A novel IL-1 receptor, cloned from B cells by mammalian expression, is expressed in many cell types

Negative regulator IL-1 receptor 2 (IL-1R2) and its roles in immune regulation of autoimmune diseases

The decoy receptor interleukin 1 receptor 2 (IL-1R2), also known as CD121b, has different forms: membrane-bound (mIL-1R2), soluble secreted (ssIL-1R2), shedded (shIL-1R2), intracellular domain (IL-1R2ICD). The different forms of IL-1R2 exert not exactly similar functions. IL-1R2 can not only participate in the regulation of inflammatory response by competing with IL-1R1 to bind IL-1 and IL-1RAP, but also regulate IL-1 maturation and cell activation, promote cell survival, participate in IL-1-dependent internalization, and even have biological activity as a transcriptional cofactor. In this review, we provide a detailed description of the biological characteristics of IL-1R2 and discuss the expression and unique role of IL-1R2 in different immune cells. Importantly, we summarize the role of IL-1R2 in immune regulation from different autoimmune diseases, hoping to provide a new direction for in-depth studies of pathogenesis and therapeutic targets in autoimmune diseases.

Development of a chimeric cytokine receptor that captures IL-6 and enhances the antitumor response of CAR-T cells

The efficacy of chimeric antigen receptor (CAR)-engineered T cell therapy is suboptimal in most cancers, necessitating further improvement in their therapeutic actions. However, enhancing antitumor T cell response inevitably confers an increased risk of cytokine release syndrome associated with monocyte-derived interleukin-6 (IL-6). Thus, an approach to simultaneously enhance therapeutic efficacy and safety is warranted. Here, we develop a chimeric cytokine receptor composed of the extracellular domains of GP130 and IL6RA linked to the transmembrane and cytoplasmic domain of IL-7R mutant that constitutively activates the JAK-STAT pathway (G6/7R or G6/7R-M452L). CAR-T cells with G6/7R efficiently absorb and degrade monocyte-derived IL-6 in vitro. The G6/7R-expressing CAR-T cells show superior expansion and persistence in vivo, resulting in durable antitumor response in both liquid and solid tumor mouse models. Our strategy can be widely applicable to CAR-T cell therapy to enhance its efficacy and safety, irrespective of the target antigen.

Role of Interleukin 1 Receptor 2 in Kidney Disease

The interleukin 1 (IL-1) family plays a significant role in the innate immune response. IL-1 receptor 2 (IL-1R2) is the decoy receptor of IL-1. It is a negative regulator that can be subdivided into membrane-bound and soluble types. IL-1R2 plays a role in the IL-1 family mainly through the following mechanisms: formation of inactive signaling complexes upon binding to the receptor auxiliary protein and inhibition of ligand IL-1 maturation. This review covers the roles of IL-1R2 in kidney disorders. Chronic kidney disease, acute kidney injury, lupus nephritis, IgA nephropathy, renal clear cell carcinoma, rhabdoid tumor of kidney, kidney transplantation, and kidney infection were all shown to have abnormal IL-1R2 expression. IL-1R2 may be a potential marker and a promising therapeutic target for kidney disease.

IL1R2 is a Novel Prognostic Biomarker for Lung Adenocarcinoma

AIMS

The aim of this study is to figure out the role of IL1R2 in LUAD (lung adenocarcinoma).

BACKGROUND

IL1R2, a special member of IL-1 receptor family, binds to IL-1 and plays an important role in inhibiting IL-1 pathway, which seems to be involved in tumorigenesis. Emerging studies demonstrated higher IL1R2 expression levels in several malignancies.

OBJECTIVE

In the present study, we assessed the expression of IL1R2 in LUAD tissues with immunohistochemistry and explored various databases to determine whether it could be a potential prognostic biomarker and therapeutic target.

METHODS

The expression level of IL1R2 in lung adenocarcinoma was analyzed by Immunohistochemistry and UALCAN database. The correlation between IL1R2 expression and the patient prognosis was identified by Kaplan-Meier plotter. The correlation of IL1R2 expression with immune infiltrates was clarified by TIMER database. The protein-protein interaction network and gene functional enrichment analysis were constructed and performed by STRING and Metascape database.

RESULTS

Immunohistochemistry showed that the expression of IL1R2 was higher in tumor tissues of LUAD patients and that patients with lower IL1R2 level have a better prognosis than their counterparts. We validated our findings in several online databases and found that IL1R2 gene was also positively correlated with B cells and neutrophils and biomarkers of CD8+T cells and exhausted T cells. PPI network and gene enrichment analyses showed that expression of IL1R2 was also associated with complex functionspecific networks involving IL-1 signal, NF-KappaB transcription factors.

CONCLUSION

According to these findings, we demonstrated that IL1R2 was involved in the progression and prognosis of LUAD and the underlying mechanism needs further investigation.

