Gamma synuclein: subcellular localization in neuronal and non-neuronal cells and effect on signal transduction

Cancer in pathologically confirmed multiple system atrophy

PURPOSE

The aim of this study was to assess whether cancer occurs with increased frequency in multiple system atrophy (MSA). The pathological hallmark of MSA is glial cytoplasmic inclusions containing aggregated α-synuclein, and the related protein γ-synuclein correlates with invasive cancer. We investigated whether these two disorders are associated clinically.

METHODS

Medical records of 320 patients with pathologically confirmed MSA seen between 1998 and 2022 were reviewed. After excluding those with insufficient medical histories, the remaining 269 and an equal number of controls matched for age and sex were queried for personal and family histories of cancer recorded on standardized questionnaires and in clinical histories. Additionally, age-adjusted rates of breast cancer were compared with US population incidence data.

RESULTS

Of 269 cases in each group, 37 with MSA versus 45 of controls had a personal history of cancer. Reported cases of cancer in parents were 97 versus 104 and in siblings 31 versus 44 for MSA and controls, respectively. Of 134 female cases in each group, 14 MSA versus 10 controls had a personal history of breast cancer. The age-adjusted rate of breast cancer in MSA was 0.83%, as compared with 0.67% in controls and 2.0% in the US population. All comparisons were nonsignificant.

CONCLUSION

The evidence from this retrospective cohort found no significant clinical association of MSA with breast cancer or other cancers. These results do not exclude the possibility that knowledge about synuclein pathology at the molecular level in cancer may lead to future discoveries and potential therapeutic targets for MSA.

Differential Responses of Retinal Neurons and Glia Revealed via Proteomic Analysis on Primary and Secondary Retinal Ganglion Cell Degeneration

To explore the temporal profile of retinal proteomes specific to primary and secondary retinal ganglion cell (RGC) loss. Unilateral partial optic nerve transection (pONT) was performed on the temporal side of the rat optic nerve. Temporal and nasal retinal samples were collected at 1, 4 and 8 weeks after pONT (n = 4 each) for non-biased profiling with a high-resolution hybrid quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry running on label-free SWATHTM acquisition (SCIEX). An information-dependent acquisition ion library was generated using ProteinPilot 5.0 and OneOmics cloud bioinformatics. Combined proteome analysis detected 2531 proteins with a false discovery rate of <1%. Compared to the nasal retina, 10, 25 and 61 significantly regulated proteins were found in the temporal retina at 1, 4, and 8 weeks, respectively (p < 0.05, FC ≥ 1.4 or ≤0.7). Eight proteins (ALDH1A1, TRY10, GFAP, HBB-B1, ALB, CDC42, SNCG, NEFL) were differentially expressed for at least two time points. The expressions of ALDH1A1 and SNCG at nerve fibers were decreased along with axonal loss. Increased ALDH1A1 localization in the inner nuclear layer suggested stress response. Increased GFAP expression demonstrated regional reactivity of astrocytes and Muller cells. Meta-analysis of gene ontology showed a pronounced difference in endopeptidase and peptidase inhibitor activity. Temporal proteomic profiling demonstrates established and novel protein targets associated with RGC damage.

Synuclein Proteins in Cancer Development and Progression

Synucleins are a family of small, soluble proteins mainly expressed in neural tissue and in certain tumors. Since their discovery, tens of thousands of scientific reports have been published about this family of proteins as they are associated with severe human diseases. Although the physiological function of these proteins is still elusive, their relationship with neurodegeneration and cancer has been clearly described over the years. In this review, we summarize data connecting synucleins and cancer, going from the structural description of these molecules to their involvement in tumor-related processes, and discuss the putative use of these proteins as cancer molecular biomarkers.

The Synucleins and the Astrocyte

Synucleins consist of three proteins exclusively expressed in vertebrates. α-Synuclein (αS) has been identified as the main proteinaceous aggregate in Lewy bodies, a pathological hallmark of many neurodegenerative diseases. Less is understood about β-synuclein (βS) and γ-synuclein (γS), although it is known βS can interact with αS in vivo to inhibit aggregation. Likewise, both γS and βS can inhibit αS's propensity to aggregate in vitro. In the central nervous system, βS and αS, and to a lesser extent γS, are highly expressed in the neural presynaptic terminal, although they are not strictly located there, and emerging data have shown a more complex expression profile. Synapse loss and astrocyte atrophy are early aspects of degenerative diseases of the brain and correlate with disease progression. Synucleins appear to be involved in synaptic transmission, and astrocytes coordinate and organize synaptic function, with excess αS degraded by astrocytes and microglia adjacent to the synapse. βS and γS have also been observed in the astrocyte and may provide beneficial roles. The astrocytic responsibility for degradation of αS as well as emerging evidence on possible astrocytic functions of βS and γS, warrant closer inspection on astrocyte-synuclein interactions at the synapse.

Long non-coding RNAs as novel prognostic biomarkers for breast cancer in Egyptian women

Breast cancer (BC), the most common type of malignant tumor, is the leading cause of death, having the highest incidence rate among women. The lack of early diagnostic tools is one of the clinical obstacles for BC treatment. The current study was designed to evaluate a panel of long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs) BC040587, HOTAIR, MALAT1, CCAT1, CCAT2, PVT1, UCA1, SPRY4-IT1, PANDAR, and AK058003-and two mRNAs (SNCG, BDNF) as novel prognostic biomarkers for BC. This study was ethically approved by the Institutional Review Board of the National Cancer Institute, Cairo University. Our study included 75 women recently diagnosed with BC and 25 healthy women as normal controls. Patients were divided into three groups: 24 with benign breast diseases, 28 with metastatic breast cancer (MBC, stage IV), and 23 with non-metastatic breast cancer (NMBC, stage III). LncRNA and mRNA expression levels were measured in patient plasma using quantitative real-time PCR. We found that 10 lncRNAs (BCO40587, HOTAIR, PVT1, CCAT2, PANDAR, CCAT1, UCA1, SPRY4-IT1, AK058003, and MALAT1) and both mRNAs demonstrated at least a 2-fold change in expression with a more than 95% probability of significance. BCO40587 and SNCG were significantly up-regulated in MBC and NMBC patients (3.2- and 4-fold, respectively) compared with normal controls. The expression of UCA1 was repressed by 1.78-fold in MBC and NMBC patients compared with those with benign diseases. SPRY4-IT1 was down-regulated by 1.45-fold in MBC patients compared with NMBC and benign disease patients. Up-regulation of lncRNAs plays an important role in BC development. SNCG and BCO40587 may be potential prognostic markers for BC.The organization number is IORG0003381 (IRB No: IRB00004025).

Modeling Cell-Cell Interactions from Spatial Molecular Data with Spatial Variance Component Analysis

Technological advances enable assaying multiplexed spatially resolved RNA and protein expression profiling of individual cells, thereby capturing molecular variations in physiological contexts. While these methods are increasingly accessible, computational approaches for studying the interplay of the spatial structure of tissues and cell-cell heterogeneity are only beginning to emerge. Here, we present spatial variance component analysis (SVCA), a computational framework for the analysis of spatial molecular data. SVCA enables quantifying different dimensions of spatial variation and in particular quantifies the effect of cell-cell interactions on gene expression. In a breast cancer Imaging Mass Cytometry dataset, our model yields interpretable spatial variance signatures, which reveal cell-cell interactions as a major driver of protein expression heterogeneity. Applied to high-dimensional imaging-derived RNA data, SVCA identifies plausible gene families that are linked to cell-cell interactions. SVCA is available as a free software tool that can be widely applied to spatial data from different technologies.

