Exosomes and diabetes

Regulation of pancreatic β cells by exosomes from different sources

Diabetes is a chronic metabolic disorder with rising global prevalence, particularly in developed and high-income regions. Central to its pathogenesis is the dysfunction of pancreatic β-cells, alongside impaired glucose and lipid metabolism in peripheral insulin-responsive tissues. Exosomes are nano-sized extracellular vesicles essential for intercellular communication and have emerged as pivotal regulators of metabolic homeostasis. Secreted by virtually all cell types, exosomes encapsulate bioactive cargo that reflects their cellular origin and physiological state, thereby exerting diverse functional effects. Recent evidence highlights the role of exosomes derived from the liver, gut, adipose tissue, skeletal muscle, and mesenchymal stem cells in modulating β-cell proliferation, insulin secretion, and survival. In peripheral tissues exosomes also influence insulin sensitivity by regulating glucose and lipid metabolism, ultimately shaping β-cell responses under hyperglycemic conditions. A more comprehensive understanding of exosome-mediated crosstalk between metabolic organs and pancreatic β-cells could pave the way for the development of exosome-based diagnostic tools and therapeutic strategies aimed at improving early detection, prevention, and treatment of the diabetes.

Insulin resistance in type 2 diabetes mellitus

Insulin resistance is an integral pathophysiological feature of type 2 diabetes mellitus. Here, we review established and emerging cellular mechanisms of insulin resistance, their complex integrative features and their relevance to disease progression. While recognizing the heterogeneity of the elusive fundamental disruptions that cause insulin resistance, we endorse the view that effector mechanisms impinge on insulin receptor signalling and its relationship with plasma levels of insulin. We focus on hyperinsulinaemia and its consequences: acutely impaired but persistent insulin action, with reduced ability to lower glucose levels but preserved lipid synthesis and lipoprotein secretion. We emphasize the role of insulin sensitization as a therapeutic goal in type 2 diabetes mellitus.

Exploring the role of exosomes in diabetic neuropathy: From molecular mechanisms to therapeutic potential

Diabetic neuropathy (DN) is a debilitating complication of diabetes mellitus (DM), characterized by progressive neuronal damage, sensory dysfunction, and impaired quality of life. Recent advances in exosome research have elucidated their crucial role in DN's pathogenesis, diagnosis, and treatment. Exosomes-nanoscale extracellular vesicles-function as vehicles for molecular cargo, including microRNAs (miRNAs), proteins, and lipids, which mediate intercellular communication and regulate key biological processes. Pathologically, hyperglycemia and hyperlipidemia induce the release of exosomes enriched with pathogenic miRNAs, such as miR-130a and miR-20b-3p, which disrupt neuronal function, axonal regeneration, and inflammatory pathways. Conversely, diagnostic studies highlight the utility of exosomal biomarkers like miR-7 and miR-221 in the early detection and monitoring of DN. Therapeutically, Schwann cell-derived and mesenchymal stromal cell (MSC)-derived exosomes demonstrate neuroprotective and reparative effects by enhancing mitochondrial function, modulating inflammation, and promoting axonal repair. Emerging approaches, including engineered exosomes and miRNA-enriched vesicles, further expand their therapeutic potential. Despite these advances, challenges such as standardization, large-scale production, and clinical validation remain in translating these findings into clinical practice. This review underscores the multifaceted roles of exosomes in DN and highlights their potential as innovative tools for precision diagnostics and targeted therapies, paving the way for future research and clinical applications.

The Potential of Mesenchymal Stem Cell-Derived Exosomes to Treat Diabetes Mellitus

Diabetes mellitus (DM) is a fatal metabolic disease characterized by persistent hyperglycemia. In recent studies, mesenchymal stem cell (MSC)-derived exosomes, which are being investigated clinically as a cell-free therapy for various diseases, have gained attention due to their biomimetic properties that closely resemble natural cellular communication systems. These MSC-derived exosomes inherit the regenerative and protective effects from MSCs, inducing pancreatic β-cell proliferation and inhibiting apoptosis, as well as ameliorating insulin resistance by suppressing the release of various inflammatory cytokines. Consequently, MSC-derived exosomes have attracted attention as a novel treatment for DM as an alternative to stem cell therapy. In this review, we will introduce the potential of MSC-derived exosomes for the treatment of DM by discussing the studies that have used MSC-derived exosomes to treat DM, which have shown therapeutic effects in both type 1 and type 2 DM.

Effects of MicroRNAs and Long Non-coding RNAs on Beneficial Action of Exercise on Cognition in Degenerative Diseases: A Review

Recent research has exposed a growing body of proof underscoring the importance of microRNAs (miRNAs) and long noncoding RNAs (lncRNAs) in maintaining the physical composition of neurons and influencing cognitive functioning in both standard and atypical circumstances. Extensive research has been conducted on the possible application of miRNAs and lncRNAs as biomarkers for various diseases, with a particular focus on brain disorders, as they possess remarkable durability in cell-free surroundings and can endure repeated freezing and thawing processes. It is intriguing to note that miRNAs and lncRNAs have the ability to function through paracrine mechanisms, thereby playing a role in communication between different organs. Recent research has proposed that the improvement of cognitive abilities through physical exercise in mentally healthy individuals is a valuable method for uncovering potential connections between miRNAs, or microRNAs, and lncRNAs, and human cognitive function. The process of cross-correlating data from disease models and patients with existing data will be crucial in identifying essential miRNAs and lncRNAs, which can potentially act as biomarkers or drug targets in the treatment of cognitive disorders. By combining this method with additional research in animal models, we can determine the function of these molecules and their potential impact on therapy. This article discusses the latest research about the primary miRNAs, lncRNAs, and their exosomes that are affected by physical activity in terms of human cognitive function.

The expression of glycolysis-related proteins in urine significantly increases after running

Objective

Glucose metabolism is the main way in which cells obtain energy during exercise and plays an important role in exercise. The purpose of this study was to explore the changes in the expression of glucose metabolism-related proteins in urine after running, and finally applied to the monitoring of running training.

Methods

Urine samples were collected before and after running, and urine proteomics information was collected to explore the expression of proteins in the urine using LC-MS/MS in DDA mode and DIA mode. Receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve was drawn to evaluate the value of target proteins in monitoring running training.

Results

A total of 140 proteins were identified using LC-MS/MS in DDA mode, of which 49 urine proteins showed increased expression after running. KEGG analysis revealed that glucose metabolism-related proteins are mainly concentrated in glycolysis. There were six glycolysis-related proteins, among which urine proteins PKM, TPI1, ENO1 and LDHB were significantly increased after running (P < 0.05). This changes in urine proteins PKM, TPI1, ENO1 and LDHB were further verified by the results of LC-MS/MS in DIA mode. The concentrations of the urine proteins TPI1, ENO1 and LDHB showed a significant linear relationship with PKM. ROC curve analysis showed that PKM, TPI1, ENO1 and LDHB proteins in urine had good monitoring values for running training.

Conclusion

The expression of glycolysis-related proteins PKM, TPI1, ENO1 and LDHB in urine was significantly increased after running, which may be applied to the monitoring of running training.

Exosomal miRNAs as Participators of Hexavalent Chromium-Induced Genotoxicity and Immunotoxicity: A Two-Stage Population Study

Genotoxic and immunosuppressive characteristics are central to the carcinogenic profile of hexavalent chromium [Cr(VI)], with dysregulation of circulating exosomal miRNA potentially acting as oncogenes or tumor suppressors or participating in the carcinogenic landscape of heavy metals through immunomodulation. In this two-stage epidemiological investigation, we unveiled for the first time the perturbations of exosomal miRNAs among individuals exposed to Cr(VI), alongside their significant correlations with biomarkers of genetic injury (γ-H2AX positivity in circulating lymphocytes and the urinary 8-OHdG levels) and immunological indicators (immunosuppressive PD-1 expression), which was supported by validation in an external cohort. Employing a support vector machine model, we discerned that exosomal miRNAs, particularly miR-4467, miR-345-5p, miR-144-3p, and miR-206, exhibited a remarkable capacity to delineate the genetic damage stratum within the population with high precision, and the target genes predicted of these miRNAs further elucidated their intricate regulatory interplay with the effector biomarkers. Additionally, employing a Bayesian mediation framework, we observed the intermediary function of miR-4467 in the nexus between chromium exposure and the escalation of urinary 8-OHdG levels (mediation effect: 0.47, P < 0.05). Although our findings suggested a link between extracellular miRNAs and immunosuppressive biomarkers, this association did not achieve validation in the external cohort, possibly due to population heterogeneity. Collectively, this study advanced our understanding of the epigenetic orchestration of health hazards of Cr(VI) by exosomal miRNAs, shedding light on their expression signatures and their intricate interplay with Cr(VI)-induced genetic and immunological perturbations, thus providing novel perspectives on the toxic pathways of heavy metals.

