Recurrent MYOD1 mutations in pediatric and adult sclerosing and spindle cell rhabdomyosarcomas: evidence for a common pathogenesis

Rhabdomyosarcoma Classification: Refining Our Understanding

Rhabdomyosarcoma (RMS) is the most common soft tissue sarcoma in children, representing approximately 40% of all pediatric soft tissue sarcomas and 3% of all pediatric cancers. RMSs are a heterogeneous group of neoplasms with variations in morphology, molecular characteristics, and outcomes. Due to this diversity, the landscape of knowledge on these tumors is continuously evolving with a broad range of ongoing research into molecular characterization, prognostication, and potential targeted-treatment modalities. Herein, we review the current classification schema and incorporate new information, expanding the understanding of RMS.

Primary ocular, adnexal, and orbital rhabdomyosarcoma: A review

We review the primary orbital, ocular, and adnexal rhabdomyosarcoma (RMS) spectrum of tumors and describe its clinicoradiological and histopathological features, molecular updates, management protocols, outcomes, and challenges. Despite being a favorable site, the prognosis remains dismal for cases of relapsing, refractory, and metastatic orbital RMS. A wide heterogeneity of data exists in terms of survival rates and treatment regimens spread across various geographic locations and age groups. Molecular cytogenetics is a crucial factor in both the diagnosis and effective management of RMS. Novel targeted therapy may play an integral role in avoiding treatment-related morbidity and mortality. Large-scale studies are warranted to formulate standardized regimens and uniformity, especially for advanced and metastatic cases.

Clinicopathological and treatment response characteristics of updated rhabdomyosarcoma histomolecular subtypes: An Asian population-based study

AIM

New histomolecular subtypes of rhabdomyosarcoma have recently been defined but their corresponding clinical characteristics are not well described. Also, these clinical phenotypes vary greatly by age and ethnicity but have not been profiled in Asian populations. Thus, we sought to determine the landscape of rhabdomyosarcoma subtypes in a national Asian cohort and compare clinical characteristics among age groups and molecular subtypes.

METHODS

We performed a retrospective population-based study of all rhabdomyosarcoma patients in Singapore public hospitals from 2004 to 2014 (n = 67), and assigned histomolecular subtypes according to the updated 2020 WHO classification of soft tissue tumors following central pathology review and molecular profiling.

RESULTS

Age-specific prevalence followed a tri-modal peak. There were significantly more embryonal and alveolar (p = 0.032) and genitourinary (non-bladder/prostate) tumors (p = 0.033) among children. Older age was associated with complete resection among spindle cell/sclerosing tumors (p = 0.027), with the omission of chemotherapy among embryonal tumors (p = 0.001), and with poorer survival among embryonal and alveolar tumors (p = 0.026, p = 0.022, respectively). Overall survival differed with stage, group, and surgical resection, adjusted for age group (p = 0.004, p = 0.001, p = 0.004, respectively). Spindle-cell/sclerosing tumors showed an indolent phenotype with a significantly lower incidence of nodal metastasis (p = 0.002), but two of 15 patients with MYOD1 mutations had a contrastingly aggressive disease.

CONCLUSION

Disease and treatment response profiles of rhabdomyosarcoma subtypes vary significantly between adults and children, especially surgical resectability. In our Asian population, poorer outcomes were observed in adults with embryonal and alveolar tumors, while activating mutations influence the behavior of otherwise favorable spindle cell/sclerosing tumors.

Developmental Heterogeneity of Rhabdomyosarcoma

Rhabdomyosarcoma (RMS) is a pediatric embryonal solid tumor and the most common pediatric soft tissue sarcoma. The histology and transcriptome of RMS resemble skeletal muscle progenitor cells that have failed to terminally differentiate. Thus, RMS is typically thought to arise from corrupted skeletal muscle progenitor cells during development. However, RMS can occur in body regions devoid of skeletal muscle, suggesting the potential for nonmyogenic cells of origin. Here, we discuss the interplay between RMS driver mutations and cell(s) of origin with an emphasis on driving location specificity. Additionally, we discuss the mechanisms governing RMS transformation events and tumor heterogeneity through the lens of transcriptional networks and epigenetic control. Finally, we reimagine Waddington's developmental landscape to include a plane of transformation connecting distinct lineage landscapes to more accurately reflect the phenomena observed in pediatric cancers.

Rhabdomyosarcoma in children and young adults

Rhabdomyosarcoma (RMS) is the most common soft tissue malignancy in childhood, accounting for 3% of all pediatric malignancies and 50% of all pediatric soft tissue sarcomas. In adolescents and young adults (AYA) however, RMS comprises only 6.5% of all soft tissue sarcomas. Historically, diagnosis and treatment of RMS was based on histologic recognition of the alveolar subtype, which was associated with a worse prognosis. Within the past 20 years, the biologic characteristics of RMS have become clearer, with canonical fusion drivers, PAX3/7::FOXO1, characterizing the alveolar subtype (ARMS) and in turn associated with poor outcome, while chromosomal gains/losses in addition to RAS pathway alterations characterize the embryonal subtype (ERMS). Accordingly, detection of a FOXO1 gene fusion has become a commonplace diagnostic and prognostic tool allowing tumors to be treated based on presence or absence of a FOXO1 gene fusion. However, these cytogenetic and molecular alterations represent only a portion of the molecular landscape found in RMS, and other alterations are found with increasing frequency in various subsets of RMS. Clinical trials basing risk stratification on the presence or absence of the canonical PAX3/7::FOXO1 fusions have had success in identifying the poor responders. Due to poor outcomes, the presence of MYOD1 and TP53 alterations which are common in spindle cell sclerosing RMS (SSRMS) and RMS with anaplasia have also been integrated into trial risk stratification. Therefore, complete histologic and immunophenotypic characterization remain important to better recognize and study these rare subsets of RMS. This article will discuss the challenges of RMS classification including how to combine morphologic, immunophenotypic and molecular data to arrive at an integrated diagnosis. The use of newer techniques such as liquid biopsy and methylation profiling, will also continue to shape the classification of RMS and may further refine risk stratification and prognosis.

Spindle Cell Neoplasms Unique to the Sinonasal Tract

The spindle cell neoplasms include sinonasal tract angiofibroma (STA), glomangiopericytoma (GPC), and biphenotypic sinonasal sarcoma (BSNS). These entities share some clinical, histomorphologic, immunohistochemical, and even molecular characteristics. Nevertheless, there are features that are unique to each tumor type. STA shows heavily collagenized and vascular stroma, with apparent relationship to underlying hormonal changes. GPC consistently exhibits monomorphic, ovoid cytologic appearance with the constant feature of Beta-catenin nuclear accumulation by IHC. Lastly, BSNS is a deceptively bland and neural-like neoplasm featuring consistent co-expression of S100 and smooth muscle markers with specific genetic rearrangements serving to uniquely characterize this entity.

Clinicopathological Analysis of a European Cohort of MYOD1 Mutant Rhabdomyosarcomas in Children and Young Adults

BACKGROUND

Patients with PAX3/7-FOXO1 fusion-negative rhabdomyosarcomas (fnRMS) harbouring the rare L122R MYOD1 mutation have significantly poorer prognosis than other fnRMS. We undertook a detailed clinicopathological evaluation of a cohort of patients with MYOD1 mutated fnRMS in order to improve risk stratification and treatment options.

PROCEDURE

Histological, mutational and clinical data from a cohort of patients with MYOD1 mutant RMS treated in Europe were analysed.

RESULTS

Thirty-two cases with mutant MYOD1 RMS were identified from patients enrolled in sequential European rhabdomyosarcoma clinical trials from 1992 to 2022 (n = 22) and non-trial cohorts (n = 10). Thirty cases had the recurrent L122R missense mutation, one case harboured a K124E mutation and one case had a truncating mutation (S63X). Increased MyoD1 and reduced MYF4 immunostaining were consistent features of MYOD1L122R-mutated RMS. Applying the risk stratification of the European paediatric Soft tissue sarcoma Study Group (EpSSG) RMS2005 trial, among 20 localised RMS cases that could be assigned a risk category, one was Very High Risk, 13 were High Risk and six were Standard Risk. Eight patients had distant metastases at diagnosis. Of the 25 patients with adequate clinical follow-up data, 15/25 (60%) patients had an event at a median time of 9 months (12/15 included failure of local control) and 13/25 (52%) died of disease.