Expression of interleukin-1β and its receptor in human granulosa cells and their association with steroidogenesis

This study aimed to investigate whether interleukin 1β (IL-1β) and soluble IL-1 receptor 2 (sIL-1R2) are expressed in human granulosa cells (GCs) and relate to ovarian steroidogenesis. Ninety-six women undergoing in vitro fertilization (IVF) were recruited. RT-PCR and immunocytochemistry were used to detect mRNAs and proteins of IL-1β and IL-1R2, respectively. The steroidogenesis of primary cultured GCs was evaluated following treatment with either IL-1β alone or IL-1β and FSH in combination. There were positive correlations between serum IL-1β and serum progesterone (r = 0.220, p = 0.032) and follicular fluid (FF) estradiol (r = 0.242, p = 0.018). Additionally, serum and FF sIL-1R2 were negatively and positively correlated with FF estradiol (r = -0.376, p = 0.005) and FF progesterone (r = 0.434, p = 0.001), respectively. The mRNA and protein expression of IL-1β and IL-1R2 became evident in GCs. IL-1β alone significantly increased estradiol secretion from GCs, but in the presence of FSH, it could notably promote progesterone secretion in addition to estradiol. In conclusion, IL-1β and sIL-1R2 are expressed in human GCs and substantially contribute to ovarian steroidogenesis, suggesting that the IL-1β system may be a potential target for optimizing ovarian hyperstimulation and steroidogenesis in IVF cycles.

Interleukin-1 receptor antagonist: a promising cytokine against human squamous cell carcinomas

Inflammation, especially chronic inflammation, is closely linked to tumor development. As essential chronic inflammatory cytokines, the interleukin family plays a key role in inflammatory infections and malignancies. The interleukin-1 (IL-1) receptor antagonist (IL1RA), as a naturally occurring receptor antagonist, is the first discovered and can compete with IL-1 in binding to the receptor. Recent studies have revealed the association of the polymorphisms in IL1RA with an increased risk of squamous cell carcinomas (SCCs), including squamous cell carcinoma of the head and neck (SCCHN), cervical squamous cell carcinoma, cutaneous squamous cell carcinoma (cSCC), esophageal squamous cell carcinoma (ESCC), and bronchus squamous cell carcinoma. Here, we reviewed the antitumor potential of IL1RA as an IL-1-targeted inhibitor.

Crosstalk of Inflammatory Cytokines within the Breast Tumor Microenvironment

Several immune and immunocompetent cells, including dendritic cells, macrophages, adipocytes, natural killer cells, T cells, and B cells, are significantly correlated with the complex discipline of oncology. Cytotoxic innate and adaptive immune cells can block tumor proliferation, and others can prevent the immune system from rejecting malignant cells and provide a favorable environment for tumor progression. These cells communicate with the microenvironment through cytokines, a chemical messenger, in an endocrine, paracrine, or autocrine manner. These cytokines play an important role in health and disease, particularly in host immune responses to infection and inflammation. They include chemokines, interleukins (ILs), adipokines, interferons, colony-stimulating factors (CSFs), and tumor necrosis factor (TNF), which are produced by a wide range of cells, including immune cells, such as macrophages, B-cells, T-cells, and mast cells, as well as endothelial cells, fibroblasts, a variety of stromal cells, and some cancer cells. Cytokines play a crucial role in cancer and cancer-related inflammation, with direct and indirect effects on tumor antagonistic or tumor promoting functions. They have been extensively researched as immunostimulatory mediators to promote the generation, migration and recruitment of immune cells that contribute to an effective antitumor immune response or pro-tumor microenvironment. Thus, in many cancers such as breast cancer, cytokines including leptin, IL-1B, IL-6, IL-8, IL-23, IL-17, and IL-10 stimulate while others including IL-2, IL-12, and IFN-γ, inhibit cancer proliferation and/or invasion and enhance the body's anti-tumor defense. Indeed, the multifactorial functions of cytokines in tumorigenesis will advance our understanding of cytokine crosstalk pathways in the tumor microenvironment, such as JAK/STAT, PI3K, AKT, Rac, MAPK, NF-κB, JunB, cFos, and mTOR, which are involved in angiogenesis, cancer proliferation and metastasis. Accordingly, targeting and blocking tumor-promoting cytokines or activating and amplifying tumor-inhibiting cytokines are considered cancer-directed therapies. Here, we focus on the role of the inflammatory cytokine system in pro- and anti-tumor immune responses, discuss cytokine pathways involved in immune responses to cancer and some anti-cancer therapeutic applications.

Molecular and functional characterization of chicken interleukin 1 receptor 2 (chIL-1R2)

Interleukin-1 receptor type 2 (IL1R2) is a decoy receptor for exogenous IL-1. However, its functional role in chicken immunity is poorly understood. Herein, chicken IL-1R2 (chIL-1R2) was identified and functionally characterized in vivo and in vitro. The chIL-1R2 coding sequence includes 1,236 nucleotides encoding 412 amino acids, is highly conserved, and has a close relationship with its mammalian counterpart. Its extracellular region has three Ig-like domains but no TIR domain for intracellular signaling. Using ELISA, the recombinant chIL-1R2 protein was demonstrated to specifically bind to the chicken IL-1β. ChIL-1R2 mRNA expression was shown to be higher in the spleen, lung, kidney, small intestine, and liver. The expression of chIL-1R2 and chIL-1R1 was significantly upregulated in DF-1 cells treated with poly (I:C), but significantly downregulated in the presence of NF-κB, JNK, and MEK inhibitors, indicating that the NF-κB, JNK, and MEK signaling pathways are required for the transcriptional regulation of chIL-1R1 and chIL-1R2 expression. It is worth noting that while the p30 MAPK pathway was required for chIL-1R1 expression, it was not required for chIL-1R2 expression. Furthermore, chIL-1R2 expression increased as early as day 1, and then significantly decreased until day 3, while chIL-1R1 was dramatically upregulated in four organs of chickens infected with the highly pathogenic avian influenza virus (HPAIV). These findings indicate that chIL-1R1 and chIL-1R2 may play a crucial in innate and adaptive immune responses toward HPAIV infection. In summary the present study showed that chIL-1R2 binds to chIL-1β antibody. ChIL-1R2 expression can be induced by a viral infection, and may be regulated through NF-κB/JNK/MEK-mediated signaling pathways.