Research advances in understanding crosstalk between organs and pancreatic β-cell dysfunction

Obesity has increased dramatically worldwide. Being overweight or obese can lead to various conditions, including dyslipidaemia, hypertension, glucose intolerance and metabolic syndrome (MetS), which may further lead to type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM). Previous studies have identified a link between β-cell dysfunction and the severity of MetS, with multiple organs and tissues affected. Identifying the associations between pancreatic β-cell dysfunction and organs is critical. Research has focused on the interaction between the liver, gut and pancreatic β-cells. However, the mechanisms and related core targets are still not perfectly elucidated. The aims of this review were to summarize the mechanisms of β-cell dysfunction and to explore the potential pathogenic pathways and targets that connect the liver, gut, adipose tissue, muscle, and brain to pancreatic β-cell dysfunction.

Substrate stiffness modulates extracellular vesicles' release in a triple-negative breast cancer model

Aim

The microenvironment effect on the tumoral-derived Extracellular Vesicle release, which is of significant interest for biomedical applications, still represents a rather unexplored field. The aim of the present work is to investigate the interrelation between extracellular matrix (ECM) stiffness and the release of small EVs from cancer cells. Here, we focus on the interrelation between the ECM and small extracellular vesicles (sEVs), specifically investigating the unexplored aspect of the influence of ECM stiffness on the release of sEVs.

Methods

We used a well-studied metastatic Triple-Negative Breast Cancer (TNBC) cell line, MDA-MB-231, as a model to study the release of sEVs by cells cultured on substrates of different stiffness. We have grown MDA-MB-231 cells on two collagen-coated polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) substrates at different stiffness (0.2 and 3.6 MPa), comparing them with a hard glass substrate as control, and then we isolated the respective sEVs by differential ultracentrifugation. After checking the cell growth conditions [vitality, morphology by immunofluorescence microscopy, stiffness by atomic force microscopy (AFM)], we took advantage of a multi-parametric approach based on complementary techniques (AFM, Nanoparticle Tracking Analysis, and asymmetric flow field flow fractionation with a multi-angle light scattering detector) to characterize the TNBC-derived sEV obtained in the different substrate conditions.

Results

We observe that soft substrates induce TNBC cell softening and rounding. This effect promotes the release of a high number of larger sEVs.

Conclusion

Here, we show the role of ECM physical properties in the regulation of sEV release in a TNBC model. While the molecular mechanisms regulating this effect need further investigation, our report represents a step toward an improved understanding of ECM-cell-sEVs crosstalk.

Exosomes and Macrophages: Bidirectional Mutual Regulation in the Treatment of Diabetic Complications

Purpose

The bidirectional regulation of macrophages and exosomes provides a meaningful research direction for the treatment of complications arising from both type 1 and type 2 diabetes mellitus. However, there is currently no comprehensive evaluation of the bidirectional regulatory role of macrophages and exosomes in diabetic complications. In this review, we aim to provide the detailed process of the bidirectional regulation mechanism of macrophages and exosomes, and how macrophage-associated exosomes use this mechanism to make it better applied to clinical practice through biotechnology.

Methods

Therefore, we summarized the bidirectional regulation mechanism of macrophages and exosomes and the application based on the bidirectional regulation mechanism from two aspects of inflammation and insulin resistance.

Results

As key regulators of the immune system, macrophages are crucial in the progression of diabetic complications due to their significant impact on the regulation of cellular metabolism, inflammation, and insulin sensitivity. Furthermore, exosomes, as innovative mediators of intercellular communication, transport miRNAs, proteins, and various bioactive molecules, influencing the occurrence and progression of diabetic complications through the regulation of inflammation and insulin resistance. The bidirectional regulation between macrophages and exosomes provides a promising pathway for the treatment of diabetic complications aimed at regulating the immune response and improving insulin sensitivity.

Conclusions

Understanding the complexity of the interaction between macrophages and exosomes can advance the treatment of diabetic complications and drug development, and bringing more innovative and effective treatment strategies for diabetic complications.

EVs-miR-17-5p attenuates the osteogenic differentiation of vascular smooth muscle cells potentially via inhibition of TGF-β signaling under high glucose conditions

Vascular calcification, which is a major complication of diabetes mellitus, is an independent risk factor for cardiovascular disease. Osteogenic differentiation of vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMCs) is one of the key mechanisms underlying vascular calcification. Emerging evidence suggests that macrophage-derived extracellular vesicles (EVs) may be involved in calcification within atherosclerotic plaques in patients with diabetes mellitus. However, the role of macrophage-derived EVs in the progression of vascular calcification is largely unknown. In this study, we investigated whether macrophage-derived EVs contribute to the osteogenic differentiation of VSMCs under high glucose conditions. We isolated EVs that were secreted by murine peritoneal macrophages under normal glucose (EVs-NG) or high glucose (EVs-HG) conditions. miRNA array analysis in EVs from murine macrophages showed that miR-17-5p was significantly increased in EVs-HG compared with EVs-NG. Prediction analysis with miRbase identified transforming growth factor β receptor type II (TGF-β RII) as a potential target of miR-17-5p. EVs-HG as well as miR-17-5p overexpression with lipid nanoparticles inhibited the gene expression of Runx2, and TGF-β RII. Furthermore, we demonstrated that VSMCs transfected with miR-17-5p mimic inhibited calcium deposition. Our findings reveal a novel role of macrophage-derived EVs in the negative regulation of osteogenic differentiation in VSMCs under high glucose conditions.

Emerging Roles of Exosomes in Stroke Therapy

Stroke is the number one cause of morbidity in the United States and number two cause of death worldwide. There is a critical unmet medical need for more effective treatments of ischemic stroke, and this need is increasing with the shift in demographics to an older population. Recently, several studies have reported the therapeutic potential of stem cell-derived exosomes as new candidates for cell-free treatment in stoke. This review focuses on the use of stem cell-derived exosomes as a potential treatment tool for stroke patients. Therapy using exosomes can have a clear clinical advantage over stem cell transplantation in terms of safety, cost, and convenience, as well as reducing bench-to-bed latency due to fewer regulatory milestones. In this review article, we focus on (1) the therapeutic potential of exosomes in stroke treatment, (2) the optimization process of upstream and downstream production, and (3) preclinical application in a stroke animal model. Finally, we discuss the limitations and challenges faced by exosome therapy in future clinical applications.

Inflammation in Fabry disease: stages, molecular pathways, and therapeutic implications

Fabry disease, a multisystem X-linked disorder caused by mutations in the alpha-galactosidase gene. This leads to the accumulation of globotriaosylceramide (Gb3) and globotriaosylsphingosine (Lyso-Gb3), culminating in various clinical signs and symptoms that significantly impact quality of life. Although treatments such as enzyme replacement, oral chaperone, and emerging therapies like gene therapy exist; delayed diagnosis often curtails their effectiveness. Our review highlights the importance of delineating the stages of inflammation in Fabry disease to enhance the timing and efficacy of diagnosis and interventions, particularly before the progression to fibrosis, where treatment options are less effective. Inflammation is emerging as an important aspect of the pathogenesis of Fabry disease. This is thought to be predominantly mediated by the innate immune response, with growing evidence pointing towards the potential involvement of adaptive immune mechanisms that remain poorly understood. Highlighted by the fact that Fabry disease shares immune profiles with systemic autoinflammatory diseases, blurring the distinctions between these disorders and highlighting the need for a nuanced understanding of immune dynamics. This insight is crucial for developing targeted therapies and improving the administration of current treatments like enzyme replacement. Moreover, our review discusses the complex interplay between these inflammatory processes and current treatments, such as the challenges posed by anti-drug antibodies. These antibodies can attenuate the effectiveness of therapies, necessitating more refined approaches to mitigate their impact. By advancing our understanding of the molecular changes, inflammatory mediators and causative factors that drive inflammation in Fabry disease, we aim to clarify their role in the disease's progression. This improved understanding will help us see how these processes fit into the current landscape of Fabry disease. Additionally, it will guide the development of more effective diagnostic and therapeutic approaches, ultimately improving patient care.