The Role of Alpha-Synuclein and Other Parkinson's Genes in Neurodevelopmental and Neurodegenerative Disorders

Neurodevelopmental and late-onset neurodegenerative disorders present as separate entities that are clinically and neuropathologically quite distinct. However, recent evidence has highlighted surprising commonalities and converging features at the clinical, genomic, and molecular level between these two disease spectra. This is particularly striking in the context of autism spectrum disorder (ASD) and Parkinson's disease (PD). Genetic causes and risk factors play a central role in disease pathophysiology and enable the identification of overlapping mechanisms and pathways. Here, we focus on clinico-genetic studies of causal variants and overlapping clinical and cellular features of ASD and PD. Several genes and genomic regions were selected for our review, including SNCA (alpha-synuclein), PARK2 (parkin RBR E3 ubiquitin protein ligase), chromosome 22q11 deletion/DiGeorge region, and FMR1 (fragile X mental retardation 1) repeat expansion, which influence the development of both ASD and PD, with converging features related to synaptic function and neurogenesis. Both PD and ASD display alterations and impairments at the synaptic level, representing early and key disease phenotypes, which support the hypothesis of converging mechanisms between the two types of diseases. Therefore, understanding the underlying molecular mechanisms might inform on common targets and therapeutic approaches. We propose to re-conceptualize how we understand these disorders and provide a new angle into disease targets and mechanisms linking neurodevelopmental disorders and neurodegeneration.

Lipids at the Crossroad of α-Synuclein Function and Dysfunction: Biological and Pathological Implications

Since its discovery, the study of the biological role of α-synuclein and its pathological implications has been the subject of increasing interest. The propensity to adopt different conformational states governing its aggregation and fibrillation makes this small 14-kDa cytosolic protein one of the main etiologic factors associated with degenerative disorders known as synucleinopathies. The structure, function, and toxicity of α-synuclein and the possibility of different therapeutic approaches to target the protein have been extensively investigated and reviewed. One intriguing characteristic of α-synuclein is the different ways in which it interacts with lipids. Though in-depth studies have been carried out in this field, the information they have produced is puzzling and the precise role of lipids in α-synuclein biology and pathology and vice versa is still largely unknown. Here we provide an overview and discussion of the main findings relating to α-synuclein/lipid interaction and its involvement in the modulation of lipid metabolism and signaling.

Extracellular gamma-synuclein promotes tumor cell motility by activating β1 integrin-focal adhesion kinase signaling pathway and increasing matrix metalloproteinase-24, -2 protein secretion

Background

Increasing evidence reveals a significant correlation between gamma-synuclein (SNCG) level and tumor invasion and metastasis in various human cancers. Our previous investigation showed that SNCG could secrete into extracellular environment and promoted tumor cell motility, but the mechanism is unknown.

Methods

The membrane binding ability of SNCG was characterized by immunohistochemical staining, immunofluorescence staining and fractionation of colorectal cancer (CRC) cell membrane. Association between SNCG and β1 integrin was validated by coimmunoprecipitation and far Western blot. After inhibition of β1 integrin and focal adhesion kinase (FAK), effect of SNCG on cell motility was measured by transwell chamber assays and changes of protein levels were detected by Western blot. Association between SNCG and activated β1 integrin levels in human CRC tissues was determined by Spearman’s rank correlation analysis. Secreted proteins in conditioned medium (CM) were screened by antibody array.

Results

Extracellular SNCG bound β1 integrin on CRC cell membrane and increased levels of activated β1 integrin and FAK. Correspondingly, SNCG-enhanced cell motility was counteracted by knockdown or inhibition of β1 integrin or FAK. Further study revealed that high SNCG level indicated poor outcome and SNCG levels positively correlated with those of activated β1 integrin and phospho-FAK (Tyr³⁹⁷) in human CRC tissues. Additionally, extracellular SNCG promoted secretion of fibronectin (FN), vitronectin (VN), matrix metalloproteinase (MMP)-2, and MMP-24 from HCT116 cells. Protease activity of MMP-2 in the CM of HCT116 cells was increased by treatment with SNCG, which was abolished by inhibiting β1 integrin.

Conclusion

Our results highlight the potential role of SNCG in remodeling extracellular microenvironment and inducing β1 integrin-FAK signal pathway of CRC cells.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (10.1186/s13046-018-0783-6) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Comparative Analysis of the Conformation, Aggregation, Interaction, and Fibril Morphologies of Human α-, β-, and γ-Synuclein Proteins

The human synuclein (syn) family is comprised of α-, β-, and γ-syn proteins. α-syn has the highest propensity for aggregation, and its aggregated forms accumulate in Lewy bodies (LB) and Lewy neurites, which are involved in Parkinson's disease (PD). β- and γ-syn are absent in LB, and their exact role is still enigmatic. β-syn does not form aggregates under physiological conditions (pH 7.4), while γ-syn is associated with neural and non-neural diseases like breast cancer. Because of their similar regional distribution in the brain, natively unfolded structure, and high degree of sequence homology, studying the effect of the environment on their conformation, interactions, fibrillation, and fibril morphologies has become important. Our studies show that high temperatures, low pH values, and high concentrations increase the rate of fibrillation of α- and γ-syn, while β-syn forms fibrils only at low pH. Fibril morphologies are strongly dependent on the immediate environment of the proteins. The high molar ratio of β-syn inhibits the fibrillation in α- and γ-syn. However, preformed seed fibrils of β- and γ-syn do not affect fibrillation of α-syn. Surface plasmon resonance data show that interactions between α- and β-syn, β- and γ-syn, and α- and γ-syn are weak to moderate in nature and can be physiologically significant in counteracting several adverse conditions in the cells that trigger their aggregation. These studies could be helpful in understanding collective human synuclein behavior in various protein environments and in the modulation of the homeostasis between β-syn and healthy versus corrupt α- and γ-syn that can potentially affect PD pathology.

Gamma synuclein is a novel Twist1 target that promotes TGF-β-induced cancer cell migration and invasion

Transforming growth factor β (TGF-β) is critical for embryonic development, adult tissue homeostasis, and tumor progression. TGF-β suppresses tumors at early stage, but promotes metastasis at later stage through oncogenes such as Twist1. Gamma-synuclein (SNCG) is overexpressed in a variety of invasive and metastatic cancer. Here, we show that TGF-β induces SNCG expression by Smad-Twist1 axis, thus promoting TGF-β- and Twist1-induced cancer cell migration and invasion. We identify multiple Twist1-binding sites (E-boxes) in SNCG promoter. Chromatin immunoprecipitation and luciferase assays confirm the binding of Twist1 to the E-boxes of SNCG promoter sequence (−129/−1026 bp). Importantly, the Twist1-binding site close to the transcription initiation site is critical for the upregulation of SNCG expression by TGF-β and Twist1. Mutations of Twist1 motif on the SNCG promoter constructs markedly reduces the promoter activity. We further show that TGF-β induces Twist1 expression through Smad thereby enhancing the binding of Twist1 to SNCG promoter, upregulating SNCG promoter activity and increasing SNCG expression. SNCG knockdown abrogates TGF-β- or Twist1-induced cancer cell migration and invasion. Finally, SNCG knockdown inhibits the promotion of cancer metastasis by Twist1. Together, our data demonstrate that SNCG is a novel target of TGF-β-Smad-Twist1 axis and a mediator of Twist1-induced cancer metastasis.

Synucleins and Gene Expression: Ramblers in a Crowd or Cops Regulating Traffic?