IL1R2 promotes tumor progression via JAK2/STAT3 pathway in human clear cell renal cell carcinoma

Clear cell renal cell carcinoma (ccRCC) is known as the most aggressive subtype of genitourinary cancers. The lack of effective therapies has prompted us to further explore the complex network of genes involved in ccRCC tumor progression and metastasis and to seek new biomarkers and therapeutic strategies to improve clinical outcomes. Interleukin-1 receptor type 2 (IL1R2), a decoy receptor of IL-1, is found to be differentially expressed in various tumors types recently. However, the role of IL1R2 in ccRCC has not been documented. Herein, we found that the expression of IL1R2 in ccRCC tissues was significantly increased as the tumor's Furman pathological grade was elevated. Compared to lower IL1R2 expression, ccRCC patients with high IL1R2 expression had a significantly worse OS rate. IL1R2 could serve as an independent prognostic predictor for ccRCC patients. Depletion of IL1R2 could inhibit cell proliferation, migration, invasion, and cell cycle arrest at the G1 phase, while overexpression of IL1R2 could reverse this effect. Moreover, depletion of IL1R2 led to changes and enrichment of several signaling pathways, as shown by RNA sequencing. We subsequently verified that Janus kinase 2 / signal transducer and activator of transcription 3 (JAK2/STAT3) pathway was involved in the IL1R2 mediated regulation of cellular functions of ccRCC cells and these functions were acted by the intracellular domain of IL1R2, not the extracellular domain. Our findings suggested that IL1R2 could serve as a potential therapeutic target for ccRCC progression and metastasis via its regulation of the JAK2/STAT3 signaling pathway.

IL1R2 increases regulatory T cell population in the tumor microenvironment by enhancing MHC-II expression on cancer-associated fibroblasts

Background

Regulatory T cells (Treg) are an integral part of the tumor immune tolerance. Carcinoma-associated fibroblasts (CAFs) is a pivotal driver for accumulation of Treg cells in the tumor microenvironment (TME). The molecular nature underpinning Treg cells and CAFs coupling needs to be further defined.

Methods

The Il1r2^flox/floxFoxp3^Cre mice were generated to establish the conditional knock-out of Il1r2 in Foxp3⁺ Tregs in vivo. Using the MC38 tumor model, we evaluated the antitumor efficacy of immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICIs) and further analyzed the immune profiling of the TME by multicolor flow cytometry. Single-cell RNA sequencing of the whole tumor tissues, TCR repertoire analysis of sorted CD3⁺ TILs were also performed.

Results

We showed that IL1 receptor 2 (IL1R2), a decoy receptor that neutralizes IL1, was highly expressed in Treg cells in the TME. In addition, we found that Il1r1 was largely expressed in the CAFs, suggesting IL1R2 plays a role in modulating crosstalk between Tregs and CAFs. We further demonstrated that Il1r2 deficiency in Treg cells led to greater antitumor efficacy of ICI, decreased Tregs and increased CD8⁺ T cells in the TME, as well as reduced levels of T cell dysfunction. Mechanistically, we showed that IL1 inhibited major histocompatibility complex class II (MHC-II) expression on fibroblasts and Treg-specific Il1r2 deletion led to a decrease in genes associated with MHC-II antigen presentation in CAFs.

Conclusions

Our study established a critical role of IL1 signaling in inhibiting Treg-mediated tumor immune suppression through downregulating MHC-II antigen presentation in CAFs.

Differential Roles for IL-1α and IL-1β in Pseudomonas aeruginosa Corneal Infection

Pseudomonas aeruginosa is an important cause of dermal, pulmonary, and ocular disease. Our studies have focused on P. aeruginosa infections of the cornea (keratitis) as a major cause of blinding microbial infections. The infection leads to an influx of innate immune cells, with neutrophils making up to 90% of recruited cells during early stages. We previously reported that the proinflammatory cytokines IL-1α and IL-1β were elevated during infection. Compared with wild-type (WT), infected Il1b-/- mice developed more severe corneal disease that is associated with impaired bacterial killing as a result of defective neutrophil recruitment. We also reported that neutrophils are an important source of IL-1α and IL-1β, which peaked at 24 h postinfection. To examine the role of IL-1α compared with IL-1β in P. aeruginosa keratitis, we inoculated corneas of C57BL/6 (WT), Il1a-/-, Il1b-/-, and Il1a-/-Il1b-/- (double-knockout) mice with 5 × 104 ExoS-expressing P. aeruginosa. Il1b-/- and double-knockout mice have significantly higher bacterial burden that was consistent with delayed neutrophil and monocyte recruitment to the corneas. Surprisingly, Il1a-/- mice had the opposite phenotype with enhanced bacteria clearance compared with WT mice. Although there were no significant differences in neutrophil recruitment, Il1a-/- neutrophils displayed a more proinflammatory transcriptomic profile compared to WT with elevations in C1q expression that likely caused the phenotypic differences observed. To our knowledge, our findings identify a novel, non-redundant role for IL-1α in impairing bacterial clearance.