Recent advances in the use of extracellular vesicles from adipose-derived stem cells for regenerative medical therapeutics

Adipose-derived stem cells (ADSCs) are a subset of mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) isolated from adipose tissue. They possess remarkable properties, including multipotency, self-renewal, and easy clinical availability. ADSCs are also capable of promoting tissue regeneration through the secretion of various cytokines, factors, and extracellular vesicles (EVs). ADSC-derived EVs (ADSC-EVs) act as intercellular signaling mediators that encapsulate a range of biomolecules. These EVs have been found to mediate the therapeutic activities of donor cells by promoting the proliferation and migration of effector cells, facilitating angiogenesis, modulating immunity, and performing other specific functions in different tissues. Compared to the donor cells themselves, ADSC-EVs offer advantages such as fewer safety concerns and more convenient transportation and storage for clinical application. As a result, these EVs have received significant attention as cell-free therapeutic agents with potential future application in regenerative medicine. In this review, we focus on recent research progress regarding regenerative medical use of ADSC-EVs across various medical conditions, including wound healing, chronic limb ischemia, angiogenesis, myocardial infarction, diabetic nephropathy, fat graft survival, bone regeneration, cartilage regeneration, tendinopathy and tendon healing, peripheral nerve regeneration, and acute lung injury, among others. We also discuss the underlying mechanisms responsible for inducing these therapeutic effects. We believe that deciphering the biological properties, therapeutic effects, and underlying mechanisms associated with ADSC-EVs will provide a foundation for developing a novel therapeutic approach in regenerative medicine.

Drug resistance in breast cancer is based on the mechanism of exocrine non-coding RNA

Breast cancer (BC) ranks first among female malignant tumors and involves hormonal changes and genetic as well as environmental risk factors. In recent years, with the improvement of medical treatment, a variety of therapeutic approaches for breast cancer have emerged and have strengthened to accommodate molecular diversity. However, the primary way to improve the effective treatment of breast cancer patients is to overcome treatment resistance. Recent studies have provided insights into the mechanisms of resistance to exosome effects in BC. Exosomes are membrane-bound vesicles secreted by both healthy and malignant cells that facilitate intercellular communication. Specifically, exosomes released by tumor cells transport their contents to recipient cells, altering their properties and promoting oncogenic components, ultimately resulting in drug resistance. As important coordinators, non-coding RNAs (ncRNAs) are involved in this process and are aberrantly expressed in various human cancers. Exosome-derived ncRNAs, including microRNAs (miRNAs), long-noncoding RNAs (lncRNAs), and circular RNAs (circRNAs), have emerged as crucial components in understanding drug resistance in breast cancer. This review provides insights into the mechanism of exosome-derived ncRNAs in breast cancer drug resistance, thereby suggesting new strategies for the treatment of BC.

The Landscape of Exosomes Biogenesis to Clinical Applications

Exosomes are extracellular vesicles that originate from various cells and mediate intercellular communication, altering the behavior or fate of recipient cells. They carry diverse macromolecules, such as lipids, proteins, carbohydrates, and nucleic acids. Environmental stressors can change the exosomal contents of many cells, making them useful for diagnosing many chronic disorders, especially neurodegenerative, cardiovascular, cancerous, and diabetic diseases. Moreover, exosomes can be engineered as therapeutic agents to modulate disease processes. State-of-art techniques are employed to separate exosomes including ultracentrifugation, size-exclusion chromatography and immunoaffinity. However, modern technologies such as aqueous two-phase system as well as microfluidics are gaining attention in the recent years. The article highlighted the composition, biogenesis, and implications of exosomes, as well as the standard and novel methods for isolating them and applying them as biomarkers and therapeutic cargo carriers.

Analysis and Characterization of the Extracellular Vesicles Released in Non-Cancer Diseases Using Matrix-Assisted Laser Desorption Ionization/Mass Spectrometry

The extracellular vesicles (EVs) released by cells play a crucial role in intercellular communications and interactions. The direct shedding of EVs from the plasma membrane represents a fundamental pathway for the transfer of properties and information between cells. These vesicles are classified based on their origin, biogenesis, size, content, surface markers, and functional features, encompassing a variety of bioactive molecules that reflect the physiological state and cell type of origin. Such molecules include lipids, nucleic acids, and proteins. Research efforts aimed at comprehending EVs, including the development of strategies for their isolation, purification, and characterization, have led to the discovery of new biomarkers. These biomarkers are proving invaluable for diagnosing diseases, monitoring disease progression, understanding treatment responses, especially in oncology, and addressing metabolic, neurological, infectious disorders, as well as advancing vaccine development. Matrix-Assisted Laser Desorption Ionization (MALDI)/Mass Spectrometry (MS) stands out as a leading tool for the analysis and characterization of EVs and their cargo. This technique offers inherent advantages such as a high throughput, minimal sample consumption, rapid and cost-effective analysis, and user-friendly operation. This review is mainly focused on the primary applications of MALDI-time-of-flight (TOF)/MS in the analysis and characterization of extracellular vesicles associated with non-cancerous diseases and pathogens that infect humans, animals, and plants.

Exosomes and exosomal miRNAs: A new avenue for the future treatment of rheumatoid arthritis

Rheumatoid arthritis is a chronic systemic autoimmune disease that involves mainly synovitis and joint injury and is one of the main causes of disability. The pathogenesis of rheumatoid arthritis is complicated, and the treatment cycle is long. The traditional methods of inhibiting inflammation and immunosuppression are no longer sufficient for treatment of the disease, so there is an urgent need to seek new treatments. The exocrine microenvironment is a kind of microvesicle with a lipid bilayer membrane structure that can be secreted by most cells in the body. This structure contains cell-specific proteins, lipids and nucleic acids that can transmit this information from one cell to another. To achieve cell-to-cell communication. Exocrine microRNAs can be contained in exocrine cells and can be selectively transferred to target receptor cells via exocrine signaling, thus regulating the physiological function of target cells. This article focuses on the pathological changes that occur during the development of rheumatoid arthritis and the biological regulation of exocrine and exocrine microRNAs in rheumatoid joints. Research on the roles of exocrine and exocrine microRNAs in regulating the inflammatory response, cell proliferation/apoptosis, autophagy, effects on fibroblast-like synoviocytes and immune regulation in rheumatoid arthritis was reviewed. In addition, the challenges faced by this new treatment are discussed.

Role of non-coding RNAs and exosomal non-coding RNAs in vasculitis: A narrative review

A category of very uncommon systemic inflammatory blood vessel illnesses known as vasculitides. The pathogenesis and etiology of vasculitis are still poorly known. Despite all of the progress made in understanding the genetics and causes behind vasculitis, there is still more to learn. Epigenetic dysregulation is a significant contributor to immune-mediated illnesses, and epigenetic aberrancies in vasculitis are becoming more widely acknowledged. Less than 2 % of the genome contains protein-encoding DNA. Studies have shown that a variety of RNAs originating from the non-coding genome exist. Long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs), microRNAs (miRNAs), and circular RNAs (circRNAs) have attracted the most attention in recent years as they are becoming more and more important regulators of different biological processes, such as diseases of the veins. Extracellular vehicles (EVs) such as exosomes, are membrane-bound vesicular structures that break free either during programmed cell death, such as apoptosis, pyroptosis, and necroptosis or during cell activation. Exosomes may be involved in harmful ways in inflammation, procoagulation, autoimmune reactions, endothelial dysfunction/damage, intimal hyperplasia and angiogenesis, all of which may be significant in vasculitis. Herein, we summarized various non-coding RNAs that are involved in vasculitides pathogenesis. Moreover, we highlighted the role of exosomes in vasculitides.