Synuclein family consists of three members, α, β, and γ-synuclein. Due to their involvement in human diseases, they have been thoroughly investigated for the last 30 years. Since the first synuclein identification and description, members of this family are found in all vertebrates. Sequencing of their genes indicates high evolutionary conservation suggesting important function(s) of these proteins. They are small naturally unfolded proteins prone to aggregate, easily change their conformation, and bind to the membranes. The genes for α, β, and γ-synuclein have different chromosomal localization and a well preserved general organization composed of five coding exons of similar size. Three genes encoding synucleins are present in the majority of vertebrates, however, a variable number of synuclein genes are described in fishes of different species. An important question concerns their normal function in cells and tissues. α-Synuclein is implicated in the regulation of synaptic activity through regulation of synaptic vesicle release, while the physiological functions of two other members of the family is understood less clearly. Here we discuss recent results describing their role in the regulation of gene expression.

Transcriptional profiles of supragranular-enriched genes associate with corticocortical network architecture in the human brain

The human brain is patterned with disproportionately large, distributed cerebral networks that connect multiple association zones in the frontal, temporal, and parietal lobes. The expansion of the cortical surface, along with the emergence of long-range connectivity networks, may be reflected in changes to the underlying molecular architecture. Using the Allen Institute's human brain transcriptional atlas, we demonstrate that genes particularly enriched in supragranular layers of the human cerebral cortex relative to mouse distinguish major cortical classes. The topography of transcriptional expression reflects large-scale brain network organization consistent with estimates from functional connectivity MRI and anatomical tracing in nonhuman primates. Microarray expression data for genes preferentially expressed in human upper layers (II/III), but enriched only in lower layers (V/VI) of mouse, were cross-correlated to identify molecular profiles across the cerebral cortex of postmortem human brains (n = 6). Unimodal sensory and motor zones have similar molecular profiles, despite being distributed across the cortical mantle. Sensory/motor profiles were anticorrelated with paralimbic and certain distributed association network profiles. Tests of alternative gene sets did not consistently distinguish sensory and motor regions from paralimbic and association regions: (i) genes enriched in supragranular layers in both humans and mice, (ii) genes cortically enriched in humans relative to nonhuman primates, (iii) genes related to connectivity in rodents, (iv) genes associated with human and mouse connectivity, and (v) 1,454 gene sets curated from known gene ontologies. Molecular innovations of upper cortical layers may be an important component in the evolution of long-range corticocortical projections.

Adult Astrogenesis and the Etiology of Cortical Neurodegeneration

As more evidence points to a clear role for astrocytes in synaptic processing, synaptogenesis and cognition, continuing research on astrocytic function could lead to strategies for neurodegenerative disease prevention. Reactive astrogliosis results in astrocyte proliferation early in injury and disease states and is considered neuroprotective, indicating a role for astrocytes in disease etiology. This review describes the different types of human cortical astrocytes and the current evidence regarding adult cortical astrogenesis in injury and degenerative disease. A role for disrupted astrogenesis as a cause of cortical degeneration, with a focus on the tauopathies and synucleinopathies, will also be considered.

Intracellular Dynamics of Synucleins: "Here, There and Everywhere"

Synucleins are small, soluble proteins expressed primarily in neural tissue and in certain tumors. The synuclein family consists of three members: α-, β-, and γ-synucleins present only in vertebrates. Members of the synuclein family have high sequence identity, especially in the N-terminal regions. The synuclein gene family came into the spotlight, when one of its members, α-synuclein, was found to be associated with Parkinson's disease and other neurodegenerative disorders, whereas γ-synuclein was linked to several forms of cancer. There are a lot of controversy and exciting debates concerning members of the synuclein family, including their normal functions, toxicity, role in pathology, transmission between cells and intracellular localization. Important findings which remain undisputable for many years are synuclein localization in synapses and their role in the regulation of synaptic vesicle trafficking, whereas their presence and function in mitochondria and nucleus is a debated topic. In this review, we present the data on the localization of synucleins in two intracellular organelles: the nucleus and mitochondria.

Role of synucleins in traumatic brain injury — an experimental in vitro and in vivo study in mice

Synucleins are small prone to aggregate proteins associated with several neurodegenerative diseases (NDDs), however their role in traumatic brain injury (TBI) is an emerging area of investigation. Using in vitro scratch injury model and in vivo mouse weight-drop model we have found that the injury causes alterations in the expression and localization of synucleins near the damaged area. Before injury, α-synuclein is diffused in the cytoplasm of neurons and γ-synuclein is both in the cytoplasm and nucleus of oligodendrocytes. After the scratch injury of the mixed neuronal and glial culture, α-synuclein forms punctate structures in the cytoplasm of neurons and γ-synuclein is almost completely localized to the nucleus of the oligodendrocytes. Furthermore, the amount of post-translationally modified Met38-oxidized γ-synuclein is increased 3.8 fold 24 h after the scratch. α- and γ-synuclein containing cells increased in the initially cell free scratch zone up to 24 h after the scratch.Intracellular expression and localization of synucleins are also changed in a mouse model of focal closed head injury, using a standardized weight drop device. γ-Synuclein goes from diffuse to punctate staining in a piriform cortex near the amygdala, which may reflect the first steps in the formation of deposits/inclusions. Surprisingly, oxidized γ-synuclein co-localizes with cofilin-actin rods in the thalamus, which are absent in all other regions of the brain. These structures reach their peak amounts 7 days after injury. The changes in γ-synuclein localization are accompanied by injury-induced alterations in the morphology of both astrocytes and neurons.

γ-Synuclein antibodies have neuroprotective potential on neuroretinal cells via proteins of the mitochondrial apoptosis pathway

The family of synuclein proteins (α, β and γ) are related to neurodegenerative disease e.g. Parkinson disease and Morbus Alzheimer. Additionally, a connection between γ-synuclein and glaucoma, a neurodegenerative disease characterized by a progressive loss of retinal ganglion cells, which finally leads to blindness, exists. The reason for the development of glaucoma is still unknown. Recent studies evaluating the participation of immunological components, demonstrate complex changed antibody reactivities in glaucoma patients in comparison to healthy people, showing not only up-regulations (e.g. alpha-fodrin antibody) but also down-regulations (e.g. γ-synuclein antibody) of antibodies in glaucoma patients. Up-regulated antibodies could be auto-aggressive, but the role of down-regulated antibodies is still unclear. Previous studies show a significant influence of the serum and the antibodies of glaucoma patients on protein expression profiles of neuroretinal cells. The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of γ-synuclein antibody on the viability and reactive oxygen species levels of a neuroretinal cell line (RGC-5) as well as their interaction with cellular proteins. We found a protective effect of γ-synuclein antibody resulting in an increased viability (up to 15%) and decreased reactive oxygen species levels (up to −12%) of glutamate and oxidative stressed RGC-5. These can be traced back to anti-apoptotic altered protein expressions in the mitochondrial apoptosis pathway indicated by mass spectrometry and validated by microarray analysis such as active caspase 3, bcl-2 associated-x-protein, S100A4, voltage-dependent anion channel, extracellular-signal-regulated-kinase (down-regulated) and baculoviral IAP repeat-containing protein 6, phosphorylated extracellular-signal-regulated-kinase (up-regulated). These changed protein expression are triggered by the γ-synuclein antibody internalization of RGC-5 we could see in immunohistochemical stainings. These findings let us assume a novel physiological function of γ-synuclein antibodies and give insights in the role of autoantibodies in glaucoma. We hypothesize that the down-regulation of autoantibodies found in glaucoma patients lead to a loss of protective autoimmunity.

