2.5 nm) and negatively charged surface charge (-24.7 ± 5.56 mV). Experiments in vitro showed that poly-TTG-SS@DTX NPs had good compatibility to healthy cells and strong anti-tumor effect because of rapid and sustained drug release of DTX from poly-TTG-SS@DTX NPs under the tumor-microenvironment condition. The cellular activity remained greater than 90% when the concentration of poly-TTG-SS NPs reached as high as 100 µg/mL treated on healthy cells. The killing effect of DTX loading NPs group on C4-2 cells was stronger than that of free anti-tumor drug and free DTX combined with the blank nano-carrier (25.21% vs 19.93% vs 20.96%). In conclusion, poly-TTG-SS@DTX NPs may provide a new therapeutic strategy for the chemotherapy of prostate cancer.