Molecular mechanism of Gan-song Yin inhibiting the proliferation of renal tubular epithelial cells by regulating miR-21-5p in adipocyte exosomes

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Gan-song Yin is derived from the classic ancient prescription " Gan-song pill " for the treatment of wasting-thirst in Ningxia combined with the characteristic "fragrant medicine". It is clinically used for the treatment of early renal fibrosis caused by diabetic nephropathy. Previous studies have shown that it has a good effect and great potential in the prevention and treatment of diabetic nephropathy, but its mechanism research is still limited.

AIM OF THE STUDY

To investigate the mechanism of GSY to improve DN by interfering with miR-21-5p and glycolipid metabolism in adipocyte exosomes using 3T3-L1 and TCMK-1 co-culture system.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The co-culture system of 3T3-L3 and TCMK-1 was established, the IR model was established, and the stability, lipid drop change, glucose consumption, triglyceride content, cell viability, cell cycle and apoptosis level, protein content and mRNA expression of the IR model were detected.

RESULTS

GSY inhibited 3T3-L1 activity, increased glucose consumption and decreased TG content. Decreased TCMK-1 cell viability, inhibited apoptosis, cell cycle arrest occurred in G0/G1 phase and S phase. Adipocyte IR model and co-culture system were stable within 48 h. After GSY intervention, lipid droplet decomposition and glucose consumption increased. The TG content of adipocytes increased, while the TG content of co-culture system decreased. GSY can regulate the expression of TGF-β1/SMAD signaling pathway protein in IR state. After GSY intervention, the expression of miR-21-5p was increased in 3T3-L1 and Exo cells, and decreased in TCMK-1 cells.

CONCLUSIONS

GSY can regulate TGF-β1/SMAD signaling pathway through the secretion of miR-21-5p from adipocytes, protect IR TCMK-1, regulate the protein and mRNA expression levels of PPARγ, GLUT4, FABP4, and improve glucose and lipid metabolism.

Extracellular Vesicles in Domestic Animals: Cellular Communication in Health and Disease

Apoptotic and healthy cells of domestic animals release membrane-enclosed particles from their plasma membrane. These special structures, called extracellular vesicles, play an important role in intercellular communication. In the past, it was believed that their function was mainly to dispose unwanted cell contents and to help maintain cell homeostasis. However, we now know that they have important roles in health and disease and have diagnostic value as well as great potential for therapy in veterinary medicine. Extracellular vesicles facilitate cellular exchanges by delivering functional cargo molecules to nearby or distant tissues. They are produced by various cell types and are found in all body fluids. Their cargo reflects the state of the releasing parent cell, and despite their small size, this cargo is extraordinarily complex. Numerous different types of molecules contained in vesicles make them an extremely promising tool in the field of regenerative veterinary medicine. To further increase research interest and discover their full potential, some of the basic biological mechanisms behind their function need to be better understood. Only then will we be able to maximize the clinical relevance for targeted diagnostic and therapeutic purposes in various domestic animal species.

Unraveling the Intricate Roles of Exosomes in Cardiovascular Diseases: A Comprehensive Review of Physiological Significance and Pathological Implications

Exosomes, as potent intercellular communication tools, have garnered significant attention due to their unique cargo-carrying capabilities, which enable them to influence diverse physiological and pathological functions. Extensive research has illuminated the biogenesis, secretion, and functions of exosomes. These vesicles are secreted by cells in different states, exerting either protective or harmful biological functions. Emerging evidence highlights their role in cardiovascular disease (CVD) by mediating comprehensive interactions among diverse cell types. This review delves into the significant impacts of exosomes on CVD under stress and disease conditions, including coronary artery disease (CAD), myocardial infarction, heart failure, and other cardiomyopathies. Focusing on the cellular signaling and mechanisms, we explore how exosomes mediate multifaceted interactions, particularly contributing to endothelial dysfunction, oxidative stress, and apoptosis in CVD pathogenesis. Additionally, exosomes show great promise as biomarkers, reflecting differential expressions of NcRNAs (miRNAs, lncRNAs, and circRNAs), and as therapeutic carriers for targeted CVD treatment. However, the specific regulatory mechanisms governing exosomes in CVD remain incomplete, necessitating further exploration of their characteristics and roles in various CVD-related contexts. This comprehensive review aims to provide novel insights into the biological implications of exosomes in CVD and offer innovative perspectives on the diagnosis and treatment of CVD.

Smart Contact Lenses as Wearable Ophthalmic Devices for Disease Monitoring and Health Management

The eye contains a complex network of physiological information and biomarkers for monitoring disease and managing health, and ocular devices can be used to effectively perform point-of-care diagnosis and disease management. This comprehensive review describes the target biomarkers and various diseases, including ophthalmic diseases, metabolic diseases, and neurological diseases, based on the physiological and anatomical background of the eye. This review also includes the recent technologies utilized in eye-wearable medical devices and the latest trends in wearable ophthalmic devices, specifically smart contact lenses for the purpose of disease management. After introducing other ocular devices such as the retinal prosthesis, we further discuss the current challenges and potential possibilities of smart contact lenses.

Exosome-like nanoparticles derived from Allium tuberosum prevent neuroinflammation in microglia-like cells

OBJECTIVE

Exosome-like nanoparticles (ELNs), which are plant-derived extracellular membrane vesicles, can regulate mammalian gene expression. ELNs can cross the blood-brain barrier, making them potential therapeutic agents or drug-delivery carriers for neuroinflammation-related diseases. Here, we investigated the anti-neuroinflammatory potential of ELNs extracted from Allium tuberosum (A-ELNs).

METHODS

A-ELNs were extracted, and their miRNA profile was characterized. A-ELNs were also applied to BV-2 microglial and MG-6 cells derived from C57/BL6 mice stimulated with lipopolysaccharide (LPS), followed by an examination of levels of inflammatory-related factors. To test their drug-carrying potential, A-ELNs were mixed with dexamethasone, an anti-inflammatory drug, to prepare dexamethasone-incorporated A-ELNs (Dex-A-ELNs).

KEY FINDINGS

A-ELNs showed a particle size of 145 ± 2 nm and characteristic miRNAs. A-ELNs significantly decreased the LPS-induced nitric oxide (NO) and inflammatory cytokines levels in BV-2 and MG-6 cells. The mRNA expression of heme oxygenase-1 was significantly increased, and that of inducible NO synthase and inflammatory cytokines was significantly decreased by A-ELNs in BV-2 cells. Dex-A-ELNs inhibited NO production in BV-2 cells more potently than either A-ELNs or dexamethasone alone.

CONCLUSION

A-ELNs can alleviate microglial inflammation. Their effects can be potentiated by incorporating anti-inflammatory drugs, such as dexamethasone, making them potential therapeutic agents or drug-delivery carriers for neuroinflammation.

Cold-activated brown fat-derived extracellular vesicle-miR-378a-3p stimulates hepatic gluconeogenesis in male mice

During cold exposure, activated brown adipose tissue (BAT) takes up a large amount of circulating glucose to fuel non-shivering thermogenesis and defend against hypothermia. However, little is known about the endocrine function of BAT controlling glucose homoeostasis under this thermoregulatory challenge. Here, we show that in male mice, activated BAT-derived extracellular vesicles (BDEVs) reprogram systemic glucose metabolism by promoting hepatic gluconeogenesis during cold stress. Cold exposure facilitates the selective packaging of miR-378a-3p-one of the BAT-enriched miRNAs-into EVs and delivery into the liver. BAT-derived miR-378a-3p enhances gluconeogenesis by targeting p110α. miR-378 KO mice display reduced hepatic gluconeogenesis during cold exposure, while restoration of miR-378a-3p in iBAT induces the expression of gluconeogenic genes in the liver. These findings provide a mechanistic understanding of BDEV-miRNA as stress-induced batokine to coordinate systemic glucose homoeostasis. This miR-378a-3p-mediated interorgan communication highlights a novel endocrine function of BAT in preventing hypoglycemia during cold stress.