CONCLUSION

This MYOD1 mutant cohort demonstrates increased MYOD and reduced MYF4 immunostaining, high risk of local failure and poor survival in agreement with other studies. Increased treatment intensity and improved local control should be considered for these patients.

Phase II Study of Samotolisib in Children and Young Adults With Tumors Harboring Phosphoinositide 3-Kinase/Mammalian Target of Rapamycin Pathway Alterations: Pediatric MATCH APEC1621D

PURPOSE

Patients age 1-21 years with relapsed or refractory solid and CNS tumors were assigned to phase II studies of molecularly targeted therapies on the National Cancer Institute-Children's Oncology Group (NCI-COG) Pediatric Molecular Analysis for Therapy Choice (MATCH) trial. Patients whose tumors harbored predefined genetic alterations in the phosphoinositide 3-kinase (PI3K)/mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) pathway and lacked mitogen-activated protein kinase pathway activating alterations were treated with the PI3K/mTOR inhibitor samotolisib.

METHODS

Patients received samotolisib twice daily in 28-day cycles until disease progression or unacceptable toxicity. A rolling 6 limited dose escalation was performed as, to our knowledge, this was the first pediatric study of samotolisib. The primary end point was the objective response rate; secondary end points included progression-free survival (PFS) and the recommended phase II dose and toxicity of samotolisib in children.

RESULTS

A total of 3.4% (41/1,206) of centrally tested patients were matched to this arm. Seventeen patients were treated. Among treated patients, the most common diagnoses included osteosarcoma (n = 6) and high-grade glioma (n = 5) harboring alterations in phosphatase and tensin homolog (n = 6), PIK3CA (n = 5), and tuberous sclerosis complex 2 (n = 3). No objective responses or prolonged stable disease were observed. Three-month PFS was 12% (95% CI, 2 to 31). Two patients experienced dose-limiting toxicities (mucositis and pneumonitis). Dose level 2 (115 mg/m2/dose twice daily) was determined to be the recommended phase II dose of samotolisib in children.

CONCLUSION

This nationwide study was successful at identifying patients and evaluating the efficacy of molecularly targeted therapy for rare molecular subgroups of patients in a histology-agnostic fashion. Unfortunately, there was no activity of samotolisib against tumors with PI3K/mTOR pathway alterations. Prospective trials such as the NCI-COG Pediatric MATCH are necessary to evaluate the efficacy of molecularly targeted therapies given their increasing use in clinical practice.

Botryoid-type Embryonal Rhabdomyosarcoma: A Comprehensive Clinicopathologic and Molecular Appraisal With Cross-comparison to its Conventional-type Counterpart

Embryonal rhabdomyosarcoma (ERMS) is the most common subtype of RMS, occurring in soft tissue and visceral sites of young children, and is associated with favorable outcomes. A subset occurs in mucosal-lined luminal structures, displaying a unique grape-like growth termed as "botryoid-type." To further delineate the differences between conventional (cERMS) and botryoid-type (bERMS) RMS, we performed a comparative histologic review and comprehensive molecular profiling of 48 cases (25 bERMS and 23 cERMS). All tumors were subjected to a hybridization capture-based targeted matched tumor-normal DNA NGS assay. The mean age was 17 and 7 years for bERMS and cERMS, respectively. Most bERMS were female with a predilection for the gynecologic tract (75%), while cERMS had a slight male predominance and were preferentially located in abdominopelvic and paratesticular sites (30%, each). All bERMS exhibited an exophytic, bulbous architecture accompanied by a subepithelial "cambium layer." Distinctive germline alterations were detected, with DICER1 (18%) and FH (6%) mutations only in bERMS, and rare TP53, VHL, and APC mutations in cERMS. Similarly, contrasting somatic genomic landscapes were observed, with frequent DICER1 (52%, P**<0.0001) and TP53 (36%, P*<0.05) alterations exclusively in bERMS. Cartilaginous differentiation was only observed in DICER1-mutated bERMS. All patients had longitudinal follow-up. bERMS patients with somatic/germline DICER1 mutations showed significantly improved recurrence-free survival compared with that of DICER1-wild type patients (P*<0.05). Moreover, bERMS showed improved disease-specific survival compared with that of cERMS, with 8% versus 30% (P*<0.05) dead of disease, respectively. In summary, we compare the molecular underpinnings of the largest cohort of bERMS and cERMS with targeted DNA sequencing and long-term follow-up data. Our findings reveal divergent genomic topographies between the 2 groups, with bERMS showing unique germline and somatic abnormalities, including enrichment in DICER1 and TP53 alterations, and a trend towards improved survival.

Spindle cell rhabdomyosarcomas: With TFCP2 rearrangements, and novel EWSR1::ZBTB41 and PLOD2::RBM6 gene fusions. A study of five cases and review of the literature

AIMS

Spindle-cell/sclerosing rhabdomyosarcomas (SS-RMS) are clinically and genetically heterogeneous. They include three well-defined molecular subtypes, of which those with EWSR1/FUS::TFCP2 rearrangements were described only recently. This study aimed to evaluate five new cases of SS-RMS and to perform a clinicopathological and statistical analysis of all TFCP2-rearranged SS-RMS described in the English literature to more comprehensively characterize this rare tumour type.

METHODS AND RESULTS

Cases were retrospectively selected and studied by immunohistochemistry, fluorescence in situ hybridization with EWSR1/FUS and TFCP2 break-apart probes, next-generation sequencing (Archer FusionPlex Sarcoma kit and TruSight RNA Pan-Cancer Panel). The PubMed database was searched for relevant peer-reviewed English reports. Five cases of SS-RMS were found. Three cases were TFCP2 rearranged SS-RMS, having FUSex6::TFCP2ex2 gene fusion in two cases and triple gene fusion EWSR1ex5::TFCP2ex2, VAX2ex2::ALKex2 and VAX2intron2::ALKex2 in one case. Two cases showed rhabdomyoblastic differentiation and spindle-round cell/sclerosing morphology, but were characterized by novel genetic fusions including EWSR1ex8::ZBTB41ex7 and PLOD2ex8::RBM6ex7, respectively. In the statistical analysis of all published cases, CDKN2A or ALK alterations, the use of standard chemotherapy and age at presentation in the range of 18-24 years were negatively correlated to overall survival.

CONCLUSION

EWSR1/FUS::TFCP2-rearranged SS-RMS is a rare rhabdomyosarcoma subtype, affecting predominantly young adults with average age at presentation 34 years (median 29.5 years; age range 7-86 years), with a predilection for craniofacial bones, rapid clinical course with frequent bone and lung metastases, and poor prognosis (3-year overall survival rate 28%).

Spindle cell embryonal rhabdomyosarcoma of the prostate in an adult patient: a case report and review of the literature

Rhabdomyosarcoma of the prostate is a rare mesenchymal tumor that originates from undifferentiated mesenchymal cells. Spindle cell rhabdomyosarcoma is a variant of embryonal rhabdomyosarcoma. The vast majority of these two pathological types occur in children, with only a few adult cases reported to date, and both are associated with poor clinical outcomes. We herein report a case involving a man in his early 40s with spindle cell embryonal rhabdomyosarcoma of the prostate. His chief complaint was difficult urination. The diagnosis was confirmed by puncture biopsy of the prostate, and pelvic lymph node metastasis was already present at the time of diagnosis. The patient underwent three courses of chemotherapy. However, his response to the treatment was very poor, and he died of the disease 4 months after diagnosis.