The levels of IL-1β and soluble IL-1 receptors in patients with IgG4-related periaortitis/periarteritis

PURPOSE

IgG4-related disease (IgG4-RD) is a chronic fibrotic inflammatory and an immune-mediated disease characterized by high serum IgG4 concentration and IgG4-bearing plasma cell infiltration in affected organs. IgG4-related periaortitis/periarteritis is a recently identified disease entity in IgG4-RD that affects the cardiovascular system, and its pathogenesis and characteristics remain unclear. The inflammatory cytokine IL-1β is involved in a variety of cellular activities including inflammation, fibrosis, and angiogenesis. The present study compared the levels of the inflammatory cytokine IL-1β and two soluble IL-1 receptors, IL-1R1 and IL-1R2, between IgG4-RD patients with and without IgG4-related periaortitis/periarteritis.

METHODS

The patients with IgG4-related periaortitis/periarteritis (n ​= ​38), those without (n ​= ​66) and healthy (n ​= ​33) were recruited to measure cytokines of IL-1β and soluble receptors (sIL-1R1 and sIL-1R2) in sera by ELISA assay.

RESULTS

Serum IgG4 was significantly higher in patients with periaortitis/periarteritis compared to non-periaortitis/periarteritis (p ​= ​0.0074), while serum IL-1β was significantly lower in patients with periaortitis/periarteritis (p ​= ​0.00037). The three groups did not show significant difference in sIL1-R1, while sIL-1R2 in the periaortitis/periarteritis and healthy group was higher than in the group without periaortitis/periarteritis (p ​= ​0.00001).

CONCLUSIONS

The characteristic changes in IL-1β, sIL-1R1, and sIL-1R2 levels in IgG4-RD patients with and without IgG4-related periaortitis/periarteritis may indicate an active phase of the inflammatory process in these diseases.

Optimization of IL-1RA structure to achieve a smaller protein with a higher affinity to its receptor

Interleukine-1 family cytokines are key orchestrators of innate and adaptive immunity. In particular, up-regulation of IL-1R1 via its agonistic ligands consisting of IL-1β and IL-1α is implicated in a variety of human diseases, such as rheumatoid arthritis, psoriasis, type I diabetes, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, and dry-eye disease. Until now, there are no small-molecule inhibitors of the IL-1R1 with increased antagonistic potency to be used for the treatment of peripheral inflammation. The objective of this study was to engineer a low-molecular-weight version of IL-1RA with increased affinity and enhanced antagonistic activity for potential therapeutic use. To develop a smaller protein–ligand with a better affinity to IL-1R, we used bioinformatics studies and in silico simulations to anticipate non-binding areas on IL-1RA. In this study, we have identified a 41aa (F57-F98) non-binding site of IL-1RA. Overall RMSF of the Truncated complex (1.5 nm) was lower than the Native complex (2 nm), which could prove higher stability of the Truncated complex. The free binding energy of the T-IL-1RA (− 1087.037 kJ/mol) was significantly lower than the IL-1RA (− 836.819 kJ/mol) which could demonstrate a higher binding affinity of the truncated ligand with its receptor as a result of new important interactions. These findings have demonstrated a higher binding affinity of the T-IL-1RA with its receptor than the native protein. These results should: have an impact on the development of new treatments that block IL-1 signaling, although more research is needed in vitro and in vivo.

Negative Regulation of the IL-1 System by IL-1R2 and IL-1R8: Relevance in Pathophysiology and Disease

Interleukin-1 (IL-1) is a primary cytokine of innate immunity and inflammation. IL-1 belongs to a complex family including ligands with agonist activity, receptor antagonists, and an anti-inflammatory cytokine. The receptors for these ligands, the IL-1 Receptor (IL-1R) family, include signaling receptor complexes, decoy receptors, and negative regulators. Agonists and regulatory molecules co-evolved, suggesting the evolutionary relevance of a tight control of inflammatory responses, which ensures a balance between amplification of innate immunity and uncontrolled inflammation. IL-1 family members interact with innate immunity cells promoting innate immunity, as well as with innate and adaptive lymphoid cells, contributing to their differentiation and functional polarization and plasticity. Here we will review the properties of two key regulatory receptors of the IL-1 system, IL-1R2, the first decoy receptor identified, and IL-1R8, a pleiotropic regulator of different IL-1 family members and co-receptor for IL-37, the anti-inflammatory member of the IL-1 family. Their complex impact in pathology, ranging from infections and inflammatory responses, to cancer and neurologic disorders, as well as clinical implications and potential therapeutic exploitation will be presented.

The roles of interleukin-1 receptor accessory protein in certain inflammatory conditions

Interleukin-1 receptor accessory protein (IL-1RAcP) is a member of the immunoglobulin superfamily proteins consisting of soluble and membranous isoforms. IL-1RAcP plays an essential role in the signaling of the IL-1 family cytokines such as IL-1, IL-33, and IL-36, as well as tyrosine kinases FLT3 and C-Kit. IL-1RAcP generally initiate inflammatory signaling pathway through the recruitment of signaling mediators, including MYD88 and IRAK. Chronic inflammation following prolonged signaling of cytokine receptors is a critical process in the pathogenesis of many inflammatory disorders, including autoimmunity, obesity, psoriasis, type 1 diabetes, endometriosis, preeclampsia and Alzheimer's disease. Recently IL-1RAcP aberrant signaling has been considered to play a central role in the pathogenesis of these chronic inflammatory diseases. Targeting IL-1RAcP signaling pathway that was recently considered in clinical trials related to malignancies, also indicates its potential as therapeutic target for the inflammatory and autoimmune diseases. This review summarizes the molecular structure, components associated with IL-1RAcP signaling pathways, and their involvement in the pathogenesis of different inflammatory diseases. We will also discuss the effect of IL-1RAcP inhibition for treatment proposes.