Exploring the Feasibility of Circulating miRNAs as Diagnostic and Prognostic Biomarkers in Osteoarthritis: Challenges and Opportunities

Osteoarthritis (OA) is a prevalent degenerative joint disease characterized by progressive cartilage degradation and joint inflammation. As the most common aging-related joint disease, OA is marked by inadequate extracellular matrix synthesis and the breakdown of articular cartilage. However, traditional diagnostic methods for OA, relying on clinical assessments and radiographic imaging, often need to catch up in detecting early-stage disease or i accurately predicting its progression. Consequently, there is a growing interest in identifying reliable biomarkers that can facilitate early diagnosis and prognosis of OA. MicroRNAs (miRNAs) have emerged as potential candidates due to their involvement in various cellular processes, including cartilage homeostasis and inflammation. This review explores the feasibility of circulating miRNAs as diagnostic and prognostic biomarkers in OA, focusing on knee OA while shedding light on the challenges and opportunities associated with their implementation in clinical practice.

The diagnostic and therapeutic prospects of exosomes in ovarian cancer

Exosomes are nano-sized vesicles derived from the endosomal system and are involved in many biological and pathological processes. Emerging evidence has demonstrated that exosomes with cell-specific constituents are associated with the tumorigenesis and progression of ovarian cancer. Therefore, exosomes derived from ovarian cancers can be potential diagnostic biomarkers and therapeutic targets. In this review, we briefly present the biological characteristics of exosomes and the recent advances in isolating and detecting exosomes. Furthermore, we summarise the many functions of exosomes in ovarian cancer, hoping to provide a theoretical basis for clinical applications of exosomes in the diagnosis and treatment of ovarian cancer.

Saturated fatty acid-enriched small extracellular vesicles mediate a crosstalk inducing liver inflammation and hepatocyte insulin resistance

BACKGROUND & AIMS

Lipotoxicity triggers non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) progression owing to the accumulation of toxic lipids in hepatocytes including saturated fatty acids (SFAs), which activate pro-inflammatory pathways. We investigated the impact of hepatocyte- or circulating-derived small extracellular vesicles (sEV) secreted under NAFLD conditions on liver inflammation and hepatocyte insulin signalling.

METHODS

sEV released by primary mouse hepatocytes, characterised and analysed by lipidomics, were added to mouse macrophages/Kupffer cells (KC) to monitor internalisation and inflammatory responses. Insulin signalling was analysed in hepatocytes exposed to conditioned media from sEV-loaded macrophages/KC. Mice were i.v. injected sEV to study liver inflammation and insulin signalling. Circulating sEV from mice and humans with NAFLD were used to evaluate macrophage-hepatocyte crosstalk.

RESULTS

Numbers of sEV released by hepatocytes increased under NAFLD conditions. Lipotoxic sEV were internalised by macrophages through the endosomal pathway and induced pro-inflammatory responses that were ameliorated by pharmacological inhibition or deletion of Toll-like receptor-4 (TLR4). Hepatocyte insulin signalling was impaired upon treatment with conditioned media from macrophages/KC loaded with lipotoxic sEV. Both hepatocyte-released lipotoxic sEV and the recipient macrophages/KC were enriched in palmitic (C16:0) and stearic (C18:0) SFAs, well-known TLR4 activators. Upon injection, lipotoxic sEV rapidly reached KC, triggering a pro-inflammatory response in the liver monitored by Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK) phosphorylation, NF-κB nuclear translocation, pro-inflammatory cytokine expression, and infiltration of immune cells into the liver parenchyma. sEV-mediated liver inflammation was attenuated by pharmacological inhibition or deletion of TLR4 in myeloid cells. Macrophage inflammation and subsequent hepatocyte insulin resistance were also induced by circulating sEV from mice and humans with NAFLD.

CONCLUSIONS

We identified hepatocyte-derived sEV as SFA transporters targeting macrophages/KC and activating a TLR4-mediated pro-inflammatory response enough to induce hepatocyte insulin resistance.

IMPACT AND IMPLICATIONS

Small extracellular vesicles (sEV) released by the hepatocytes under non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) conditions cause liver inflammation and insulin resistance in hepatocytes via paracrine hepatocyte-macrophage-hepatocyte crosstalk. We identified sEV as transporters of saturated fatty acids (SFAs) and potent lipotoxic inducers of liver inflammation. TLR4 deficiency or its pharmacological inhibition ameliorated liver inflammation induced by hepatocyte-derived lipotoxic sEV. Evidence of this macrophage-hepatocyte interactome was also found in patients with NAFLD, pointing to the relevance of sEV in SFA-mediated lipotoxicity in NAFLD.

Peripheral origin exosomal microRNAs aggravate glymphatic system dysfunction in diabetic cognitive impairment

Cognitive dysfunction is one of the common central nervous systems (CNS) complications of diabetes mellitus, which seriously affects the quality of life of patients and results in a huge economic burden. The glymphatic system dysfunction mediated by aquaporin-4 (AQP4) loss or redistribution in perivascular astrocyte endfeet plays a crucial role in diabetes-induced cognitive impairment (DCI). However, the mechanism of AQP4 loss or redistribution in the diabetic states remains unclear. Accumulating evidence suggests that peripheral insulin resistance target tissues and CNS communication affect brain homeostasis and that exosomal miRNAs are key mediators. Glucose and lipid metabolism disorder is an important pathological feature of diabetes mellitus, and skeletal muscle, liver and adipose tissue are the key target insulin resistance organs. In this review, the changes in exosomal miRNAs induced by peripheral metabolism disorders in diabetes mellitus were systematically reviewed. We focused on exosomal miRNAs that could induce low AQP4 expression and redistribution in perivascular astrocyte endfeet, which could provide an interorgan communication pathway to illustrate the pathogenesis of DCI. Furthermore, the mechanisms of exosome secretion from peripheral insulin resistance target tissue and absorption to the CNS were summarized, which will be beneficial for proposing novel and feasible strategies to optimize DCI prevention and/or treatment in diabetic patients.

Differential expression of coagulation pathway-related proteins in diabetic urine exosomes

BACKGROUND

Coagulation function monitoring is important for the occurrence and development of diabetes. A total of 16 related proteins are involved in coagulation, but how these proteins change in diabetic urine exosomes is unclear. To explore the expression changes of coagulation-related proteins in urine exosomes and their possible roles in the pathogenesis of diabetes, we performed proteomic analysis and finally applied them to the noninvasive monitoring of diabetes.

METHODS

Subject urine samples were collected. LC-MS/MS was used to collect the information on coagulation-related proteins in urine exosomes. ELISA, mass spectrometry and western blotting were used to further verify the differential protein expression in urine exosomes. Correlations with clinical indicators were explored, and receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curves were drawn to evaluate the value of differential proteins in diabetes monitoring.

RESULTS

Analyzing urine exosome proteomics data, eight coagulation-related proteins were found in this study. Among them, F2 was elevated in urine exosomes of diabetic patients compared with healthy controls. The results of ELISA, mass spectrometry and western blotting further verified the changes in F2. Correlation analysis showed that the expression of urine exosome F2 was correlated with clinical lipid metabolism indexes, and the concentration of F2 was strongly positively correlated with blood TG levels (P < 0.05). ROC curve analysis showed that F2 protein in urine exosomes had a good monitoring value for diabetes.

CONCLUSION

Coagulation-related proteins were expressed in urine exosomes. Among them, F2 was increased in diabetic urine exosomes and may be a potential biomarker for monitoring diabetic changes.

Extracellular vesicle-mediated intercellular and interorgan crosstalk of pancreatic islet in health and diabetes

Diabetes mellitus (DM) is a systemic metabolic disease with high mortality and morbidity. Extracellular vesicles (EVs) have emerged as a novel class of signaling molecules, biomarkers and therapeutic agents. EVs-mediated intercellular and interorgan crosstalk of pancreatic islets plays a crucial role in the regulation of insulin secretion of β-cells and insulin action in peripheral insulin target tissues, maintaining glucose homeostasis under physiological conditions, and it's also involved in pathological changes including autoimmune response, insulin resistance and β-cell failure associated with DM. In addition, EVs may serve as biomarkers and therapeutic agents that respectively reflect the status and improve function and viability of pancreatic islets. In this review, we provide an overview of EVs, discuss EVs-mediated intercellular and interorgan crosstalk of pancreatic islet under physiological and diabetic conditions, and summarize the emerging applications of EVs in the diagnosis and treatment of DM. A better understanding of EVs-mediated intercellular and interorgan communication of pancreatic islets will broaden and enrich our knowledge of physiological homeostasis maintenance as well as the development, diagnosis and treatment of DM.