Complementary value of molecular analysis to expert review in refining classification of uncommon soft tissue tumors

The classification of many soft tissue tumors remains subjective due their rarity, significant overlap in microscopic features and often a non-specific immunohistochemical (IHC) profile. The application of molecular genetic tools, which leverage the underlying molecular pathogenesis of these neoplasms, have considerably improved the diagnostic abilities of pathologists and refined classification based on objective molecular markers. In this study, we describe the results of an international collaboration conducted over a 3-year period, assessing the added diagnostic value of applying molecular genetics to sarcoma expert pathologic review in a selected series of 84 uncommon, mostly unclassifiable mesenchymal tumors, 74 of which originated in soft tissues and 10 in bone. The case mix (71% historical, 29% contemporary) included mostly unusual and challenging soft tissue tumors, which remained unclassified even with the benefit of expert review and routine ancillary methods, including broad IHC panels and a limited number of commercially available fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH) probes. All cases were further tested by FISH using a wide range of custom bacterial artificial chromosome probes covering most of known fusions in sarcomas, whereas targeted RNA sequencing was performed in 13 cases negative by FISH, for potential discovery of novel fusion genes. Tumor-defining molecular alterations were found in 48/84 tumors (57%). In 27 (32%) cases the tumor diagnosis was refined or revised by the additional molecular work-up, including five cases (6%), in which the updated diagnosis had clinical implications. Sarcoma classification is rapidly evolving due to an increased molecular characterization of these neoplasms, so unsurprisingly 17% of the tumors in this series harbored abnormalities only very recently described as defining novel molecularly defined soft tissue tumor subsets.

Fusion-driven Spindle Cell Rhabdomyosarcomas of Bone and Soft Tissue: A Clinicopathologic and Molecular Genetic Study of 25 Cases

The evolving classification of rhabdomyosarcoma (RMS) now includes spindle cell RMS (SRMS). Bone/soft tissue SRMS often harbor TFCP2, or less often MEIS1 rearrangements. We studied 25 fusion-driven SRMS involving bone (n = 19) and soft tissue (n = 6). Osseous SRMS occurred in 13 women and 6 men (median age: 41 years) and involved the pelvis (5), sacrum (2), spine (4), maxilla (4), mandible (1), skull (1), and femur (2). Follow-up (median: 5 months) demonstrated local recurrence in 2/16 and distant metastases in 8/17 patients (median time to metastasis: 1 month). Eight patients died of disease; 9 were alive with disease. Soft tissue SRMS occurred in 4 men and 2 women (median: 50 years). Follow-up (median: 10 months) revealed distant metastasis at diagnosis (1), alive with unresected tumor (1), and no evidence of disease (4). Next-generation sequencing demonstrated FUS::TFCP2 (12), EWSR1::TFCP2 (3) and MEIS1::NCOA2 (2); FISH identified EWSR1 (2) rearrangements. Most TFCP2-rearranged SRMS (13/17) showed spindled/epithelioid morphology, rarely with rhabdomyoblasts. The bone tumors were diffusely desmin and MyoD1 positive with limited myogenin; 10/13 were ALK -positive and 6/15 were keratin positive. Soft tissue SRMS harbored EWSR1::TFCP2, MEIS1::NCOA2, ZFP64::NCOA2, MEIS1::FOXO1, TCF12::VGLL3 and DCTN1::ALK, and displayed spindled/epithelioid, leiomyomatous, and myxofibrosarcoma-like morphologies. Immunohistochemistry (IHC) was positive for MyoD1 (6/6), focal desmin (5/6), myogenin (3/6), and keratin (1/6). We conclude that TFCP2-rearranged SRMS of bone and soft tissue show consistent morphologic and IHC features, likely representing a distinct subset of RMS. Non-TFCP2 fusion-positive SRMS could represent a single RMS subset, multiple subtypes of RMS, or "fusion-defined" sarcomas with rhabdomyoblastic differentiation.

SIX1 as a Novel Immunohistochemical Marker in the Differential Diagnosis of Rhabdomyosarcoma

Background: Differential diagnosis of rhabdomyosarcoma (RMS) is challenging. Sineoculis homeobox homolog 1 (SIX1) is an oncogene involved in skeletal muscle differentiation. We compared protein expression patterns of SIX1 in RMS and its most common differential diagnoses. Methods: SIX1 immunohistochemistry in 36 RMS and in 33 tumors from seven differential diagnostic subtypes were evaluated. The fraction of SIX1 positive tumor cells was scored by three independent observers. Results: A majority (75%) of the evaluated RMS expressed SIX1 in at least 50% of tumor cells and all except one RMS had more than 25% positive tumor cells. Neuroblastoma had less than 1% SIX1 positive tumor cells. Gonadoblastoma, malignant rhabdoid tumor, and Ewing sarcoma had 10% or less positive tumor cells. Pleuropulmonary blastoma exhibited 26-50% positive tumor cells and synovial sarcoma >50% positive cells. Conclusion: SIX1 immunohistochemistry is positive in most RMS, and occasionally in some tumors within the differential diagnoses of RMS.

The 3D chromatin landscape of rhabdomyosarcoma

Rhabdomyosarcoma (RMS) is a pediatric soft tissue cancer with a lack of precision therapy options for patients. We hypothesized that with a general paucity of known mutations in RMS, chromatin structural driving mechanisms are essential for tumor proliferation. Thus, we carried out high-depth in situ Hi-C in representative cell lines and patient-derived xenografts (PDXs) to define chromatin architecture in each major RMS subtype. We report a comprehensive 3D chromatin structural analysis and characterization of fusion-positive (FP-RMS) and fusion-negative RMS (FN-RMS). We have generated spike-in in situ Hi-C chromatin interaction maps for the most common FP-RMS and FN-RMS cell lines and compared our data with PDX models. In our studies, we uncover common and distinct structural elements in large Mb-scale chromatin compartments, tumor-essential genes within variable topologically associating domains and unique patterns of structural variation. Our high-depth chromatin interactivity maps and comprehensive analyses provide context for gene regulatory events and reveal functional chromatin domains in RMS.

Intraosseous Spindle Cell Rhabdomyosarcoma with MEIS1::NCOA2 Fusion - Case Report with Substantial Clinical Follow-up and Review of the Literature

Spindle cell/sclerosing rhabdomyosarcoma (SSRMS) is a clinicopathologically and molecularly heterogeneous disease. Gene fusions have been identified in intraosseous SSRMS, consisting predominantly of EWSR1/FUS::TFCP2 and MEIS1::NCOA2. The former often follow an aggressive clinical course; there is limited clinical follow-up available for the latter. We report here a new case of the very rare intraosseous SSRMS with MEIS1::NCOA2 gene fusion and include the detailed treatment course and 52 months of clinical follow-up. SSRMS with MEIS1::NCOA2 gene fusion appears biologically distinct from other intraosseous SSRMS, following a course characterized by local recurrence with rare reports of metastasis to date.

First Reported Case of Malignant Ectomesenchymoma with p.Leu122Arg Mutation in MYOD1 Gene: Extensive Intra- and Extracranial Tumor in a 15-Year-Old Female

BACKGROUND

Ectomesenchymomas (EMs) are extremely rare neoplasms composed of malignant mesenchymal components and neuroectodermal derivatives. They are described in a wide variety of locations, with the head and neck region being one of the most frequently involved areas. EMs are usually managed as high-risk rhabdomyosarcomas and have similar outcomes.

METHODS

We present the case of a 15-year-old female with an EM that arose in the parapharyngeal space and extended into the intracranial space.

RESULTS

Histologically, the tumor presented an embryonal rhabdomyosarcomatous mesenchymal component and the neuroectodermal component was constituted by isolated ganglion cells. Next-generation sequencing (NGS) revealed a p.Leu122Arg (c.365 T > G) mutation in the MYOD1 gene, a p.Ala34Gly mutation in the CDKN2A gene, and CDK4 gene amplification. The patient was treated with chemotherapy. She died 17 months after the debut of symptoms.

CONCLUSION(S)

To our knowledge, this is the first reported case in English literature of an EM with this MYOD1 mutation. We suggest combining PI3K/ATK pathway inhibitors in these cases. NGS should be performed in EMs cases to detect mutations with potential treatment options.