Neuroinflammation and Mitochondrial Dysfunction Link Social Stress to Depression

Major depressive disorder is a debilitating mental illness and a leading cause of global disease burden. While many etiological factors have been identified, social stress is a highly prevalent causative factor for the onset of depression. Unfortunately, rates of depression continue to increase around the world, and the recent COVID-19 pandemic has further exacerbated this mental health crisis. Though several therapeutic strategies are available, nearly 50% of patients who receive treatment never reach remission. The exact mechanisms by which social stress exposure promotes the development of depression are unclear, making it challenging to develop novel and more effective therapeutics. However, accumulating evidence points to a role for stress-induced neuroinflammation, particularly in treatment-resistant patients. Moreover, recent evidence has expanded the concept of the pathogenesis of depression to mitochondrial dysfunction, suggesting that the combined effects of social stress on mitochondria and inflammation may synergize to facilitate stress-related depression. In this chapter, we review evidence for neuroinflammation and mitochondrial dysfunction in the pathogenesis of social stress-induced depression and discuss these in the context of novel therapeutic targets for the treatment of depression.

The Impacts of IL1R1 and IL1R2 Genetic Variants on Rheumatoid Arthritis Risk in the Chinese Han Population: A Case-Control Study

Background

Rheumatoid arthritis (RA), an autoimmune systemic inflammatory disease, largely resulted from genetic factor. Our purpose was to explore the association for IL1R1 and IL1R2 genetic variants with RA susceptibility in the Chinese Han population.

Patients and Methods

A total of 508 RA patients and 494 controls were involved in this case–control study; single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) genotyping was identified by the Agena MassARRAY platform. The relationship between polymorphisms and RA susceptibility was calculated using the Pearson’s Chi-square test with odds ratios and 95% confidence intervals (CIs) in multiple genetic models. The Pearson’s Chi-square test and Student’s t-test were used for sample basic characteristic analysis. And linkage disequilibrium (LD) analysis and haplotype analysis were performed by logistic regression analysis.

Results

The result from this study showed that rs2072472 (IL1R2) was an increased risk factor of RA (adjusted OR = 1.41, p = 0.011). Stratified analysis indicated SNPs rs10490571, rs956730, rs3917318 of IL1R1, and SNPs rs4851527, rs719250, rs3218896, rs3218977, rs2072472 of IL1R2 had impacts on RA risk after stratification based on gender and average age (54 years). Finally, haplotype analysis revealed that A_rs3218977A_rs2072472 haplotype in IL1R2 was related to a decreased RA risk (adjusted OR = 0.79; 95% CI = 0.65–0.94; p = 0.010). Yet, rs3917225(IL1R1) and rs11674595(IL1R2) were not significant in RA association analysis.

Conclusion

We determined SNPs (rs3917318, rs956730, rs1049057) of IL1R1 and SNPs (rs3218977, rs719250, rs4851527, rs3218896, rs2072472) of IL1R2 were correlated with the RA susceptibility in the Chinese Han population.

Interleukin-1 in obesity-related low-grade inflammation: From molecular mechanisms to therapeutic strategies

Since adipose tissue (AT) can upregulate pro-inflammatory interleukins (ILs) via storing extra lipids in obesity, obesity is considered the leading cause of chronic low-grade inflammation. These ILs can pave the way for the infiltration of immune cells into the AT, ultimately resulting in low-grade inflammation and dysregulation of adipocytes. IL-1, which is divided into two subclasses, i.e., IL-1α and IL-1β, is a critical pro-inflammatory factor. In obesity, IL-1α and IL-1β can promote insulin resistance via impairing the function of adipocytes and promoting inflammation. The current study aims to review the detailed molecular mechanisms and the roles of IL-1α and IL-1β and their antagonist, interleukin-1 receptor antagonist(IL-1Ra), in developing obesity-related inflammatory complications, i.e., type II diabetes (T2D), non-alcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH), atherosclerosis, and cognitive disorders. Besides, the current study discusses the recent advances in natural drugs, synthetic agents, and gene therapy approaches to treat obesity-related inflammatory complications via suppressing IL-1.

IL-1R2 expression in human gastric cancer and its clinical significance

Background: Interleukin-1 receptor type II (IL-1R2), also known as CD121b, is a member of the IL-1 receptor family. IL-1R2 acts as negative regulator of the IL-1 system, modulating IL-1 availability for the signaling receptor. IL-1R2 is abnormally expressed in many human inflammatory diseases and cancers, and has important clinical significance. The present study was designed to investigate IL-1R2 expression in human gastric cancer (GC) tissues and the associated clinical implications. Methods: Immunohistochemistry was used to identify the clinical significance and prognostic value of IL-1R2 expression in GC tissues. We investigated IL-1R2 expression in GC tissues, cells, and serum using real-time PCR (RT-PCR) and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) assays. Results: IL-1R2 was highly expressed in GC tissues, and the overall survival in patients with advanced GC and high IL-1R2 expression was significantly poorer than that in patients with advanced GC and low IL-1R2 expression. Moreover, IL-1R2 mRNA levels in GC tissues and most GC cells were higher than those in para-cancer tissues and GES1 human gastric mucosal epithelial cells. The level of plasma-soluble IL-1R2 in GC patients was higher than that of the healthy control group. Conclusion: Increased IL-1R2 levels are involved in the initiation and progression of human GC, and IL-1R2 might be employed to develop immunotherapeutic approaches targeting GC.