Label-free microfluidic cell sorting and detection for rapid blood analysis

Blood tests are considered as standard clinical procedures to screen for markers of diseases and health conditions. However, the complex cellular background (>99.9% RBCs) and biomolecular composition often pose significant technical challenges for accurate blood analysis. An emerging approach for point-of-care blood diagnostics is utilizing "label-free" microfluidic technologies that rely on intrinsic cell properties for blood fractionation and disease detection without any antibody binding. A growing body of clinical evidence has also reported that cellular dysfunction and their biophysical phenotypes are complementary to standard hematoanalyzer analysis (complete blood count) and can provide a more comprehensive health profiling. In this review, we will summarize recent advances in microfluidic label-free separation of different blood cell components including circulating tumor cells, leukocytes, platelets and nanoscale extracellular vesicles. Label-free single cell analysis of intrinsic cell morphology, spectrochemical properties, dielectric parameters and biophysical characteristics as novel blood-based biomarkers will also be presented. Next, we will highlight research efforts that combine label-free microfluidics with machine learning approaches to enhance detection sensitivity and specificity in clinical studies, as well as innovative microfluidic solutions which are capable of fully integrated and label-free blood cell sorting and analysis. Lastly, we will envisage the current challenges and future outlook of label-free microfluidics platforms for high throughput multi-dimensional blood cell analysis to identify non-traditional circulating biomarkers for clinical diagnostics.

An Overview of Inter-Tissue and Inter-Kingdom Communication Mediated by Extracellular Vesicles in the Regulation of Mammalian Metabolism

Obesity and type 2 diabetes are associated with defects of insulin action in different tissues or alterations in β-cell secretory capacity that may be triggered by environmental challenges, inadequate lifestyle choices, or an underlying genetic predisposition. In addition, recent data shows that obesity may also be caused by perturbations of the gut microbiota, which then affect metabolic function and energy homeostasis in the host. Maintenance of metabolic homeostasis in complex organisms such as mammals requires organismal-level communication, including between the different organs and the gut microbiota. Extracellular vesicles (EVs) have been identified in all domains of life and have emerged as crucial players in inter-organ and inter-kingdom crosstalk. Interestingly, EVs found in edible vegetables or in milk have been shown to influence gut microbiota or tissue function in mammals. Moreover, there is a multidirectional crosstalk mediated by EVs derived from gut microbiota and body organs that has implications for host health. Untangling this complex signaling network may help implement novel therapies for the treatment of metabolic disease.

The emerging role of exosomes in innate immunity, diagnosis and therapy

Exosomes, which are nano-sized transport bio-vehicles, play a pivotal role in maintaining homeostasis by exchanging genetic or metabolic information between different cells. Exosomes can also play a vital role in transferring virulent factors between the host and parasite, thereby regulating host gene expression and the immune interphase. The association of inflammation with disease development and the potential of exosomes to enhance or mitigate inflammatory pathways support the notion that exosomes have the potential to alter the course of a disease. Clinical trials exploring the role of exosomes in cancer, osteoporosis, and renal, neurological, and pulmonary disorders are currently underway. Notably, the information available on the signatory efficacy of exosomes in immune-related disorders remains elusive and sporadic. In this review, we discuss immune cell-derived exosomes and their application in immunotherapy, including those against autoimmune connective tissue diseases. Further, we have elucidated our views on the major issues in immune-related pathophysiological processes. Therefore, the information presented in this review highlights the role of exosomes as promising strategies and clinical tools for immune regulation.

How to maximize the therapeutic effect of exosomes on skin wounds in diabetes mellitus: Review and discussion

Chronic skin wound healing, especially in diabetes mellitus, is still unsolved. Although many efforts have been made to treat diabetic skin wounds, current strategies have achieved limited effectiveness. Nowadays, a great number of studies have shown that exosomes might be a promising approach for treating diabetic wounds. Many studies and reviews have focused on investigating and discussing the effectiveness and mechanism of exosomes. However, maximizing its value in treating skin wounds in diabetes mellitus requires further consideration. In this review, we reviewed and discussed the aspects that could be further improved in this process, including finding a better source of exosomes, engineering exosomes, adjusting dosage and frequency, and combining more efficient delivery methods. This review provided an overview and idea of what we can do to improve the therapeutic effect of exosomes on skin wounds in diabetes mellitus. Only by combining all the factors that affect the effectiveness of exosomes in diabetic wound healing can we further promote their clinical usefulness.

Distinct microRNA and protein profiles of extracellular vesicles secreted from myotubes from morbidly obese donors with type 2 diabetes in response to electrical pulse stimulation

Lifestyle disorders like obesity, type 2 diabetes (T2D), and cardiovascular diseases can be prevented and treated by regular physical activity. During exercise, skeletal muscles release signaling factors that communicate with other organs and mediate beneficial effects of exercise. These factors include myokines, metabolites, and extracellular vesicles (EVs). In the present study, we have examined how electrical pulse stimulation (EPS) of myotubes, a model of exercise, affects the cargo of released EVs. Chronic low frequency EPS was applied for 24 h to human myotubes isolated and differentiated from biopsy samples from six morbidly obese females with T2D, and EVs, both exosomes and microvesicles (MV), were isolated from cell media 24 h thereafter. Size and concentration of EV subtypes were characterized by nanoparticle tracking analysis, surface markers were examined by flow cytometry and Western blotting, and morphology was confirmed by transmission electron microscopy. Protein content was assessed by high-resolution proteomic analysis (LC-MS/MS), non-coding RNA was quantified by Affymetrix microarray, and selected microRNAs (miRs) validated by real time RT-qPCR. The size and concentration of exosomes and MV were unaffected by EPS. Of the 400 miRs identified in the EVs, EPS significantly changed the level of 15 exosome miRs, of which miR-1233-5p showed the highest fold change. The miR pattern of MV was unaffected by EPS. Totally, about 1000 proteins were identified in exosomes and 2000 in MV. EPS changed the content of 73 proteins in exosomes, 97 in MVs, and of these four were changed in both exosomes and MV (GANAB, HSPA9, CNDP2, and ATP5B). By matching the EPS-changed miRs and proteins in exosomes, 31 targets were identified, and among these several promising signaling factors. Of particular interest were CNDP2, an enzyme that generates the appetite regulatory metabolite Lac-Phe, and miR-4433b-3p, which targets CNDP2. Several of the regulated miRs, such as miR-92b-5p, miR-320b, and miR-1233-5p might also mediate interesting signaling functions. In conclusion, we have used a combined transcriptome-proteome approach to describe how EPS affected the cargo of EVs derived from myotubes from morbidly obese patients with T2D, and revealed several new factors, both miRs and proteins, that might act as exercise factors.

Erectile dysfunction and exosome therapy

Erectile dysfunction (ED), as a common male disease, can seriously reduce the life quality of men and their partners. With the improvement of human living standards, ED is considered to be an important health issue that plagues men. However, it is difficult for existing therapeutic approaches to meet the needs of all patients, so it is necessary to develop novel treatment strategies. Exosomes, as a class of vesicles secreted by cells with bilayer membrane structure, are involved in various physiological and pathological processes in human body and considered to have great therapeutic potentials. This review summarizes the recent advances on exosome therapy with animal models of ED, and proposes the prospect of future research in order to provide a basis for clinical trials and clinical translation.

Type 2 diabetes mellitus stimulated pulmonary vascular inflammation and exosome biogenesis in rats

It has been shown that type 2 Diabetes Mellitus (T2DM) changes the paracrine activity of several cell types. Whether the biogenesis of exosomes is changed during diabetic conditions is the subject of debate. Here, we investigated the effect of T2M on exosome biogenesis in rat pulmonary tissue. Rats received a high-fat diet regime and a single low dose of Streptozocin to mimic the T2DM-like condition. A total of 8 weeks after induction of T2DM, rats were subjected to several analyses. Besides histological examination, vascular cell adhesion molecule 1 (VCAM-1) levels were detected using immunohistochemistry (IHC) staining. Transcription of several genes such as IL-1β, Alix, and Rab27b was calculated by real-time polymerase chain reaction assay. Using western blot analysis, intracellular CD63 levels were measured. The morphology and exosome secretion activity were assessed using acetylcholinesterase (AChE) assay and scanning electron microscopy, respectively. Histological results exhibited a moderate-to-high rate of interstitial pneumonia with emphysematous changes. IHC staining showed an increased VCAM-1 expression in the diabetic lungs compared with the normal conditions (p < .05). Likewise, we found the induction of IL-1β, and exosome-related genes Alix and Rab27b under diabetic conditions compared with the control group (p < .05). Along with these changes, protein levels of CD63 and AChE activity were induced upon the initiation of T2DM, indicating accelerated exosome biogenesis. Taken together, current data indicated the induction of exosome biogenesis in rat pulmonary tissue affected by T2DM. It seems that the induction of inflammatory niche is touted as a stimulatory factor to accelerate exosome secretion.