Biphenotypic Sinonasal Sarcoma with a Novel PAX7::PPARGC1 Fusion: Expanding the Spectrum of Gene Fusions Beyond the PAX3 Gene

Biphenotypic sinonasal sarcoma (BSNS) is a rare low-grade malignancy occurring in the sinonasal tract that is characterized by dual neural and myogenic differentiation. Rearrangements involving the PAX3 gene, usually with MAML3, are a hallmark of this tumor type and their identification are useful for diagnosis. Rarely, a MAML3 rearrangement without associated PAX3 rearrangement has been described. Other gene fusions have not been previously reported. Herein, we report a 22 year-old woman with a BSNS harboring a novel gene fusion involving the PAX7 gene (specifically PAX7::PPARGC1A), which is a paralogue of PAX3. The histologic features of the tumor were typical with two exceptions: a lack of entrapment of surface respiratory mucosa and no hemangiopericytoma-like vasculature. Immunophenotypically, the tumor was notably negative for smooth muscle actin, which is usually positive in BSNS. However, the classic S100 protein-positive, SOX10-negative staining pattern was present. In addition, the tumor was positive for desmin and MyoD1 but negative for myogenin, a pattern that is common among BSNS with variant fusions. Awareness of the possibility of PAX7 gene fusions in BSNS is important as it may aid in the diagnosis of PAX3 fusion negative tumors.

Rhabdomyosarcoma Arising in Inflammatory Rhabdomyoblastic Tumor: A Genetically Distinctive Subtype of Rhabdomyosarcoma

"Inflammatory rhabdomyoblastic tumor" (IRMT) is a recently coined name for a distinctive soft tissue neoplasm characterized by slow growth, a dense histiocytic infiltrate, scattered, bizarre-appearing tumor cells with morphologic and immunohistochemical evidence of skeletal muscle differentiation, a near-haploid karyotype with retained biparental disomy of chromosomes 5 and 22, and usually indolent behavior. There are 2 reports of rhabdomyosarcoma (RMS) arising in IRMT. We studied the clinicopathologic and cytogenomic features of 6 cases of IRMT with progression to RMS. Tumors occurred in the extremities of 5 men and 1 woman (median patient age, 50 years; median tumor size, 6.5 cm). Clinical follow-up (6 patients: median, 11 months; range 4-163 months) documented local recurrence and distant metastases in 1 and 5 of 6 patients, respectively. Therapy included complete surgical resection (4 patients) and adjuvant/neoadjuvant chemo/radiotherapy (6 patients). One patient died of disease, 4 were alive with metastatic disease, and one was without evidence of disease. All primary tumors contained conventional IRMT. Progression to RMS appeared as follows: (1) overgrowth of monomorphic rhabdomyoblasts with diminished histiocytes, (2) monomorphic spindle cell morphology with variably pleomorphic rhabdomyoblasts and low mitotic activity, or (3) morphologically undifferentiated spindle cell and epithelioid sarcoma. All but one were diffusely desmin-positive, with more limited MyoD1/myogenin expression. All RMS arising in IRMT, either primary or metastatic, demonstrated widespread loss of heterozygosity with retained heterozygosity of chromosomes 5 and 20, and all but one displayed additional gains and losses involving loci containing oncogenes/ tumor suppressor genes, most often CDKN2A and CDKN2B. RMS arising in IRMT have unique clinicopathologic and cytogenomic features, warranting classification as a distinct, potentially aggressive RMS subtype. It should be distinguished from other RMSs, particularly fusion-driven spindle cell RMS and pleomorphic RMS.

The Recent Advances in Molecular Diagnosis of Soft Tissue Tumors

Soft tissue tumors are rare mesenchymal tumors with divergent differentiation. The diagnosis of soft tissue tumors is challenging for pathologists owing to the diversity of tumor types and histological overlap among the tumor entities. Present-day understanding of the molecular pathogenesis of soft tissue tumors has rapidly increased with the development of molecular genetic techniques (e.g., next-generation sequencing). Additionally, immunohistochemical markers that serve as surrogate markers for recurrent translocations in soft tissue tumors have been developed. This review aims to provide an update on recently described molecular findings and relevant novel immunohistochemical markers in selected soft tissue tumors.

Biological Role and Clinical Implications of MYOD1L122R Mutation in Rhabdomyosarcoma

Major progress in recent decades has furthered our clinical and biological understanding of rhabdomyosarcoma (RMS) with improved stratification for treatment based on risk factors. Clinical risk factors alone were used to stratify patients for treatment in the European Pediatric Soft Tissue Sarcoma Study Group (EpSSG) RMS 2005 protocol. The current EpSSG overarching study for children and adults with frontline and relapsed rhabdomyosarcoma (FaR-RMS NCT04625907) includes FOXO1 fusion gene status in place of histology as a risk factor. Additional molecular features of significance have recently been recognized, including the MYOD1^L122R gene mutation. Here, we review biological information showing that MYOD1^L122R blocks cell differentiation and has a MYC-like activity that enhances tumorigenesis and is linked to an aggressive cellular phenotype. MYOD1^L122R mutations can be found together with mutations in other genes, such as PIK3CA, as potentially cooperating events. Using Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines, ten publications in the clinical literature involving 72 cases were reviewed. MYOD1^L122R mutation in RMS can occur in both adults and children and is frequent in sclerosing/spindle cell histology, although it is also significantly reported in a subset of embryonal RMS. MYOD1^L122R mutated tumors most frequently arise in the head and neck and extremities and are associated with poor outcome, raising the issue of how to use MYOD1^L122R in risk stratification and how to treat these patients most effectively.

Predicting Molecular Subtype and Survival of Rhabdomyosarcoma Patients Using Deep Learning of H&E Images: A Report from the Children's Oncology Group

PURPOSE

Rhabdomyosarcoma (RMS) is an aggressive soft-tissue sarcoma, which primarily occurs in children and young adults. We previously reported specific genomic alterations in RMS, which strongly correlated with survival; however, predicting these mutations or high-risk disease at diagnosis remains a significant challenge. In this study, we utilized convolutional neural networks (CNN) to learn histologic features associated with driver mutations and outcome using hematoxylin and eosin (H&E) images of RMS.

EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN

Digital whole slide H&E images were collected from clinically annotated diagnostic tumor samples from 321 patients with RMS enrolled in Children's Oncology Group (COG) trials (1998-2017). Patches were extracted and fed into deep learning CNNs to learn features associated with mutations and relative event-free survival risk. The performance of the trained models was evaluated against independent test sample data (n = 136) or holdout test data.

RESULTS

The trained CNN could accurately classify alveolar RMS, a high-risk subtype associated with PAX3/7-FOXO1 fusion genes, with an ROC of 0.85 on an independent test dataset. CNN models trained on mutationally-annotated samples identified tumors with RAS pathway with a ROC of 0.67, and high-risk mutations in MYOD1 or TP53 with a ROC of 0.97 and 0.63, respectively. Remarkably, CNN models were superior in predicting event-free and overall survival compared with current molecular-clinical risk stratification.

CONCLUSIONS

This study demonstrates that high-risk features, including those associated with certain mutations, can be readily identified at diagnosis using deep learning. CNNs are a powerful tool for diagnostic and prognostic prediction of rhabdomyosarcoma, which will be tested in prospective COG clinical trials.

Targeted treatment of solid tumors in pediatric precision oncology

The treatment of childhood solid cancer has markedly evolved in recent years following a refined molecular characterization and the introduction of novel targeted drugs. On one hand, larger sequencing studies have revealed a spectrum of mutations in pediatric tumors different from adults. On the other hand, specific mutations or immune dysregulated pathways have been targeted in preclinical and clinical studies, with heterogeneous results. Of note, the development of national platforms for tumor molecular profiling and, in less measure, for targeted treatment, has been essential in the process. However, many of the available molecules have been tested only in relapsed or refractory patients, and have proven poorly effective, at least in monotherapy. Our future approaches should certainly aim at improving the access to molecular characterization, to obtain a deeper picture of the distinctive phenotype of childhood cancer. In parallel, the implementation of access to novel drugs should not only be limited to basket or umbrella studies but also to larger, multi-drug international studies. In this paper we reviewed the molecular features and the main available therapeutic options in pediatric solid cancer, focusing on available targeted drugs and ongoing investigations, aiming at providing a useful tool to navigate the heterogeneity of this promising but complex field.