Investigation of intramolecular dynamics and conformations of α-, β- and γ-synuclein

The synucleins are a family of natively unstructured proteins consisting of α-, β-, and γ-synuclein which are primarily expressed in neurons. They have been linked to a wide variety of pathologies, including neurological disorders, such as Parkinson's disease (α-synuclein) and dementia with Lewy bodies (α- and β-synuclein), as well as various types of cancers (γ-synuclein). Self-association is a key pathological feature of many of these disorders, with α-synuclein having the highest propensity to form aggregates, while β-synuclein is the least prone. Here, we used a combination of fluorescence correlation spectroscopy and single molecule Förster resonance energy transfer to compare the intrinsic dynamics of different regions of all three synuclein proteins to investigate any correlation with putative functional or dysfunctional interactions. Despite a relatively high degree of sequence homology, we find that individual regions sample a broad range of diffusion coefficients, differing by almost a factor of four. At low pH, a condition that accelerates aggregation of α-synuclein, on average smaller diffusion coefficients are measured, supporting a hypothesis that slower intrachain dynamics may be correlated with self-association. Moreover, there is a surprising inverse correlation between dynamics and bulkiness of the segments. Aside from this observation, we could not discern any clear relationship between the physico-chemical properties of the constructs and their intrinsic dynamics. This work suggests that while protein dynamics may play a role in modulating self-association or interactions with other binding partners, other factors, particularly the local cellular environment, may be more important.

Alterations in energy metabolism, neuroprotection and visual signal transduction in the retina of Parkinsonian, MPTP-treated monkeys

Parkinson disease is mainly characterized by the degeneration of dopaminergic neurons in the central nervous system, including the retina. Different interrelated molecular mechanisms underlying Parkinson disease-associated neuronal death have been put forward in the brain, including oxidative stress and mitochondrial dysfunction. Systemic injection of the proneurotoxin 1-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine (MPTP) to monkeys elicits the appearance of a parkinsonian syndrome, including morphological and functional impairments in the retina. However, the intracellular events leading to derangement of dopaminergic and other retinal neurons in MPTP-treated animal models have not been so far investigated. Here we have used a comparative proteomics approach to identify proteins differentially expressed in the retina of MPTP-treated monkeys. Proteins were solubilized from the neural retinas of control and MPTP-treated animals, labelled separately with two different cyanine fluorophores and run pairwise on 2D DIGE gels. Out of >700 protein spots resolved and quantified, 36 were found to exhibit statistically significant differences in their expression levels, of at least ±1.4-fold, in the parkinsonian monkey retina compared with controls. Most of these spots were excised from preparative 2D gels, trypsinized and subjected to MALDI-TOF MS and LC-MS/MS analyses. Data obtained were used for protein sequence database interrogation, and 15 different proteins were successfully identified, of which 13 were underexpressed and 2 overexpressed. These proteins were involved in key cellular functional pathways such as glycolysis and mitochondrial electron transport, neuronal protection against stress and survival, and phototransduction processes. These functional categories underscore that alterations in energy metabolism, neuroprotective mechanisms and signal transduction are involved in MPTP-induced neuronal degeneration in the retina, in similarity to mechanisms thought to underlie neuronal death in the Parkinson’s diseased brain and neurodegenerative diseases of the retina proper.

Neural protein gamma-synuclein interacting with androgen receptor promotes human prostate cancer progression

Background

Gamma-synuclein (SNCG) has previously been demonstrated to be significantly correlated with metastatic malignancies; however, in-depth investigation of SNCG in prostate cancer is still lacking. In the present study, we evaluated the role of SNCG in prostate cancer progression and explored the underlying mechanisms.

Methods

First, alteration of SNCG expression in LNCaP cell line to test the ability of SNCG on cellular properties in vitro and vivo whenever exposing with androgen or not. Subsequently, the Dual-luciferase reporter assays were performed to evaluate whether the role of SNCG in LNCaP is through AR signaling. Last, the association between SNCG and prostate cancer progression was assessed immunohistochemically using a series of human prostate tissues.

Results

Silencing SNCG by siRNA in LNCaP cells contributes to the inhibition of cellular proliferation, the induction of cell-cycle arrest at the G1 phase, the suppression of cellular migration and invasion in vitro, as well as the decrease of tumor growth in vivo with the notable exception of castrated mice. Subsequently, mechanistic studies indicated that SNCG is a novel androgen receptor (AR) coactivator. It interacts with AR and promotes prostate cancer cellular growth and proliferation by activating AR transcription in an androgen-dependent manner. Finally, immunohistochemical analysis revealed that SNCG was almost undetectable in benign or androgen-independent tissues prostate lesions. The high expression of SNCG is correlated with peripheral and lymph node invasion.

Conclusions

Our data suggest that SNCG may serve as a biomarker for predicting human prostate cancer progression and metastasis. It also may become as a novel target for biomedical therapy in advanced prostate cancer.

γ-Synuclein: seeding of α-synuclein aggregation and transmission between cells

Protein misfolding and aggregation is a ubiquitous phenomenon associated with a wide range of diseases. The synuclein family comprises three small naturally unfolded proteins implicated in neurodegenerative diseases and some forms of cancer. α-Synuclein is a soluble protein that forms toxic inclusions associated with Parkinson's disease and several other synucleinopathies. However, the triggers inducing its conversion into noxious species are elusive. Here we show that another member of the family, γ-synuclein, can be easily oxidized and form annular oligomers that accumulate in cells in the form of deposits. Importantly, oxidized γ-synuclein can initiate α-synuclein aggregation. Two amino acid residues in γ-synuclein, methionine and tyrosine located in neighboring positions (Met(38) and Tyr(39)), are most easily oxidized. Their oxidation plays a key role in the ability of γ-synuclein to aggregate and seed the aggregation of α-synuclein. γ-Synuclein secreted from neuronal cells into conditioned medium in the form of exosomes can be transmitted to glial cells and cause the aggregation of intracellular proteins. Our data suggest that post-translationally modified γ-synuclein possesses prion-like properties and may induce a cascade of events leading to synucleinopathies.

Synuclein gamma predicts poor clinical outcome in colon cancer with normal levels of carcinoembryonic antigen

Background

Synuclein gamma (SNCG), initially identified as a breast cancer specific gene, is aberrantly expressed in many different malignant tumors but rarely expressed in matched nonneoplastic adjacent tissues. In this study, we investigated the prognostic potential of SNCG in colon cancer particularly in the patients with normal carcinoembryonic antigen (CEA) levels.

Methods

SNCG levels were assessed immunohistochemically in cancer tissues from 229 colon adenocarcinoma patients with a mean follow-up of 44 months. Correlations between SNCG levels and clinicopathologic features, preoperative serum CEA level, and clinical outcome were analyzed statistically using SPSS.

Results

SNCG levels in colon adenocarcinoma were closely associated with intravascular embolus and tumor recurrence but independent of preoperative serum CEA levels. SNCG expression was an independent prognostic factor of a shorter disease-free survival (DFS) and overall survival (OS) (P < 0.0001). Multivariate analysis revealed that both tissue SNCG and serum CEA were independent prognostic factors of DFS (P = 0.001, <0.0001, respectively) for 170 patients with colon adenocarcinomas. Importantly, SNCG remained a prognostic determinant of DFS and OS (P = 0.001, 0.002) for 97 patients with normal preoperative serum CEA level.

Conclusions

Our results suggest for the first time that SNCG is a new independent predicator for poor prognosis in patients with colon adenocarcinoma, including those with normal CEA levels. Combination of CEA with SNCG improves prognostic evaluation for patients with colon adenocarcinoma.

Quantification of protein expression changes in the aging left ventricle of Rattus norvegicus

As the heart ages, electrophysiological and biochemical changes can occur, and the ventricle in many cases loses distensibility, impairing diastolic function. How the proteomic signature of the aged ventricle is unique in comparison to young hearts is still under active investigation. We have undertaken a quantitative proteomics study of aging left ventricles (LVs) utilizing the isobaric Tagging for Relative and Absolute Quantification (iTRAQ) methodology. Differential protein expression was observed for 117 proteins including proteins involved in cell signaling, the immune response, structural proteins, and proteins mediating responses to oxidative stress. For many of these proteins, this is the first report of an association with the aged myocardium. Additionally, two proteins of unknown function were identified. This work serves as the basis for making future comparisons of the aged left ventricle proteome to that of left ventricles obtained from other models of disease and heart failure.