Exosomes from Short-Term High-Fat or High-Sucrose Fed Mice Induce Hepatic Steatosis through Different Pathways

Obesity and other closely associated diseases, such as metabolic-associated fatty liver disease (MAFLD) and type 2 diabetes, give rise to a common biometric and metabolic phenotype resulting from a different etiopathogenesis. To characterize the first stages of metabolic dysfunction induced by either obesity or hepatic steatosis, we compared two animal models of short-term feeding with either high-fat (HFD) or high-sucrose (SAC) diets. Using transcriptomic, metabolic, and calorimetric analyses, we determined that a short-term HFD leads to obesity and then hepatic steatosis through lipid storage, whereas SAC increases gluconeogenesis and de novo lipogenesis, resulting in hepatic steatosis followed later by obesity. Plasma exosomal miRNA profiles differed between HFD and SAC mice, and the injection of exosomes from HFD or SAC mice reproduced some transcriptomic and metabolic features of the donor mice. Finally, we exploited our data to identify circulating miR-22-3p as a candidate biomarker for MAFLD patient stratification. In conclusion, dietary challenges affecting adipose or hepatic metabolism regulate the abundance of exosomal miRNAs in plasma, which in turn modulate gene expression, helping the organism to adapt.

The Therapeutic Potential of Mesenchymal Stem Cells in the Treatment of Diabetes Mellitus

Mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) exist in many tissues and can differentiate into cells of multiple lineages, such as adipocytes, osteoblasts, or chondrocytes. MSC administration has demonstrated therapeutic potential in various degenerative and inflammatory diseases (e.g., graft-vs.-host disease, multiple sclerosis, Crohn's disease, organ fibrosis, and diabetes mellitus [DM]). The mechanisms involved in the therapeutic effects of MSCs are multifaceted. Generally, implanted MSCs can migrate to sites of injury, where they establish an anti-inflammatory and regenerative microenvironment in damaged tissues. In addition, MSCs can modulate innate and adaptive immune responses through immunosuppressive mechanisms that involve immune cells, inflammatory cytokines, chemokines, and immunomodulatory factors. DM has a high prevalence worldwide; it also contributes to a high rate of mortality worldwide. MSCs offer a promising therapeutic agent to prevent or repair damage from DM and diabetic complications through properties such as multilineage differentiation, homing, promotion of angiogenesis, and immunomodulation (e.g., prevention of oxidative stress, fibrosis, and cell death). In this study, we review current findings regarding the immunomodulatory and regenerative mechanisms of MSCs, as well as their therapeutic applications in DM and DM-related complications.

Treatment with EV-miRNAs Alleviates Obesity-Associated Metabolic Dysfunction in Mice

Most cells release extracellular vesicles (EVs) that can be detected circulating in blood. We and others have shown that the microRNA contents of these vesicles induce transcriptomic changes in acceptor cells, contributing to the adjustment of metabolic homeostasis in response to environmental demands. Here, we explore the potential for modulating obesity- and exercise-derived EV-microRNAs to treat the metabolic dysfunction associated with obesity in mice. Treatment with EV-miRNAs alleviated glucose intolerance and insulin resistance in obese mice to an extent similar to that of high-intensity interval training, although only exercise improved cardiorespiratory fitness and decreased body weight. Mechanistically, EV-miRNAs decreased fatty acid and cholesterol biosynthesis pathways in the liver, reducing hepatic steatosis and increasing insulin sensitivity, resulting in decreased glycemia and triglyceridemia. Our data suggest that manipulation of EV-miRNAs may be a viable strategy to alleviate metabolic dysfunction in obese and diabetic patients who are unable to exercise, although actual physical activity is needed to improve cardiorespiratory fitness.

Exosome-Based Theranostics for Liver Diseases

Exosomes are small extracellular vesicles that can be secreted by any type of cell, released into almost all biological fluids, and extracted from anybody fluid such as blood, urine, saliva, and amniotic fluid. The theranostic role of exosome in liver diseases has been widely studied in recent years. In this review, we briefly introduce the biological characteristics of exosomes and then focus on the theranostics of exosomes in liver diseases, specifically gene delivery associated with liver diseases.

Cell-Free Filtrates (CFF) as Vectors of a Transmissible Pathologic Tissue Memory Code: A Hypothetical and Narrative Review

Cellular memory is a controversial concept representing the ability of cells to "write and memorize" stressful experiences via epigenetic operators. The progressive course of chronic, non-communicable diseases such as type 2 diabetes mellitus, cancer, and arteriosclerosis, is likely driven through an abnormal epigenetic reprogramming, fostering the hypothesis of a cellular pathologic memory. Accordingly, cultured diabetic and cancer patient-derived cells recall behavioral traits as when in the donor's organism irrespective to culture time and conditions. Here, we analyze the data of studies conducted by our group and led by a cascade of hypothesis, in which we aimed to validate the hypothetical existence and transmissibility of a cellular pathologic memory in diabetes, arteriosclerotic peripheral arterial disease, and cancer. These experiments were based on the administration to otherwise healthy animals of cell-free filtrates prepared from human pathologic tissue samples representative of each disease condition. The administration of each pathologic tissue homogenate consistently induced the faithful recapitulation of: (1) Diabetic archetypical changes in cutaneous arterioles and nerves. (2) Non-thrombotic arteriosclerotic thickening, collagenous arterial encroachment, aberrant angiogenesis, and vascular remodeling. (3) Pre-malignant and malignant epithelial and mesenchymal tumors in different organs; all evocative of the donor's tissue histopathology and with no barriers for interspecies transmission. We hypothesize that homogenates contain pathologic tissue memory codes represented in soluble drivers that "infiltrate" host's animal cells, and ultimately impose their phenotypic signatures. The identification and validation of the actors in behind may pave the way for future therapies.

Milk Exosomal microRNAs: Postnatal Promoters of β Cell Proliferation but Potential Inducers of β Cell De-Differentiation in Adult Life

Pancreatic β cell expansion and functional maturation during the birth-to-weaning period is driven by epigenetic programs primarily triggered by growth factors, hormones, and nutrients provided by human milk. As shown recently, exosomes derived from various origins interact with β cells. This review elucidates the potential role of milk-derived exosomes (MEX) and their microRNAs (miRs) on pancreatic β cell programming during the postnatal period of lactation as well as during continuous cow milk exposure of adult humans to bovine MEX. Mechanistic evidence suggests that MEX miRs stimulate mTORC1/c-MYC-dependent postnatal β cell proliferation and glycolysis, but attenuate β cell differentiation, mitochondrial function, and insulin synthesis and secretion. MEX miR content is negatively affected by maternal obesity, gestational diabetes, psychological stress, caesarean delivery, and is completely absent in infant formula. Weaning-related disappearance of MEX miRs may be the critical event switching β cells from proliferation to TGF-β/AMPK-mediated cell differentiation, whereas continued exposure of adult humans to bovine MEX miRs via intake of pasteurized cow milk may reverse β cell differentiation, promoting β cell de-differentiation. Whereas MEX miR signaling supports postnatal β cell proliferation (diabetes prevention), persistent bovine MEX exposure after the lactation period may de-differentiate β cells back to the postnatal phenotype (diabetes induction).