Case Report: An NTRK1 fusion-positive embryonal rhabdomyosarcoma: clinical presentations, pathological characteristics and genotypic analyses

Rhabdomyosarcoma (RMS) is a prevalent form of soft tissue sarcoma that primarily affects children. Pediatric RMS is characterized by two distinct histological variants: embryonal (ERMS) and alveolar (ARMS). ERMS is a malignant tumor with primitive characteristics resembling the phenotypic and biological features of embryonic skeletal muscles. With the widespread and growing application of advanced molecular biological technologies, such as next-generation sequencing (NGS), it has been possible to determine the oncogenic activation alterations of many tumors. Specifically for soft tissue sarcomas, the determination of tyrosine kinase gene and protein related changes can be used as diagnostic aids and may be used as predictive markers for targeted tyrosine kinase inhibition therapy. Our study reports a rare and exceptional case of an 11-year-old patient diagnosed with ERMS, who tested positive for MEF2D-NTRK1 fusion. The case report presents a comprehensive overview of the clinical, radiographic, histopathological, immunohistochemical, and genetic characteristics of a palpebral ERMS. Furthermore, this study sheds light on an uncommon occurrence of NTRK1 fusion-positive ERMS, which may provide theoretical basis for therapy and prognosis.

Cytomorphology of spindle cell/sclerosing rhabdomyosarcoma, including MYOD1 (LI22R) mutation result

Spindle cell/sclerosing rhabdomyosarcoma (RMS), characterized by MYOD1 (L122R) mutation in a subset of cases is a newly described subtype of RMS. Presently, there is no documentation of cytomorphological features, especially of sclerosing RMS. Case 1: A 24-year-old male presented with pain and swelling in his wrist for a one-year duration. MRI revealed a well-defined soft tissue lesion measuring 5.3 cm, encasing the lower end of the ulna. Fine-needle aspiration cytology (FNAC) smears revealed clusters of tumor cells with round to oval to spindle-shaped nuclei, scant to moderate amount of cytoplasm with the wisps of the metachromatic stroma. Histopathological examination revealed a malignant tumor comprising cells with polygonal to spindle-shaped nuclei, arranged in a sclerotic stroma. Immunohistochemically, the tumor cells were positive for desmin, myogenin, and MYOD1. A diagnosis of sclerosing RMS was offered. Furthermore, the tumor revealed MYOD1 (L122R) mutation. Case 2: A 43-year-old male presented with a 4-month history of "nasal stuffiness" and pressure. Imaging revealed a poorly defined infiltrative lesion in his nasal cavity. FNAC smears revealed loose and tightly cohesive clusters of malignant cells with oval to spindle-shaped nuclei, a moderate amount of ill-defined bluish to finely vacuolated cytoplasm, and focal streak artifact with interspersed stromal fragments. Histopathological examination revealed a malignant tumor composed of oval to spindle-shaped nuclei, embedded in a variably hyalinized stroma. Immunohistochemically, the tumor cells were positive for desmin, and myogenin. Diagnosis of spindle cell/sclerosing RMS was offered. The present study constitutes one of the first documentation of cytomorphological features of two rare cases of spindle cell/sclerosing RMS. The differential diagnoses and treatment-related implications are presented.

ZFP64::NCOA3 gene fusion defines a novel subset of spindle cell rhabdomyosarcoma

Spindle cell rhabdomyosarcoma represents a rare neoplasm characterized by monomorphic spindle cells with a fascicular architecture and variable skeletal muscle differentiation. Following incidental identification of a ZFP64::NCOA3 gene fusion in an unclassified spindle cell sarcoma resembling adult-type fibrosarcoma, we performed a retrospective archival review and identified four additional cases with a similar histology and identical gene fusion. All tumors arose in adult males (28-71 years). The neoplasms were found in the deep soft tissues, two were gluteal, and one each arose in the thigh, abdominal wall, and chest wall. Morphologically, the tumors were characterized by spindle cells with a distinctive herringbone pattern and variable collagenous to myxoid stroma. The nuclei were relatively monomorphic with variable mitotic activity. Three tumors had immunoreactivity for MyoD1, and four contained variable expression of desmin and smooth muscle actin. All cases tested for myogenin, CD34, S100, pankeratin, and epithelial membrane antigen were negative. Targeted RNA sequencing revealed a ZFP64::NCOA3 fusion product in all five tumors. Three patients developed distant metastases, and two ultimately succumbed to their disease within 2 years of initial diagnosis. This study suggests ZFP64::NCOA3 fusions define a novel subtype of rhabdomyosarcoma with a spindle cell morphology and aggressive clinical behavior. The potential for morphologic and immunohistochemical overlap with several other sarcoma types underscores the value of molecular testing as a diagnostic adjunct to ensure accurate classification and management of these neoplasms.

Targeting KDM4 for treating PAX3-FOXO1-driven alveolar rhabdomyosarcoma

Chimeric transcription factors drive lineage-specific oncogenesis but are notoriously difficult to target. Alveolar rhabdomyosarcoma (RMS) is an aggressive childhood soft tissue sarcoma transformed by the pathognomonic Paired Box 3-Forkhead Box O1 (PAX3-FOXO1) fusion protein, which governs a core regulatory circuitry transcription factor network. Here, we show that the histone lysine demethylase 4B (KDM4B) is a therapeutic vulnerability for PAX3-FOXO1+ RMS. Genetic and pharmacologic inhibition of KDM4B substantially delayed tumor growth. Suppression of KDM4 proteins inhibited the expression of core oncogenic transcription factors and caused epigenetic alterations of PAX3-FOXO1-governed superenhancers. Combining KDM4 inhibition with cytotoxic chemotherapy led to tumor regression in preclinical PAX3-FOXO1+ RMS subcutaneous xenograft models. In summary, we identified a targetable mechanism required for maintenance of the PAX3-FOXO1-related transcription factor network, which may translate to a therapeutic approach for fusion-positive RMS.

Congenital spindle cell rhabdomyosarcoma: An international cooperative analysis

BACKGROUND

Spindle cell rhabdomyosarcoma (RMS) is a rare variant of RMS accounting for up to 10% of cases in infants. In older children and adults, spindle cell RMS is associated with MYOD1 mutations and a poor prognosis. In infants, it is associated with recurring fusions involving NCOA2 and VGLL2. Reports in the literature suggest a favorable prognosis for this subset, however, little is known about treatment and outcome data of infants with spindle cell RMS.

METHODS

Characteristics, treatment, and outcome of an international cohort of 40 patients aged ≤ 12 months with spindle cell RMS treated from 1997 to 2018 were evaluated.

RESULTS

Localized disease (LD) was diagnosed in 39 patients. The median age at diagnosis was 2.5 months (range 0-12 months). Expert pathologic review confirmed the diagnosis of spindle cell RMS in all patients. Among 26 tumors that had molecular evaluation, 13 had rearrangements of NCOA and/or VGLL. Multimodal treatment of infants with LD included conventional (age adjusted) chemotherapy (n = 37), resection (n = 31) and radiotherapy (RT) (n = 5, brachytherapy in 3). Complete remission was achieved in 37/39 patients. Progressive disease occurred in two infants, relapsed disease in three. Microscopically complete surgical resection was associated with five-year event-free survival (EFS) and overall survival (OS) of 100%. Two patients with tumors ≤ 5 cm were treated with microscopically complete resection only and were alive 1 and 4.2 years after diagnosis. The 5-year EFS and OS for infants with LD were 86% (±11; CI 95%) and 91% (±9; CI 95%), respectively. One patient had metastatic disease (NCOA fusion positive) with primary tumor in head and neck and brain metastases. This patient died despite chemotherapy and delayed resection of the primary tumor due to respiratory failure secondary to cytomegalovirus infection 1.2 years after diagnosis.