A neurodegenerative disease affecting synaptic connections in Drosophila mutant for the tumor suppressor morphogen Patched

The tumor suppressor morphogen, Patched (Ptc), has an extensive homology to the Niemann-Pick-C 1 (NPC1) protein. The NPC disease is a paediatric, progressive and fatal neurodegenerative disorder thought to be due to an abnormal accumulation of cholesterol in neurons. Here, we report that patched mutant adults develop a progressive neurodegenerative disease and their brain contains membranous and lamellar inclusions. There is also a significant reduction in the number of synaptic terminals in the brain of the mutant adults. Interestingly, feeding cholesterol to wild type flies generates inclusions in the brain, but does not cause the disease. However, feeding cholesterol to mutant flies increases synaptic connections and suppresses the disease. Our results suggest that sequestration of cholesterol in the mutant brain in the form of membranous material and inclusions affects available pool of cholesterol for cellular functions. This, in turn, negatively affects the synaptic number and contributes to the disease-state. Consistent with this, in ptc mutants there is a reduction in the pool of cholesterol esters, and cholesterol-mediated suppression of the disease accompanies an increase in cholesterol esters. We further show that Ptc does not function directly in this process since gain of function for Hedgehog also induces the same disease with a reduction in the level of cholesterol esters. We believe that loss of function for ptc causes neurodegeneration via two distinct ways: de-repression of genes that interfere with lipid trafficking, and de-repression of genes outside of the lipid trafficking; the functions of both classes of genes ultimately converge on synaptic connections.

Desipramine modulation of alpha-, gamma-synuclein, and the norepinephrine transporter in an animal model of depression

The mechanisms underlying depression remain elusive. We previously determined that alpha-synuclein (alpha-Syn) modulates the activity and trafficking of the norepinephrine transporter (NET) in a manner that is dependent on its interactions with microtubules (MTs). Here we sought to determine if alpha-Syn, or the other synuclein family members, beta-synuclein (beta-Syn) and gamma-synuclein (gamma-Syn), modulate NET activity in an animal model of depression, the Wistar-Kyoto (WKY) rat. The NET-selective antidepressant desipramine (DMI) was chronically administered for 14 days to WKY rats and the strain from which it was outbred that does not show depressive-like behavior, the Wistar rat. This drug regimen induced significant behavioral improvements in the WKY, but not the Wistar rat, in the forced swim test. In WKY rats there was an overexpression of gamma-Syn which was reduced following DMI treatment. In parallel, DMI caused an increase in both alpha-Syn and NET in the frontal cortex. Frontal cortex synaptosomes from WKY rats were not sensitive to nocodazole, a compound that promotes MT destabilization. However, in WKYs treated with DMI, nocodazole induced an increase in [(3)H]-NE uptake. This trend was reversed in Wistars. Underlying these DMI-induced changes were alterations in the protein interactions between the synucleins and NET with the tubulins. These results are the first to implicate alpha-Syn or gamma-Syn in the pathophysiology of depression and suggest that targeting synucleins may provide a new therapeutic option for depression.

Effect of gamma-synuclein silencing on apoptotic pathways in retinal ganglion cells

gamma-Synuclein (Syn G) is highly expressed in retinal ganglion cells and the loss of these cells in glaucoma is associated with significant reduction of the intracellular Syn G level. However, a causative relationship between these two events has not been established. Here we show that the knockdown of Syn G results in a decreased viability of the immortalized retinal ganglion cells (RGC-5). The Syn G silencing reduces phosphorylation of serine 112 (Ser112) in Bad protein, a member of the Bcl-2 family that plays a critical role in apoptotic cell death signaling. Our gene expression analysis data suggests that changes in Bad phosphorylation status may be caused by a coordinated shift in activities of kinases controlling Bad phosphorylation and phosphatases catalyzing its dephosphorylation. Moreover, increased phosphorylation of Bad-sequestering protein 14-3-3 detected in these cells is also pro-apoptotic. These results suggest that the homeostatic level of Syn G in RGC-5 cells is required for transcriptional regulation of protein kinases and phosphatases, controlling phosphorylation of Bad and 14-3-3. Lowering Syn G causes Bad dephosphorylation, dissociation from phosphorylated 14-3-3, and translocation to mitochondria where it initiates apoptotic death cascade.

Applications of novel monoclonal antibodies specific for synuclein-gamma in evaluating its levels in sera and cancer tissues from colorectal cancer patients

Overexpressions of synuclein-gamma (SNCG) in different cancers display stage-specific patterns. At present, appropriate anti-SNCG monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) with high specificity and affinity are unavailable for different immunoassays in clinical applications. In this study, we generated 10 mAbs against endogenous SNCG and evaluated SNCG levels in several colorectal cancer cell lines, serum samples and tumor tissues from colorectal cancer (CRC) patients. Elevated SNCG levels in cancer cell lines evaluated by a novel sandwich ELISA were consistent with data obtained from Western blot. Secreted SNCG protein levels in sera from CRC patients could be detected by the sandwich ELISA and were further confirmed by Western blot analysis following SNCG enrichment. Immunohistochemical results showed that SNCG was highly expressed in tumor cells of CRC patients, but was undetectable in the adjacent normal epithelium. Taken together, these novel anti-SNCG mAbs specifically recognized endogenous SNCG and were suitable for measuring SNCG levels in cell lysates, human serum samples, and tumor tissues. Elevated serum SNCG and overexpressed SNCG in tumor tissue from CRC patients suggest SNCG is a potential biomarker for CRC.

Advances in γ-Synuclein and progression of tumors

γ-Synuclein with strong tissue specificity, a member of the synuclein family, is mainly located in nervous system. Recently, elevated levels of γ-Synuclein was detected in various types of cancers, such as breast, ovarian, liver, gastric cancers, etc., especially in their advanced stages, which indicated loss of tissue specificity in cancer development and also suggested that γ-Synuclein might serve as a new tumor marker. Additionally, multiple pathways influence the regulation of γ-Synuclein expression. γ-Synuclein has also been shown to promote invasion and metastasis of breast and ovarian cancers and enhance caners' tolerance to some chemotherapies . Overexpression of γ-synuclein also interferes with drug-induced apoptotic responses, which makes it a potential target for treatment.

Gamma-synuclein: cell-type-specific promoter activity and binding to transcription factors

Gamma-synuclein, also referred to as breast-cancer-specific gene 1, is the third member of the neuronal protein family synuclein. Synucleins attracted the attention of many investigators because of their role in human diseases. Gamma-synuclein participates in the pathogenesis of several types of cancer and some neurodegenerative diseases. Its role in tumorigenesis is due to the upregulation of transcription and the effect on downstream targets, including signaling pathways and transcription factors. Gamma-synuclein is also expressed in neurons and glial cells, but the regulation of its expression, as well as the mechanism of transition from normal functions to pathology in these cell types, is not studied. Here, we examined how gamma-synuclein promoter is regulated in neuronal and glial cells. We also show that gamma-synuclein is able to bind directly to several transcription factors. These results are discussed in connection with the implication of gamma-synuclein in diseases.

Targeting synuclein-gamma to counteract drug resistance in cancer

BACKGROUND

Expression of synuclein-gamma (SNCG) protein is elevated in the advanced stages of many types of cancers, including ovarian, lung, liver, esophagus, colon, prostate and, in particular, breast. In breast carcinoma, SNCG is causatively linked to stimulated proliferation, metastasis and drug resistance.

OBJECTIVE

To establish SNCG as a potential therapeutic target and to discuss clinical use of SNCG inhibiting peptide.