Plasma-derived exosomal mRNA profiles associated with type 1 diabetes mellitus

BACKGROUND

Exosomes carry various types of transcripts, such as messenger RNAs (mRNAs), and play an important role in mediating cell-to-cell communication, thus influencing multiple physiological and pathological processes. However, the role of exosomal mRNAs in T1DM is largely unknown. Here, we aimed to identify the plasma-derived exosomal mRNA expression profiles in T1DM and to explore their potential biological functions in T1DM.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Plasma-derived exosomes were isolated from 10 patients with T1DM and 10 age- and sex-matched control subjects by size exclusion chromatography methods. Transmission electron microscopy, nanoparticle tracking analysis, and western blot analysis confirmed the presence of exosomes. The exosomal mRNAs were analyzed using the Illumina HiSeq platform. Six differentially expressed mRNAs (DEMs) were randomly selected to determine the expression level by quantitative real-time PCR (qRT-PCR) in a larger cohort (T1DM subjects N=40; control subjects N=40). The biological functions of DEMs were predicted by Gene Ontology (GO) and Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) analyses. Protein-protein interaction networks were constructed to explore the potential associations among DEMs.

RESULTS

In total, 112 DEMs were identified in T1DM, among which 66 mRNAs were upregulated and 46 mRNAs were downregulated. Four of six candidate exosomal mRNAs were successfully validated by qRT-PCR. Bioinformatics analysis indicated that these mRNAs were most significantly involved in positive regulation by host viral transcription (GO enrichment analysis) and oxidative phosphorylation (KEGG pathway analysis).

CONCLUSIONS

Our study reported the plasma-derived exosomal mRNA expression profiles of T1DM for the first time. The identified DEMs might be associated with the pathogenesis of T1DM, and some DEMs have the potential to serve as biomarkers and therapeutic targets for T1DM.

Exosomal miR-140-3p and miR-143-3p from TGF-β1-treated pancreatic stellate cells target BCL2 mRNA to increase β-cell apoptosis

BACKGROUND

People with chronic pancreatitis (CP) normally develop a fibrotic pancreas with reduced β-cell mass. Limited studies have focused on the development and pathogenesis of CP-related diabetes. MiRNAs packaged as exosomes are the key regulators of β-cell dysfunction. This study aimed to define the effect of exosomal miRNA from activated pancreatic stellate cells (PSCs) on β-cells.

METHODS

Exosomes in the supernatants of mouse PSCs lines were extracted via ultracentrifugation and then identified. The role of exosomes secreted by transforming growth factor-β1 (TGF-β1)-treated PSCs in β-cell function was assessed. MiRNAs were prepared from exosomes extracted from TGF-β1-treated and untreated PSCs (T-Exo or C-Exo), and the miRNA expression profiles were compared by microarray. Then, miR-140-3p and miR-143-3p were overexpressed or inhibited in MIN6 cells and islets to determine their molecular and functional effects.

RESULTS

Exosomes were the predominant extracellular vesicles secreted by PSCs into the culture medium. The MIN6 cells incubated with T-Exo had less insulin secretion and lower viability than the MIN6 cells incubated with PBS or C-Exo. MiR-140-3p and miR-143-3p were notably upregulated in T-Exo. Enhancing the expression of miR-140-3p and miR-143-3p in β-cells decreased the cell count and viability and increased the cleaved caspase-3 levels. Mechanistically, T-Exo mediated the intercellular transfer of miR-140-3p and miR-143-3p by targeting the B-cell lymphoma 2 gene in recipient β-cells to induce cell death.

CONCLUSIONS

Exosomal miRNA transfer as a communication mode between PSCs and β-cells, which may be explored for its therapeutic utility.

Roles and Applications of Red Blood Cell-Derived Extracellular Vesicles in Health and Diseases

Red blood cell-derived extracellular vesicles (RBCEVs) are vesicles naturally produced by red blood cells and play multiple roles such as acting as cell-to-cell communication messengers in both normal physiological and diseased states. RBCEVs are highly promising delivery vehicles for therapeutic agents such as biomolecules and nucleic acids as they are easy to source, safe, and versatile. RBCEVs autonomously target the liver and pass the blood-brain barrier into the brain, which is highly valuable for the treatment of liver and brain diseases. RBCEVs can be modified by various functional units, including various functional molecules and nanoparticles, to improve their active targeting capabilities for tumors or other sites. Moreover, the RBCEV level is significantly shifted in many diseased states; hence, they can also serve as important biomarkers for disease diagnoses. It is clear that RBCEVs have considerable potential in multiple medical applications. In this review, we briefly introduce the biological roles of RBCEVs, presented interesting advances in RBCEV applications, and discuss several challenges that need to be addressed for their clinical translation.

Mechanistic Pathogenesis of Endothelial Dysfunction in Diabetic Nephropathy and Retinopathy

Diabetic nephropathy (DN) and diabetic retinopathy (DR) are microvascular complications of diabetes. Microvascular endothelial cells are thought to be the major targets of hyperglycemic injury. In diabetic microvasculature, the intracellular hyperglycemia causes damages to the vascular endothelium, via multiple pathophysiological process consist of inflammation, endothelial cell crosstalk with podocytes/pericytes and exosomes. In addition, DN and DR diseases development are involved in several critical regulators including the cell adhesion molecules (CAMs), the vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) family and the Notch signal. The present review attempts to gain a deeper understanding of the pathogenesis complexities underlying the endothelial dysfunction in diabetes diabetic and retinopathy, contributing to the development of new mechanistic therapeutic strategies against diabetes-induced microvascular endothelial dysfunction.

Cellular interplay between cardiomyocytes and non-myocytes in diabetic cardiomyopathy

Patients with Type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) frequently exhibit a distinctive cardiac phenotype known as diabetic cardiomyopathy. Cardiac complications associated with T2DM include cardiac inflammation, hypertrophy, fibrosis and diastolic dysfunction in the early stages of the disease, which can progress to systolic dysfunction and heart failure. Effective therapeutic options for diabetic cardiomyopathy are limited and often have conflicting results. The lack of effective treatments for diabetic cardiomyopathy is due in part, to our poor understanding of the disease development and progression, as well as a lack of robust and valid preclinical human models that can accurately recapitulate the pathophysiology of the human heart. In addition to cardiomyocytes, the heart contains a heterogeneous population of non-myocytes including fibroblasts, vascular cells, autonomic neurons and immune cells. These cardiac non-myocytes play important roles in cardiac homeostasis and disease, yet the effect of hyperglycaemia and hyperlipidaemia on these cell types are often overlooked in preclinical models of diabetic cardiomyopathy. The advent of human induced pluripotent stem cells provides a new paradigm in which to model diabetic cardiomyopathy as they can be differentiated into all cell types in the human heart. This review will discuss the roles of cardiac non-myocytes and their dynamic intercellular interactions in the pathogenesis of diabetic cardiomyopathy. We will also discuss the use of sodium-glucose cotransporter 2 inhibitors as a therapy for diabetic cardiomyopathy and their known impacts on non-myocytes. These developments will no doubt facilitate the discovery of novel treatment targets for preventing the onset and progression of diabetic cardiomyopathy.

Exosomes as Promising Nanostructures in Diabetes Mellitus: From Insulin Sensitivity to Ameliorating Diabetic Complications

Diabetes mellitus (DM) is among the chronic metabolic disorders that its incidence rate has shown an increase in developed and wealthy countries due to lifestyle and obesity. The treatment of DM has always been of interest, and significant effort has been made in this field. Exosomes belong to extracellular vesicles with nanosized features (30-150 nm) that are involved in cell-to-cell communication and preserving homeostasis. The function of exosomes is different based on their cargo, and they may contain lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids. The present review focuses on the application of exosomes in the treatment of DM; both glucose and lipid levels are significantly affected by exosomes, and these nanostructures enhance lipid metabolism and decrease its deposition. Furthermore, exosomes promote glucose metabolism and affect the level of glycolytic enzymes and glucose transporters in DM. Type I DM results from the destruction of β cells in the pancreas, and exosomes can be employed to ameliorate apoptosis and endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress in these cells. The exosomes have dual functions in mediating insulin resistance/sensitivity, and M1 macrophage-derived exosomes inhibit insulin secretion. The exosomes may contain miRNAs, and by transferring among cells, they can regulate various molecular pathways such as AMPK, PI3K/Akt, and β-catenin to affect DM progression. Noteworthy, exosomes are present in different body fluids such as blood circulation, and they can be employed as biomarkers for the diagnosis of diabetic patients. Future studies should focus on engineering exosomes derived from sources such as mesenchymal stem cells to treat DM as a novel strategy.