CONCLUSION

Infants with spindle cell RMS have an excellent prognosis. Multimodal treatment including microscopically complete resection of the tumor is strongly recommended.

An update on rhabdomyosarcoma risk stratification and the rationale for current and future Children's Oncology Group clinical trials

Children and adolescents with rhabdomyosarcoma (RMS) comprise a heterogeneous population with variable overall survival rates ranging between approximately 6% and 100% depending on defined risk factors. Although the risk stratification of patients has been refined across five decades of collaborative group studies, molecular prognostic biomarkers beyond FOXO1 fusion status have yet to be incorporated prospectively in upfront risk-based therapy assignments. This review describes the evolution of risk-based therapy and the current risk stratification, defines a new risk stratification incorporating novel biomarkers, and provides the rationale for the current and upcoming Children's Oncology Group RMS studies.

Update from the 5th Edition of the World Health Organization Classification of Head and Neck Tumors: Soft Tissue Tumors

The fifth (5th) edition of the World Health Organization (WHO) Classification of Head and Neck Tumors introduces a new chapter dedicated to soft tissue neoplasms commonly affecting the head and neck. While the diversity, rarity, and wide anatomic range of soft tissue tumors precludes a discussion of all entities that may be found in the head and neck, the addition of this new chapter to the head and neck "blue book" aims to provide a more comprehensive and uniform reference text, including updated diagnostic criteria, of mesenchymal tumor types frequently (or exclusively) arising at head and neck sites. Since publication of the previous edition in 2017, there have been numerous advances in our understanding of the pathogenesis of many soft tissue tumors which have facilitated refinements in tumor classification, identification of novel entities, development of diagnostic markers, and improved prognostication. This review will provide a focused discussion of the soft tissue tumors included in the 5th edition WHO Head and Neck classification, with an emphasis on updates.

An Integrative Morphologic and Molecular Approach for Diagnosis of Rhabdomyosarcoma and Subclassification of Rhabdomyosarcoma

CONTEXT.—

Rhabdomyosarcoma, the most common soft tissue sarcoma of children, is currently classified into the following 4 subtypes: embryonal rhabdomyosarcoma, alveolar rhabdomyosarcoma, spindle cell/sclerosing rhabdomyosarcoma, and pleomorphic rhabdomyosarcoma, based on recent molecular genetic knowledge and morphologic features.

OBJECTIVE.—

To highlight the most recent advances of molecular genetic alterations, and to familiarize pathologists with most recent genotype and phenotype correlation in rhabdomyosarcoma.

DATA SOURCES.—

Data were derived from the World Health Organization Classification of Soft Tissue and Bone Tumors, fifth edition, recently published literature (PubMed), and clinical practice experience.

CONCLUSIONS.—

Current classification has been significantly impacted by genotype and phenotype correlation, especially with PAX-FOXO1 fusion-positive rhabdomyosarcoma versus fusion-negative rhabdomyosarcoma, and with emergence of 3 distinct new subtypes of spindle cell/sclerosing rhabdomyosarcoma. Although all rhabdomyosarcomas were considered to be a single diagnostic entity in the past, they are now considered to be a group of histologically similar but biologically diverse entities because their clinical behavior and underlying molecular alterations dramatically differ. This review outlines recent molecular genetic developments, corresponding morphologic features, and current challenges faced by pathologists in daily practice.

Evolving classification of rhabdomyosarcoma

Rhabdomyosarcomas comprise the single largest category of soft tissue sarcomas in children and adolescents in the United States, occurring in 4.5 million people aged below 20 years. Based on the clinicopathological features and genetic abnormalities identified, rhabdomyosarcomas are classified into embryonal, alveolar, spindle cell/sclerosing and pleomorphic subtypes. Each subtype shows distinctive morphology and has characteristic genetic abnormalities. This review discusses the evolution of the classification of rhabdomyosarcoma to the present day, together with a discussion of key histomorphological and genetic features of each subtype and the diagnostic approach to these tumours.

The clinicopathologic spectrum and genomic landscape of de-/trans-differentiated melanoma

Dedifferentiation and transdifferentiation are rare and only poorly understood phenomena in cutaneous melanoma. To study this disease more comprehensively we have retrieved 11 primary cutaneous melanomas from our pathology archives showing biphasic features characterized by a conventional melanoma and additional areas of de-/trans-differentiation as defined by a lack of immunohistochemical expression of all conventional melanocytic markers (S-100 protein, SOX10, Melan-A, and HMB-45). The clinical, histologic, and immunohistochemical findings were recorded and follow-up was obtained. The patients were mostly elderly (median: 81 years; range: 42-86 years) without significant gender predilection, and the sun-exposed skin of the head and neck area was most commonly affected. The tumors were deeply invasive with a mean depth of 7 mm (range: 4-80 mm). The dedifferentiated component showed atypical fibroxanthoma-like features in the majority of cases (7), while additional rhabdomyosarcomatous and epithelial transdifferentiation was noted histologically and/or immunohistochemically in two tumors each. The background conventional melanoma component was of desmoplastic (4), superficial spreading (3), nodular (2), lentigo maligna (1), or spindle cell (1) types. For the seven patients with available follow-up data (median follow-up period of 25 months; range: 8-36 months), two died from their disease, and three developed metastases. Next-generation sequencing of the cohort revealed somatic mutations of established melanoma drivers including mainly NF1 mutations (5) in the conventional component, which was also detected in the corresponding de-/trans-differentiated component. In summary, the diagnosis of primary cutaneous de-/trans-differentiated melanoma is challenging and depends on the morphologic identification of conventional melanoma. Molecular analysis is diagnostically helpful as the mutated gene profile is shared between the conventional and de-/trans-differentiated components. Importantly, de-/trans-differentiation does not appear to confer a more aggressive behavior.

Rhabdomyosarcoma: How Advanced Molecular Methods Are Shaping the Diagnostic and Therapeutic Paradigm

For the past 40 years, progress in rhabdomyosarcoma (RMS) has been focused on understanding its molecular basis and characterizing the mutations that drive its tumorigenesis and progression. Genetic predisposition to RMS has allowed discovery of key genetic pathways and driver mutations. Subclassification of RMS into embryonal (ERMS) and alveolar (ARMS) subtypes has shifted from histology to PAX-FOXO1 fusion status, and new driver mutations have been found in spindle cell RMS. Comprehensive molecular profiling leveraging genome-scale next-generation sequencing (NGS) indicates that the RAS/RAF/PI3K axis is mutated in the majority of ERMS and modulated by downstream effects of PAX-FOXO1 fusions in ARMS. Because of the continued poor outcome of high-risk RMS, a variety of molecular targets have been or are now being tested in current or recent therapy trials. New techniques such as single cell sequencing, spatial multi-omics, and CRISPR/Cas9 genome editing offer potential for further discovery, but a need for clinically annotated specimens persists.

MYOD1 as a prognostic indicator in rhabdomyosarcoma

BACKGROUND/OBJECTIVES

Rhabdomyosarcoma (RMS) is characterized by the expression of the myogenic regulatory protein MYOD1. Histologic types include alveolar, embryonal (ERMS), and spindle cell sclerosing RMS (SRMS). SRMS harbors MYOD1 mutations in a subset of adult cases in association with poor prognosis.

DESIGN/METHODS

To study the level of MYOD1 protein expression and its clinical significance, we have analyzed variable numbers of pediatric (<18 years of age) and adult (age range ≥18 to 35 years) ERMS and SRMS cases for presence or absence of MYOD1 immunoreactivity in correlation with clinical outcome and MYOD1 L122R mutations.

RESULTS

Lack of MYOD1 immunoreactivity, identified in 23.8% of nonalveolar RMS (non-ARMS) cases, was more prevalent in SRMS (44%) than ERMS (17.2%) and was significantly associated with low overall survival and unfavorable tumor sites (p < .05). Lack of MYOD1 immunoreactivity was not associated with MYOD1 L122R mutations, which were identified in 3/37 (8%) cases including only two of 31 (6.5%) pediatric cases, one of 11 or 9% pediatric SRMS, and one case of infant ERMS.