METHODS

This review focuses on the plausible mechanisms of SNCG activity, SNCG mediated drug resistance and its inhibition.

RESULTS/CONCLUSION

Evidence based research shows that the aberrant expression of SNCG has a strong correlation with breast cancer progression and poor clinical outcome. A peptide based inhibitor counters activity of SNCG, which may be developed as an adjuvant therapy.

Use of comparative proteomics to identify potential resistance mechanisms in cancer treatment

Drug resistance is a major problem in successful cancer chemotherapy. Many molecular mechanisms that are responsible for drug resistance are known whereas others have yet to be discovered. Determining the exact mechanism activated in a particular case (clinical or laboratory) is a difficult task. Recently, proteomics has been applied to investigate drug resistance mechanisms in model cancer cell lines. As a result, novel mechanisms of resistance have been discovered and known mechanisms of resistance confirmed. In this paper, we wish to review recent developments and progresses in the application of proteomic tools to identify known and novel drug resistance mechanisms in drug-selected model cancer cell lines. Our combined analyses of multiple proteomic studies of various drug resistant cancer cell lines revealed that many mechanisms of resistance likely exist in any given drug-selected cancer cell line and that common mechanisms of resistance may be selected in a spectrum of cancer cell lines. These observations suggest that combination therapies targeting multiple mechanisms to sensitize drug resistant cancers may be necessary to eradicate cancers in the future.

Gamma-synuclein and the progression of cancer

The synucleins are a small, soluble, highly conserved group of neuronal proteins that have been implicated in both neurodegenerative diseases and cancer. The synuclein family consists of alpha-, beta-, and gamma-synucleins (gamma-syn). They are a natively unfolded group of proteins that share sequence homologies and structural properties. So far, the biological functions of the synucleins are still unclear, but their involvement in neurodegenerative diseases and cancer may provide insights into the pathological processes that result from these two groups of debilitating diseases, and present the possibility to use them as potential targets for early diagnosis and treatment. Recently, elevated levels of gamma-syn proteins have been detected in various types of cancer, especially in advanced stages of the disease. Furthermore, studies to date indicate that overexpression of gamma-syn compromises normal mitotic checkpoint controls, resulting in multinucleation as well as faster cell growth. Gamma-syn has also been shown to promote invasion and metastasis in in vitro assays as well as in animal models. Overexpression of gamma-syn also interferes with drug-induced apoptotic responses. These observations raise questions about the involvement of gamma-syn in the process of tumorigenesis and metastasis, and efforts have already been made to use gamma-syn as a marker for assessing breast cancer progression. This review will discuss the involvement of gamma-syn in cancer progression, metastasis and its potential as a marker.

Whole genome expression analyses of single- and double-knock-out mice implicate partially overlapping functions of alpha- and gamma-synuclein

alpha-Synuclein has been implicated in the pathogenesis of Parkinson's disease. The function of alpha-synuclein has not been deciphered yet; however, it might play a role in vesicle function, transport, or as a chaperone. alpha-Synuclein belongs to a family of three proteins, which includes beta- and gamma-synuclein. gamma-Synuclein shares 60% similarity with alpha-synuclein. Similar to alpha-synuclein, a physiological function for gamma-synuclein has not been defined yet, but it has been implicated in tumorgenesis and neurodegeneration. Interestingly, neither alpha- (SNCA(-/-)), gamma- (SNCG(-/-)), nor alpha/gamma- (SNCA_G(-/-)) deficient mice are present with any obvious phenotype. Using microarray analysis, we thus investigated whether deficiency of alpha- and gamma-synuclein leads to similar compensatory mechanisms at the RNA level and whether similar transcriptional signatures are altered in the brain. Sixty-five genes were differentially expressed in all mice. SNCA(-/-) mice and SNCG(-/-) mice shared 84 differentially expressed genes, SNCA(-/-) and SNCA_G(-/-) expressed 79 genes, and SNCG(-/-) and SNCA_G(-/-) expressed 148 genes. For many of the physiological pathways such as dopamine receptor signaling (down-regulated), cellular development, nervous system function, and cell death (up-regulated), we found groups of genes that were similarly altered in SNCA(-/-) and SNCG(-/-) mice. In one of the pathways altered in both models, we found Mapk1 as the core transcript. Other gene groups, however, such as TGF-beta signaling and apoptosis pathways genes were significantly up-regulated in the SNCA(-/-) mice but down-regulated in SNCG(-/-) mice. beta-synuclein expression was not significantly altered in any of the models.

gamma-synuclein has a dynamic intracellular localization

gamma-Synuclein is a member of the synuclein family consisting of three proteins. Within the last several years increasing attention has focused on these proteins because of their role in human diseases. alpha-Synuclein relevance to Parkinson's disease is based on mutations found in familial cases of the disease and its presence in filaments and inclusion bodies in sporadic cases. gamma-Synuclein is implicated in some forms of cancer and ocular diseases, while beta-synuclein may antagonize their pathological functions. In this paper we present data on the localization and properties of gamma-synuclein in several neuronal and nonneuronal cell cultures. We show that contrary to the current opinion, gamma-synuclein is not an exclusively cytoplasmic protein, but has a dynamic localization and can associate with subcellular structures. It is present in the perinuclear area and may be associated to centrosomes. On late steps of mitosis gamma-synuclein is not found in the centrosomes, and redistributes to the midbody in telophase. Under stress conditions a translocation of gamma-synuclein from the perinuclear area to the nucleus occurs exhibiting nucleocytoplasmic shuttling. gamma-Synuclein overexpression reduces neurite outgrowth in a greater extent then alpha-synuclein overexpression. These data support the view that gamma-synuclein may change its intracellular localization and associate with subcellular structures in response to intracellular signaling or stress.

Interaction of myocilin with gamma-synuclein affects its secretion and aggregation

Mutations in the gene encoding human myocilin are associated with some cases of juvenile and early-onset glaucoma. Glaucomatous mutations prevent myocilin from being secreted. The analysis of the defects associated with mutations point to the existence of factor(s) in addition to mutations that might be implicated in the development of glaucoma. In the present paper, we found that interaction of myocilin with one of the members of the synuclein family alters its properties, including its ability to be secreted. Results of immunoprecipitation show that myocilin is a gamma-synuclein-interacting protein. Further analysis demonstrated that both myocilin and gamma-synuclein are expressed in human TM cells, immortalized rat ganglion (RGC-5) cells, and HT22 hippocampal neurons. According to Western blotting, in addition to monomeric form with molecular weight 17 kDa gamma-synuclein is present as higher molecular weight forms ( approximately 35 and 68 KDa), presumably dimer and tetramer. Myocilin and gamma-synuclein have partially overlapping perinuclear localization. Dexamethasone upregulates myocilin expression in RGC-5 cells and HT22 hippocampal neurons. We found alterations of myocilin properties as a result of its interaction with gamma-synuclein. In cultured cells, gamma-synuclein upregulates myocilin expression, inhibits its secretion and prevents the formation of high molecular weight forms of myocilin. Although both alpha-synuclein and gamma-synuclein are expressed in HTM cells, only gamma-synuclein interacts with myocilin and alters its properties. We conclude that myocilin and gamma-synuclein interact and as a result, myocilin's properties are changed. Since myocilin and gamma-synuclein have partially overlapping intracellular localization in cell types that are implicated in glaucoma development, their interaction may play an important role in glaucoma.