IL-1 Family Antagonists in Mouse and Human Skin Inflammation

Interleukin (IL)-1 family cytokines initiate inflammatory responses, and shape innate and adaptive immunity. They play important roles in host defense, but excessive immune activation can also lead to the development of chronic inflammatory diseases. Dysregulated IL-1 family signaling is observed in a variety of skin disorders. In particular, IL-1 family cytokines have been linked to the pathogenesis of psoriasis and atopic dermatitis. The biological activity of pro-inflammatory IL-1 family agonists is controlled by the natural receptor antagonists IL-1Ra and IL-36Ra, as well as by the regulatory cytokines IL-37 and IL-38. These four anti-inflammatory IL-1 family members are constitutively and highly expressed at steady state in the epidermis, where keratinocytes are a major producing cell type. In this review, we provide an overview of the current knowledge concerning their regulatory roles in skin biology and inflammation and their therapeutic potential in human inflammatory skin diseases. We further highlight some common misunderstandings and less well-known observations, which persist in the field despite recent extensive interest for these cytokines.

The revisited role of interleukin-1 alpha and beta in autoimmune and inflammatory disorders and in comorbidities

The interleukin (IL) 1 family of cytokines is noteworthy to have pleiotropic functions in inflammation and acquired immunity. Over the last decades, several progresses have been made in understanding the function and regulation of the prototypical inflammatory cytokine (IL-1) in human diseases. IL-1α and IL-1β deregulated signaling causes devastating diseases manifested by severe acute or chronic inflammation. In this review, we examine and compare the key aspects of IL-1α and IL-1β biology and regulation and discuss their importance in the initiation and maintenance of inflammation that underlie the pathology of many human diseases. We also report the current and ongoing inhibitors of IL-1 signaling, targeting IL-1α, IL-1β, their receptor or other molecular compounds as effective strategies to prevent or treat the onset and progression of various inflammatory disorders.

Induction of the IL-1RII decoy receptor by NFAT/FOXP3 blocks IL-1β-dependent response of Th17 cells

Derived from a common precursor cell, the balance between Th17 and Treg cells must be maintained within immune system to prevent autoimmune diseases. IL-1β-mediated IL-1 receptor (IL-1R) signaling is essential for Th17-cell biology. Fine-tuning of IL-1R signaling is controlled by two receptors, IL-1RI and IL-RII, IL-1R accessory protein, and IL-1R antagonist. We demonstrate that the decoy receptor, IL-1RII, is important for regulating IL-17 responses in TCR-stimulated CD4⁺ T cells expressing functional IL-1RI via limiting IL-1β responsiveness. IL-1RII expression is regulated by NFAT via its interaction with Foxp3. The NFAT/FOXP3 complex binds to the IL-1RII promoter and is critical for its transcription. Additionally, IL-1RII expression is dysregulated in CD4⁺ T cells from patients with rheumatoid arthritis. Thus, differential expression of IL-1Rs on activated CD4⁺ T cells defines unique immunological features and a novel molecular mechanism underlies IL-1RII expression. These findings shed light on the modulatory effects of IL-1RII on Th17 responses.

Interleukin 1α: a comprehensive review on the role of IL-1α in the pathogenesis and treatment of autoimmune and inflammatory diseases

The interleukin (IL)-1 family member IL-1α is a ubiquitous and pivotal pro-inflammatory cytokine. The IL-1α precursor is constitutively present in nearly all cell types in health, but is released upon necrotic cell death as a bioactive mediator. IL-1α is also expressed by infiltrating myeloid cells within injured tissues. The cytokine binds the IL-1 receptor 1 (IL-1R1), as does IL-1β, and induces the same pro-inflammatory effects. Being a bioactive precursor released upon tissue damage and necrotic cell death, IL-1α is central to the pathogenesis of numerous conditions characterized by organ or tissue inflammation. These include conditions affecting the lung and respiratory tract, dermatoses and inflammatory skin disorders, systemic sclerosis, myocarditis, pericarditis, myocardial infarction, coronary artery disease, inflammatory thrombosis, as well as complex multifactorial conditions such as COVID-19, vasculitis and Kawasaki disease, Behcet's syndrome, Sjogren Syndrome, and cancer. This review illustrates the clinical relevance of IL-1α to the pathogenesis of inflammatory diseases, as well as the rationale for the targeted inhibition of this cytokine for treatment of these conditions. Three biologics are available to reduce the activities of IL-1α; the monoclonal antibody bermekimab, the IL-1 soluble receptor rilonacept, and the IL-1 receptor antagonist anakinra. These advances in mechanistic understanding and therapeutic management make it incumbent on physicians to be aware of IL-1α and of the opportunity for therapeutic inhibition of this cytokine in a broad spectrum of diseases.