CONCLUSION

These studies highlight the prognostic role of MYOD1 in non-ARMS. Lack of MYOD1 immunoreactivity is associated with poor prognosis in ERMS and SRMS. MYOD1 gene mutations are generally infrequent in pediatric RMS. Although mutations are predominant in SRMS, they may exceptionally occur in infantile ERMS.

Novel fusion genes in spindle cell rhabdomyosarcoma: The spectrum broadens

Rhabdomyosarcoma (RMS) encompasses a heterogeneous group of tumors with striated muscle differentiation. RMSs are classified as alveolar, embryonal, spindle cell/sclerosing, and pleomorphic types and molecular analysis of these tumors has identified aberrations that are useful in their further subclassification. Spindle cell rhabdomyosarcoma (SpRMS) is uncommon and has been described with VGLL2 fusions, EWSR1/FUS-TFCP2 rearrangements, and myoD1 mutations-the mutations are associated with significantly different prognoses. In addition, the NCOA2-MEIS1 fusion gene was recently described in two primary intraosseous RMS that contained spindle cell components. Herein, we report three cases of SpRMS harboring different novel fusion genes, one possessing EP300-VGLL3, a second with NCOA2-MEIS1 and CAV1-MET, and the third case had HMGA2-NEGR1 and multiple amplified genes.

Integrated diagnosis based on transcriptome analysis in suspected pediatric sarcomas

Pediatric solid tumors are a heterogeneous group of neoplasms with over 100 subtypes. Clinical and histopathological diagnosis remains challenging due to the overlapping morphological and immunohistochemical findings and the presence of atypical cases. To evaluate the potential utility of including RNA-sequencing (RNA-seq) in the diagnostic process, we performed RNA-seq in 47 patients with suspected pediatric sarcomas. Histopathologists specialized in pediatric cancer re-evaluated pathological specimens to reach a consensus diagnosis; 42 patients were diagnosed with known subtypes of solid tumors whereas 5 patients were diagnosed with undifferentiated sarcoma. RNA-seq analysis confirmed and refined consensus diagnoses and further identified diagnostic genetic variants in four of the five patients with undifferentiated sarcoma. Genetic lesions were detected in 23 patients, including the novel SMARCA4-THOP1 fusion gene and 22 conventional or recently reported genetic events. Unsupervised clustering analysis of the RNA-seq data identified a distinct cluster defined by the overexpression of rhabdomyosarcoma-associated genes including MYOG and CHRNG. These findings suggest that RNA-seq-based genetic analysis may aid in the diagnosis of suspected pediatric sarcomas, which would be useful for the development of stratified treatment strategies.

Cytogenetic and Molecular Study of an Adult Sclerosing Rhabdomyosarcoma of the Extremity: MYOD1-mutation and Clonal Evolution

BACKGROUND

Spindle cell/sclerosing rhabdomyosarcoma is a genomically heterogeneous, uncommon subtype of rhabdomyosarcoma, particularly rare in adults. Its MYOD1-mutant variant is aggressive irrespective of age. Cytogenetic data on spindle cell/sclerosing rhabdomyosarcoma are sparse and disparate.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Cytogenetic and molecular analyses were performed on an adult sclerosing rhabdomyosarcoma.

RESULTS

The karyotype of the sclerosing rhabdomyosarcoma displayed clonal evolution corresponding to two hyperdiploid clones: 48,XY,+i(19)(p10),+22/48,idem,der(9)t(2;9)(q21~22;p21). The changes were gain of chromosome 19 with the overrepresentation of 19p arm, gain of chromosome 22, gain of the 2q arm, and loss of 9p21. Mutation analysis revealed a homozygous c.T365G (p.L122R) mutation of the MYOD1 gene, but none of PIK3CA.

CONCLUSION

To our knowledge, this is the first adult MYOD1-mutant sclerosing rhabdomyosarcoma studied cytogenetically. The only other reported sclerosing rhabdomyosarcoma with MYOD1 mutation and abnormal karyotype was pediatric. Since these tumors are highly aggressive, further studies unravelling their cytogenetic and molecular characteristics are warranted.

Preclinical In Vivo Modeling of Pediatric Sarcoma-Promises and Limitations

Pediatric sarcomas are an extremely heterogeneous group of genetically distinct diseases. Despite the increasing knowledge on their molecular makeup in recent years, true therapeutic advancements are largely lacking and prognosis often remains dim, particularly for relapsed and metastasized patients. Since this is largely due to the lack of suitable model systems as a prerequisite to develop and assess novel therapeutics, we here review the available approaches to model sarcoma in vivo. We focused on genetically engineered and patient-derived mouse models, compared strengths and weaknesses, and finally explored possibilities and limitations to utilize these models to advance both biological understanding as well as clinical diagnosis and therapy.

Pathology of childhood rhabdomyosarcoma: A consensus opinion document from the Children's Oncology Group, European Paediatric Soft Tissue Sarcoma Study Group, and the Cooperative Weichteilsarkom Studiengruppe

The diagnosis and classification of rhabdomyosarcoma (RMS) has undergone several shifts over the last 30 years. While the main diagnostic categories remained the same, changes in the histologic criteria necessary for diagnosis, as well as varied reliance on immunohistochemical and molecular data over time, have created confusion, particularly regarding how these shifts impacted risk stratification and enrollment onto clinical trials. The goal of this report is to review the evolution and current status of RMS diagnosis, focusing on diagnostic criteria in the Children's Oncology Group (COG), the European Paediatric Soft Tissue Sarcoma Group (EpSSG), and the Cooperative Weichteilsarkom Studiengruppe (CWS). In addition, we emphasize research tools used to classify RMS and address biological questions within current clinical trials run by each group. The INternational Soft Tissue SaRcoma ConsorTium (INSTRuCT) initiative will maximize potential to optimize risk stratification by recognizing and accounting for differences in historical data and current practices.

Recent updates in the diagnosis of soft tissue tumors: Newly described tumor entities, newer immunohistochemical and genetic markers, concepts, including "inter-tumor relationships"

During the last two decades, there have been significant strides in the diagnosis of soft tissue tumors, including identification of various tumor entities, newer immunohistochemical markers, and an increasing number of molecular signatures, defining certain tumors. Lately, there are certain emerging tumor entities, defined by their molecular features with an impact on treatment. At the same time, there is a certain degree of overlap in the expression of certain immunohistochemical antibody markers, as well as genetic markers, with certain gene rearrangements and chimeric fusions observed among completely different tumors. Moreover, a certain amount of clinicopathological, immunohistochemical, and molecular proximity has been unraveled among certain tumor types. Over the years, the World Health Organization (WHO) fascicles on tumors of soft tissue have succinctly brought out these aspects. The present review describes recent updates in the diagnosis of soft tissue tumors, including certain newly described tumor entities; emphasizing upon newer, specific immunohistochemical and molecular markers, along with concepts, regarding "intertumor relationships".

Establishment and Characterization of a Sclerosing Spindle Cell Rhabdomyosarcoma Cell Line with a Complex Genomic Profile

Sclerosing spindle cell rhabdomyosarcoma (SSRMS) is a rare rhabdomyosarcomas (RMS) subtype. Especially cases bearing a myogenic differentiation 1 (MYOD1) mutation are characterized by a high recurrence and metastasis rate, often leading to a fatal outcome. SSRMS cell lines are valuable in vitro models for studying disease mechanisms and for the preclinical evaluation of new therapeutic approaches. In this study, a cell line established from a primary SSRMS tumor of a 24-year-old female after multimodal chemotherapeutic pretreatment has been characterized in detail, including immunohistochemistry, growth characteristics, cytogenetic analysis, mutation analysis, evaluation of stem cell marker expression, differentiation potential, and tumorigenicity in mice. The cell line which was designated SRH exhibited a complex genomic profile, including several translocations and deletions. Array-comparative genomic hybridization (CGH) revealed an overall predominating loss of gene loci. The mesenchymal tumor origin was underlined by the expression of mesenchymal markers and potential to undergo adipogenic and osteogenic differentiation. Despite myogenic marker expression, terminal myogenic differentiation was inhibited, which might be elicited by the MYOD1 hotspot mutation. In vivo tumorigenicity could be confirmed after subcutaneous injection into NOD/SCID/γ_c^null mice. Summarized, the SRH cell line is the first adult SSRMS cell line available for preclinical research on this rare RMS subtype.