Pathophysiology of synuclein aggregation in Lewy body disease

We provide an overview of synaptic pathology in dementia with Lewy bodies (DLB) and related neurodegenerative disorders that are characterised by intraneuronal accumulation of alpha-synuclein aggregates. The review addresses the clinico-neuropathological correlates of synaptic pathology in Lewy body disease, and concentrates on: altered alpha-synuclein metabolism, mechanisms leading to alpha-synuclein fibril formation (self-polymerisation, alpha-synuclein mutations and post-translational modifications) and how these influence the axonal transport and synaptic network in ageing and disease process. Understanding the mechanisms leading to intraneuronal alpha-synuclein accumulation are crucial for the development of novel therapies for treatment of Lewy body disease.

Protein Aggregation in Retinal Cells and Approaches to Cell Protection

1. Retinal dystrophies (RD) comprise a group of clinically and genetically heterogeneous retinal disorders, which typically result in the degeneration of photoreceptors followed by the impairment or loss of vision. Although age-related macular degeneration (AMD) and retinitis pigmentosa (RP) are among the most common forms of RD, currently, there is no effective treatment for either disorder. 2. Recently, abnormal protein accumulation and aggregation due to protein misfolding and proteasome inhibition have been implicated in the pathogenesis of RD. In this paper we describe effects of several factors on protein aggregation and survival of photoreceptor cells. 3. Expression of rhodopsin carrying P23H mutation causes its accumulation in intracellular inclusion bodies in a perinuclear area of photoreceptor cells. beta- and gamma-synucleins and heat shock protein Hsp-70, but not alpha-synuclein, protect cultured ocular cells from mutant opsin accumulation. This effect might be explained by their chaperonic activity. 4. Knock-out of alpha- and gamma-synucleins does not affect gross retinal morphology, but induces tyrosine hydroxylase in the inner prexiform layer of the retina. Selegiline-a monoamine oxidase inhibitor used for the treatment of Parkinson's disease, reduces apoptosis and increases viability in cultured retinal pigment epithelium cells (APRE-19). 5. These results suggest that chaperones and selegiline may be considered promising candidates for the protection of ocular cells from the accumulation of misfolded and aggregated proteins.

Altered Expression of γ-Synuclein and Detoxification-Related Genes in Lungs of Rats Exposed to JP-8

Many military personnel are at risk of lung damage or systemic toxicity as a result of exposure to the jet fuel JP-8. We have now used microarray analysis to characterize changes in the gene expression profile of lung tissue induced by exposure of rats to JP-8 at a concentration of 171 or 352 mg/m(3) for 1 h/d for 7 d, with the higher dose estimated to mimic the level of occupational exposure in humans. The expression of 56 genes was significantly affected by a factor of </= 0.6 or >/= 1.5 by JP-8 at the low dose. Eighty-six percent of these genes were downregulated by JP-8. The expression of 66 genes was similarly affected by JP-8 at the higher dose, with the expression of 42% of these genes being upregulated. Prominent among the latter genes was that for the centrosome-associated protein gamma-synuclein, whose expression was consistently increased. The expression of various genes related to antioxidant responses and detoxification, including those for glutathione S-transferases and cytochrome P450 proteins, were also upregulated. The microarray data were confirmed by quantitative RT-PCR analysis. Our extensive data set may thus provide important insight into the pulmonary response to occupational exposure to JP-8 in humans.

Different levels of γ-synuclein mRNA in the cerebral cortex of dominant, neutral and submissive rats selected in the competition test

Synucleins are small proteins regulating the filamentous network that in turn influences the release of dopamine and glutamate neurotransmitters involved in mood and motivation processes. We have studied the pattern of synuclein expression in animal models for mania and depression. Dominant behavior, as defined in a food competition test with dyads of rats, can serve as a model of mania and submissive behavior as a model of depression. The expression of alpha-, beta- and gamma-synuclein was analyzed in four regions of cortex from dominant, neutral and submissive rats using TaqMan reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction technology. The expression levels of gamma-synuclein were elevated consistently in all regions of cerebral cortex of dominant rats (P <0.05; 23.5 +/- 1.1, normalized units) in contrast to the submissive rat group (10.3 +/- 1.2). Neutral rats had intermediate cerebral cortex levels of gamma-synuclein expression (15.7 +/- 1.4) that were significantly lower than that in dominant rats (P <0.05). No changes in alpha- or beta-synuclein expression were observed among the groups. These studies indicate that gamma-synuclein levels in the cerebral cortex were differentially associated with dominant and submissive behavior.

Synucleins and their relationship to Parkinson’s disease

Parkinson's disease (PD) is one of the most common neurodegenerative motor disorders, marked by chronic progressive loss of neurons in the substantia nigra. It has long been believed that PD is caused by environmental factors. The discovery of genetic factors involved in PD has improved the understanding of the pathology of the disease. The first gene found to be mutated in PD encodes for the presynaptic protein alpha-synuclein. alpha-Synuclein is a major component of Lewy bodies and Lewy neurites, which represent the morphological hallmarks of the disease. The mechanisms by which alpha-synuclein is involved in nigral cell death remain poorly understood. Moreover, the factors triggering the formation of alpha-synuclein-positive inclusion bodies remain enigmatic. Indeed, even the normal cellular functions of alpha-synuclein and of the other synucleins (beta-synuclein and gamma-synuclein) are still unknown. Several lines of evidence suggest that they play a role in the regulation of vesicular turnover under normal nonpathological conditions.

Overexpression of synuclein-gamma in pancreatic adenocarcinoma

BACKGROUND

Currently, pancreatic adenocarcinoma is the fourth leading cause of cancer-related death in the United States. Despite the advances in pancreatic carcinoma research, patients with this devastating disease have a very poor prognosis. To identify the gene expression profile of pancreatic carcinoma, an important step in the process of developing new diagnostic and therapeutic strategies, the authors investigated the alteration of gene expression in this disease.

METHODS

The authors analyzed a public serial analysis of gene expression (SAGE) database and examined in greater detail the expression of synuclein-gamma mRNA in several pancreatic carcinoma cell lines and tumor tissue samples by reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) analysis and Northern blot analysis. The expression of synuclein-gamma protein was investigated further by immunohistochemical and Western blot analyses using tumor cell lines, tumor tissue, and serum samples.

RESULTS

Synuclein-gamma mRNA was overexpressed in 11 of 12 pancreatic carcinoma cell lines, including AsPc-1, MDAPanc28, Capan-1, Capan-2, PANC-1, HS766T, MDAPanc3, MDAPanc48, Colo357FG, MiaPaCa2, CFPac1, and BxPc3. The expression of synuclein-gamma protein was detectable in 8 of 12 pancreatic carcinoma cell lines (67%) and in 22 of 32 pancreatic tumor tissue samples (69%) by Western blot analysis. On immunohistochemical staining, synuclein-gamma protein was present in 61% of the tumor tissue samples examined from patients with Stage I and II pancreatic carcinoma. The overexpression of synuclein-gamma is correlated with perineural and lymph node invasion. Synuclein-gamma protein also was detectable by Western blot in serum samples from 21 of 56 patients (38%) with pancreatic carcinoma.

CONCLUSIONS

Synuclein-gamma, which initially was described as a breast carcinoma-specific gene involved in invasion, metastasis, and chemotherapy resistance, was frequently overexpressed in pancreatic carcinoma. Overexpression of synuclein-gamma may play a role in pancreatic carcinoma invasion. Further studies will be necessary to determine the role of synuclein-gamma in pancreatic carcinoma.

α-Synuclein: Normal Function and Role in Neurodegenerative Diseases

Synucleins are a family of small, highly charged proteins expressed predominantly in neurons. Since their discovery and characterization during the last decade, much has been learned about their structure, potential functions, interactions with other proteins, and roles in disease. One of these proteins, alpha-synuclein (alpha-syn), is the major building block of pathological inclusions that characterize many neurodegenerative disorders, including Parkinson's disease (PD), dementia with Lewy bodies (DLB), and neurodegeneration with brain iron accumulation type 1 (NBIA-1), which collectively are termed synucleinopathies. Furthermore, genetic and biological studies support a role for alpha-syn in the pathophysiology of these diseases. Therefore, research must be continued in order to better understand the functions of the synuclein proteins under normal physiological conditions as well as their role in diseases.