Cell surface IL-1α trafficking is specifically inhibited by interferon-γ, and associates with the membrane via IL-1R2 and GPI anchors

IL-1 is a powerful cytokine that drives inflammation and modulates adaptive immunity. Both IL-1α and IL-1β are translated as proforms that require cleavage for full cytokine activity and release, while IL-1α is reported to occur as an alternative plasma membrane-associated form on many cell types. However, the existence of cell surface IL-1α (csIL-1α) is contested, how IL-1α tethers to the membrane is unknown, and signaling pathways controlling trafficking are not specified. Using a robust and fully validated system, we show that macrophages present bona fide csIL-1α after ligation of TLRs. Pro-IL-1α tethers to the plasma membrane in part through IL-1R2 or via association with a glycosylphosphatidylinositol-anchored protein, and can be cleaved, activated, and released by proteases. csIL-1α requires de novo protein synthesis and its trafficking to the plasma membrane is exquisitely sensitive to inhibition by IFN-γ, independent of expression level. We also reveal how prior csIL-1α detection could occur through inadvertent cell permeabilisation, and that senescent cells do not drive the senescent-associated secretory phenotype via csIL-1α, but rather via soluble IL-1α. We believe these data are important for determining the local or systemic context in which IL-1α can contribute to disease and/or physiological processes.

IL-36 family cytokines in protective versus destructive inflammation

The IL-1 family of cytokines and receptors are critical regulators of inflammation. Within the IL-1 family and in contrast to its IL-1 and IL-18 subfamilies, the IL-36 subfamily is still poorly characterized. Three pro-inflammatory agonists IL-36α, IL-36β, IL-36γ, one IL-36 receptor (IL-1R6) antagonist, IL-36RA, and one putative IL-1R6 antagonist, IL-38, have been grouped into the IL-36 cytokine subfamily. IL-36 agonists signal through a common receptor complex to serve as early triggers of inflammatory responses by activating and cross-regulating a number of inflammatory pathways including NF-κB, MAPK and IFN signaling. IL-36RA binds to IL-1R6 to limit inflammatory signaling, while IL-38 may be an antagonist of more than one IL-1 family receptor. Expression patterns of IL-36 family cytokines, being most prominently expressed in epithelial barrier tissues such as the skin and intestines as well as in immune cells, suggest a role in protecting these barriers from infection. Dysregulation of IL-36 family cytokine signaling at physiological barriers, most prominently the skin, induces autoimmune inflammation. However, transferring the potential of IL-36 to induce tissue damage to tumors might benefit cancer patients. Here we summarize signaling pathways regulated by IL-36 family cytokines, including IL-38, and the consequences for physiological protective and pathophysiological destructive inflammation. Moreover, we discuss the limits of current knowledge on IL-36 family function to open potential avenues for research in the future.

Platelet concentrate and type II IL-1 receptor are risk factors for allergic transfusion reactions in children

PURPOSE

Allergic transfusion reactions (ATRs) are immunological reactions after transfusion. Interleukin-1 (IL-1) is a critical regulator for human diseases. We performed this study to investigate the association of type II IL-1 decoy receptor (IL1R2) expression with ATRs in children.

METHODS

Children received blood transfusions between January and December 2019 were included. The age, sex, number and type of blood transfusion, allergic history, and medical history were collected and statistically analyzed. The blood samples were collected from children with and without ATRs for detecting the relative expression IL1R2 mRNA. Logistics regression analysis was performed to identify the risk factors for ATRs in children. The area under the receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve (AUC) was used to evaluate the predictive performance of risk factors.

RESULTS

Totally, 28,840 transfusions in 20,230 children, with 236 ATRs (0.82%) in 117 patients (0.58%) were included. ATRs were common in children at the hematology-oncology department, in children received higher number of blood transfusions, and older children. Platelet concentrate induced a higher incidence of ATRs (3.31%) than red cell concentrate (0.22%, p < 0.0001). After the transfusion, IL1R2 mRNA level was higher in the blood samples in children with ATRs than those without ATRs (p < 0.0001). Logistics regression analysis indicated that platelet concentrate (95% CI 3.555, 293.782) and IL1R2 expression (95% CI 1.171 × 10², 1.494 × 10⁴) were independent risk factors for ATRs in children. IL1R2 expression had high performance in predicting ATRs (AUC = 0.998, 100% sensitivity and 98.85% specificity).

CONCLUSION

High IL1R2 expression level in children who received blood transfusions may predict the morbidity of ATR.

Anorexic responses to trichothecene deoxynivalenol and its congeners correspond to secretion of tumor necrosis factor-α and interleukin-1β

Type B trichothecene mycotoxins comprise deoxynivalenol ("Vomitoxin", DON) and four structually related congeners: 15-acetyl- and 3-acetyl-deoxynivalenol (15-ADON and 3-ADON), nivalenol (NIV), 4-acetyl-nivalenol (fusarenon X, FX). These foodborne mycotoxins has been linked to food poisoning leading to anorexic response in human and several animal species. However, the pathophysiological basis for anorexic effect is relatively unclear. The goal of this research was to compare anorexic effect to type B trichothecenes and relate these effects to two common cytokines tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) and interleukin-1β (IL-1β) following oral and IP exposure. Both cytokines were increased within 1-2 h in plasma and returned to basal concentrations at 6 h following exposure to DON and ADONs. FX evoked both cytokines with initial time and duration at 1-2 h and > 6 h, respectively. Elevation of TNF-α and IL-1β induced by orally exposure to NIV did not occur until 2 h and recovered to basal concentrations at 6 h. Both cytokines were elevated at 1 h and lasted more than 6 h following IP exposure to NIV. Type B trichothecenes stimulated plasma secretion of both cytokines that were consistent with reduction of food intake. In conclusion, our findings demonstrate that TNF-α and IL-1β act critical roles in type B trichothecenes-induced anorexic response.