SRF-FOXO1 and SRF-NCOA1 Fusion Genes Delineate a Distinctive Subset of Well-differentiated Rhabdomyosarcoma

Rhabdomyosarcoma (RMS) encompasses a heterogenous collection of tumors in which new groups have recently been identified that improved the World Health Organization (WHO) classification. While performing RNA-sequencing in our routine practice, we identified 3 cases of well-differentiated RMS harboring new fusion genes. We also analyzed these tumors through array-comparative genomic hybridization. Clinically, these tumors were deep paraspinal tumors, occurring in neo-nat and young children. The patients underwent resection and adjuvant therapy. At the time of last follow-up (ranging from 12 to 108 mo), they were alive without disease. Histologically, these tumors consisted of well-differentiated rhabdomyoblastic proliferations with nuclear atypia, infiltrative borders, and a specific growth pattern. These tumors harbored new fusion genes involving SRF and either FOXO1 or NCOA1. We compared the expression profiles of these 3 tumors to the expression data of a series of 33 skeletal muscle tumors including embryonal RMSs, alveolar rhandomyosarcomas, RMSs with VGLL2 fusions, RMSs with the myoD1 mutation, EWSR1/FUS-TFCP2 epithelioid and spindle cell RMSs of the bone, and rhabdomyomas with PTCH1 loss. According to clustering analyses, the 3 SRF-fused tumors formed a distinct group with a specific expression profile different from that of the other types of skeletal muscle tumors. Array-comparative genomic hybridization showed a recurrent gain of chromosome 11. These 3 tumors define a new group of RMS associated with a fusion of the SRF gene. FOXO1 rearrangements, usually used to confirm the diagnosis of alveolar RMS and identify poor-outcome RMSs, were identified in a nonalveolar RMS for the first time.

Epithelioid and spindle cell rhabdomyosarcoma with FUS-TFCP2 or EWSR1-TFCP2 fusion: report of two cases

The WHO Classification of Tumors of Soft Tissue and Bone divides rhabdomyosarcoma (RMS) into alveolar, embryonal, pleomorphic, and spindle cell/sclerosing types. Advances in molecular diagnostics have allowed for further refinement of RMS classification including the identification of new subtypes. Very rare RMS with epithelioid and spindle cell morphology, female predominance, marked osseous predilection, ALK expression, EWSR1/FUS-TFCP2 gene fusions, and highly aggressive clinical behavior have recently been recognized with only 23 cases reported in the English language literature. Herein, we report two additional cases with detailed clinicopathologic description and molecular confirmation. In brief, two young women presented each with a primary bone tumor-one with a frontal bone tumor and another with an osseous pelvic tumor. Both tumors showed epithelioid to spindle cell morphology, ALK expression, and EWSR1/FUS-TFCP2 gene fusions. Both patients died of disease less than 17 months from diagnosis despite administration of multiple lines of aggressive treatment. In addition, we review the literature and discuss differential diagnostic and potential treatment considerations.

Epithelioid and spindle cell rhabdomyosarcoma with FUS-TFCP2 or EWSR1-TFCP2 fusion: report of two cases

The WHO Classification of Tumors of Soft Tissue and Bone divides rhabdomyosarcoma (RMS) into alveolar, embryonal, pleomorphic, and spindle cell/sclerosing types. Advances in molecular diagnostics have allowed for further refinement of RMS classification including the identification of new subtypes. Very rare RMS with epithelioid and spindle cell morphology, female predominance, marked osseous predilection, ALK expression, EWSR1/FUS-TFCP2 gene fusions, and highly aggressive clinical behavior have recently been recognized with only 23 cases reported in the English language literature. Herein, we report two additional cases with detailed clinicopathologic description and molecular confirmation. In brief, two young women presented each with a primary bone tumor-one with a frontal bone tumor and another with an osseous pelvic tumor. Both tumors showed epithelioid to spindle cell morphology, ALK expression, and EWSR1/FUS-TFCP2 gene fusions. Both patients died of disease less than 17 months from diagnosis despite administration of multiple lines of aggressive treatment. In addition, we review the literature and discuss differential diagnostic and potential treatment considerations.

Histiocyte-rich rhabdomyoblastic tumor: a report of two cases and a review of the differential diagnoses

Histiocyte-rich rhabdomyoblastic tumor is a recently described skeletal muscle neoplasm of uncertain malignant potential, characterized by slow growth, a fibrous capsule containing peripheral lymphoid aggregates, spindle-to-epithelioid cells with a rhabdomyoblastic immunophenotype, and a dense histiocytic infiltrate. It most commonly arises within the muscles of the lower legs and trunk in young-to-middle-aged men, and initial reports suggest indolent behavior. In this paper, we present two additional cases of histiocyte-rich rhabdomyoblastic tumor with similar clinicopathologic features and discuss the differential diagnosis including its overlap with inflammatory leiomyosarcoma.

Induction of Myogenic Differentiation Improves Chemosensitivity of Chemoresistant Cells in Soft-Tissue Sarcoma Cell Lines

Rhabdomyosarcoma (RMS) and rhabdoid tumors (RT) are rare soft-tissue malignancies with the highest incidence in infants, children, and adolescents. Advanced, recurrent, and/or metastatic RMS and RT exhibit poor response to treatment. One of the main mechanisms behind resistance to treatment is believed to be intratumoral heterogeneity. In this study, we investigated the myogenic determination factor 1 (MYOD1) and Noggin (NOG) markers in an embryonal RMS (ERMS) cell line and an RT cell line and the differential response of the MYOD1 and NOG expressing subpopulations to chemotherapy. Importantly, we found that these markers together identify a subpopulation of cells (MYOD1+ NOG+ cells) with primary resistance to Vincristine and Doxorubicin, two commonly used chemotherapies for ERMS and RT. The chemoresistant MYOD1+ NOG+ cells express markers of undifferentiated cells such as myogenin and ID1. Combination of Vincristine with TPA/GSK126, a drug combination shown to induce differentiation of RMS cell lines, is able to partially overcome MYOD1/NOG cells chemoresistance.

Integrative clinical and biopathology analyses to understand the clinical heterogeneity of infantile rhabdomyosarcoma: A report from the French MMT committee

BACKGROUND

Rhabdomyosarcoma (RMS) in infants is a particular entity with various clinical presentations and outcomes. To better understand the clinical heterogeneity of RMS in infants, an integrative clinical, histological, and molecular analysis was performed.

METHODS

From 1989 to 2015, 37 infants aged less than 6 months with a diagnosis of RMS and archival tumor materials were identified in France. Clinical data, central pathologic review, and molecular profile including RNA sequencing were analyzed.

RESULTS

Nineteen patients (51%) had embryonal RMS (ERMS) (including three highly differentiated ERMS with PTCH deletion), eight (22%) had spindle cell RMS (SRMS) (three VGLL2-, one NTRK-, and two (B)RAF-fusions), six (16%) had alveolar RMS (ARMS) (all FOXO1- or PAX3-fusion), two had unclassified RMS, and two poorly differentiated RMS were retrospectively diagnosed as rhabdoid tumors (RT) with loss of INI1 expression. The two RT patients died of rapid disease progression. Five-year event-free (EFS) and overall survival (OS) for RMS were 62% (95%CI, 47-82) and 52% (95%CI, 37-72). Eleven patients (31%) relapsed and four (11%) had primary refractory disease (all ERMS). In univariate analysis, EFS and OS were only associated with histology subtype, with 100% survival of known fusion-positive SRMS. RNA cluster expression showed three main clusters: ARMS, ERMS, and "VGLL2-fusion" cluster, consisting of SRMS and ERMS.

CONCLUSIONS

Biopathology findings from this study support the different prognosis of infantile RMS. New fusion-positive SRMS has a very good outcome which may allow more conservative treatment in the future.