Distribution of alpha- and gamma-synucleins in the adult rat brain and their modification by high-dose cocaine treatment

Synucleins have attracted much attention because of their involvement in several neurodegenerative disorders. In a screening for genes differentially expressed after high-dose cocaine exposure, we found gamma-synuclein as a major upregulated candidate in the tegmentum. Overexpression of both alpha- and gamma-synuclein after drug treatment was confirmed by means of microarrays, yielding an increase in the hippocampus, the striatum and the tegmentum (2.65 x, 1.96 x and 3.5 x, respectively, for alpha-synuclein vs. 2.7 x, 1.96 x and 7.16 x for gamma-synuclein), but no change in the nucleus accumbens. Investigation of the distribution of mRNA (by in situ hybridization) and of the proteins (by immunocytochemistry) shows in both cases a clearly distinct pattern of expression for alpha- and gamma-synuclein. alpha-synuclein displays a very characteristic distribution, confined to specific nuclei, whereas gamma-synuclein is more widely expressed throughout the brain. mRNA of both alpha- and gamma-synucleins display a complementary pattern of expression all over the cortex. In contrast to gamma-synuclein, alpha-synuclein is neuronal, being only found in NeuN-expressing cells, and is expressed in the basal ganglia (faintly) and in the substantia nigra compacta where it is highly correlated with tyrosine hydroxylase. Immunocytochemistry shows that gamma-synuclein generally colocalizes with glial fibrillary acidic protein-expressing cells and is abundant in the red nucleus, the substantia nigra reticulata and the anterior commissure, while gamma-synuclein mRNA labels the matrix compartments of the caudate-putamen. The role of synucleins in relation to cocaine-induced plasticity or neurotoxicity is discussed.

Breast cancer-specific gene 1 interacts with the mitotic checkpoint kinase BubR1

The abnormal expression of breast cancer-specific gene 1 (BCSG1) in malignant mammary epithelial cells is highly associated with the development and progression of breast cancer. A series of in vitro and in vivo studies performed in our laboratory and others have demonstrated that BCSG1 expression significantly stimulates proliferation, invasion, and metastasis of breast cancer cells. However, currently little is known about how BCSG1 exerts its oncogenic functions. To elucidate the cellular mechanisms underlying the effects of BCSG1 in breast cancer cells, we used a yeast two-hybrid system to screen for proteins that could associate with BCSG1. Through this screening, we identified the mitotic checkpoint protein BubR1 as a novel binding partner of BCSG1. The specific association of BCSG1 with BubR1 in breast cancer cells was demonstrated by immunoprecipitation and GST pull-down assays. Intriguingly, experiments conducted in four different cell lines all showed that exogenous expressions of BCSG1 consistently reduce the cellular levels of the BubR1 protein without affecting BubR1 mRNA expression. The tendency of endogenous BCSG1 expression coinciding with lower BubR1 protein levels was also observed in seven out of eight breast cancer cell lines. We further showed that the reducing effect of BCSG1 on BubR1 protein expression could be prevented by treating BCSG1-transfected cells with MG-132, a selective 26S proteasome inhibitor, implying that the proteasome machinery may be involved in the BCSG1-induced reduction of the BubR1 protein. Accompanied with a reduction of BubR1 protein level, BCSG1 expression resulted in multinucleation of breast cancer cells upon treatment with spindle inhibitor nocodazole, indicating an impaired mitotic checkpoint. Taken together, our novel findings suggest that BCSG1 may accelerate the progression of breast cancer at least in part by compromising the mitotic checkpoint control through inactivation of BubR1.

Cell cycle aberrations by alpha-synuclein over-expression and cyclin B immunoreactivity in Lewy bodies

alpha-Synuclein is a presynaptic protein that accumulates abnormally in Lewy bodies of Parkinson's disease (PD) and dementia with Lewy bodies (DLB). Its physiological function and role in neuronal death remain poorly understood. Recent immunohistochemical studies suggest that cell cycle-related phenomena may play a role in the pathogenesis of Alzheimer's disease and perhaps other neurodegenerative disorders. In this investigation, we examined the effects of alpha-synuclein expression levels on cell cycle indices in PC12 cells engineered to conditionally induce alpha-synuclein expression upon withdrawal of doxycycline. Over-expression of alpha-synuclein resulted in enhanced proliferation rate and enrichment of cells in the S phase of the cell cycle. This was associated with increased accumulation of the mitotic factor cyclin B and down-regulation of the tumor suppressor retinoblastoma 2. Additionally, ERK1/2, key molecules in proliferation signaling, were highly phosphorylated. Immunohistochemical studies on postmortem brains revealed intense cyclin B immunoreactivity in Lewy bodies in cases with DLB and to a lesser extent in PD. We propose that elevated expression of alpha-synuclein causes changes in cell cycle regulators through ERK activation leading to apoptosis of postmitotic neurons. These changes in cell cycle proteins are also associated with ectopic expression of cyclin B in Lewy bodies.

Effect of gamma-synuclein overexpression on matrix metalloproteinases in retinoblastoma Y79 cells

gamma-Synuclein is a small cytoplasmic protein implicated in neurodegenerative diseases and cancer. However, the mechanism of its involvement in diseases is not clear. We studied the role of gamma-synuclein in the regulation of matrix metalloproteinases in retinoblastoma cell culture. Matrix metalloproteinases play important roles in the remodeling of extracellular matrix implicated in tumor progression and in the neurodegenerative diseases. Western blot and zymography data demonstrated a moderate elevation of matrix metalloproteinases-2 and significant upregulation of matrix metalloproteinases-9 in stable cell lines overexpressing gamma-synuclein. No effect of gamma-synuclein overexpression on matrix metalloproteinases-1 level or activity was found. Chloramphenicol-acetyltransferase assay demonstrated that overexpression of gamma-synuclein increases the efficiency of the matrix metalloproteinases-9 promoter. This increment of promoter activity may be mediated by the AP-1 binding site(s), since point mutations in one of these sites (Pr18 or Pr19) and elimination of the distal AP-1 site (Pr14) reduced the increment of promoter activity.

Synucleins in glaucoma: implication of gamma-synuclein in glaucomatous alterations in the optic nerve

Synucleins are small proteins associated with neurodegenerative diseases and some forms of cancer. They are studied predominantly in the brain; information about their presence and functions in ocular tissues is scarce. Here we describe the localization of three members of the synuclein family in the optic nerve of donors with different types of glaucoma compared with control samples from donors without ocular diseases. We did not find significant differences in the localization of alpha- and beta-synucleins in the optic nerve or retina of glaucoma patients compared with controls, whereas considerable redistribution of gamma-synuclein occurred in the glaucomatous optic nerve compared with control eye without glaucoma. In the optic nerve from control and glaucomatous individuals, nerve bundles are immunopositive for gamma-synuclein; however, a strong gamma-synuclein-immunopositive staining in a subset of glial cells was observed in the lamina and postlamina cribrosa regions of the optic nerve only in glaucoma patients. In the optic nerve of rats with episcleral vein cauterization used as an animal model of glaucoma, the quantity of both gamma-synuclein mRNA and protein was decreased compared with the optic nerves of control animals. Incubation of rat astrocyte culture at elevated hydrostatic pressure reduced the amount of gamma-synuclein but did not affect the quantities of actin and glial fibrillary acidic protein. These data suggest that significant changes in the pattern of expression and/or localization occur in the glaucomatous optic nerve for gamma-synuclein but not for alpha- and beta-members of the synuclein family.