Cell-specific conditional deletion of interleukin-1 (IL-1) ligands and its receptors: a new toolbox to study the role of IL-1 in health and disease

The pro-inflammatory cytokine interleukin-1 (IL-1) plays a key role in many physiological processes and during the inflammatory and immune response to most common diseases. IL-1 exists as two agonists, IL-1α and IL-1β that bind to the only signaling IL-1 type 1 receptor (IL-1R1), while a second decoy IL-1 type 2 receptor (IL-1R2) binds both forms of IL-1 without inducing cell signaling. The field of immunology and inflammation research has, over the past 35 years, unraveled many mechanisms of IL-1 actions, through in vitro manipulation of the IL-1 system or by using genetically engineered mouse models that lack either member of the IL-1 family in ubiquitous constitutive manner. However, the limitation of global mouse knockout technology has significantly hampered our understanding of the precise mechanisms of IL-1 actions in animal models of disease. Here we report and review the recent generation of new conditional mouse mutants in which exons of Il1a, Il1b, Il1r1, and Il1r2 genes flanked by loxP sites (fl/fl) can be deleted in cell-/tissue-specific constitutive or inducible manner by Cre recombinase expression. Hence, IL-1αfl/fl, IL-1βfl/fl, IL-1R1fl/fl, and IL-1R2fl/fl mice constitute a new toolbox that will provide a step change in our understanding of the cell-specific role of IL-1 and its receptor in health and disease and the potential development of targeted IL-1 therapies.

Regional transcriptional architecture of Parkinson's disease pathogenesis and network spread

Although a significant genetic contribution to the risk of developing sporadic Parkinson's disease has been well described, the relationship between local genetic factors, pathogenesis, and subsequent spread of pathology throughout the brain has been largely unexplained in humans. To address this question, we use network diffusion modelling to infer probable pathology seed regions and patterns of disease spread from MRI atrophy maps derived from 232 de novo subjects in the Parkinson's Progression Markers Initiative study. Allen Brain Atlas regional transcriptional profiles of 67 Parkinson's disease risk factor genes were mapped to the inferred seed regions to determine the local influence of genetic risk factors. We used hierarchical clustering and L1 regularized regression analysis to show that transcriptional profiles of immune-related and lysosomal risk factor genes predict seed region location and the pattern of disease propagation from the most likely seed region, substantia nigra. By leveraging recent advances in transcriptomics, we show that regional microglial abundance quantified by high fidelity gene expression also predicts seed region location. These findings suggest that early disease sites are genetically susceptible to dysfunctional lysosomal α-synuclein processing and microglia-mediated neuroinflammation, which may initiate the disease process and contribute to spread of pathology along neural connectivity pathways.

Increase in the Number of Bone Marrow Osteoclast Precursors at Different Skeletal Sites, Particularly in Long Bone and Jaw Marrow in Mice Lacking IL-1RA

Recently, it was shown that interleukin-1β (IL-1β) has diverse stimulatory effects on different murine long bone marrow osteoclast precursors (OCPs) in vitro. In this study, interleukin-1 receptor antagonist deficient (Il1rn^-/-) and wild-type (WT) mice were compared to investigate the effects of enhanced IL-1 signaling on the composition of OCPs in long bone, calvaria, vertebra, and jaw. Bone marrow cells were isolated from these sites and the percentage of early blast (CD31^hi Ly-6C^-), myeloid blast (CD31⁺ Ly-6C⁺), and monocyte (CD31^- Ly-6C^hi) OCPs was assessed by flow cytometry. At the time-point of cell isolation, Il1rn^-/- mice showed no inflammation or bone destruction yet as determined by histology and microcomputed tomography. However, Il1rn^-/- mice had an approximately two-fold higher percentage of OCPs in long bone and jaw marrow compared to WT. Conversely, vertebrae and calvaria marrow contained a similar composition of OCPs in both strains. Bone marrow cells were cultured with macrophage colony stimulating factor (M-CSF) and receptor of NfκB ligand (RANKL) on bone slices to assess osteoclastogenesis and on calcium phosphate-coated plates to analyze mineral dissolution. Deletion of Il1rn increased osteoclastogenesis from long bone, calvaria, and jaw marrows, and all Il1rn^-/- cultures showed increased mineral dissolution compared to WT. However, osteoclast markers increased exclusively in Il1rn^-/- osteoclasts from long bone and jaw. Collectively, these findings indicate that a lack of IL-1RA increases the numbers of OCPs in vivo, particularly in long bone and jaw, where rheumatoid arthritis and periodontitis develop. Thus, increased bone loss at these sites may be triggered by a larger pool of OCPs due to the disruption of IL-1 inhibitors.

Recirculating IL-1R2+ Tregs fine-tune intrathymic Treg development under inflammatory conditions

The vast majority of Foxp3⁺ regulatory T cells (Tregs) are generated in the thymus, and several factors, such as cytokines and unique thymic antigen-presenting cells, are known to contribute to the development of these thymus-derived Tregs (tTregs). Here, we report the existence of a specific subset of Foxp3⁺ Tregs within the thymus that is characterized by the expression of IL-1R2, which is a decoy receptor for the inflammatory cytokine IL-1. Detailed flow cytometric analysis of the thymocytes from Foxp3^hCD2xRAG1^GFP reporter mice revealed that the IL-1R2⁺ Tregs are mainly RAG1^GFP- and CCR6⁺CCR7^-, demonstrating that these Tregs are recirculating cells entering the thymus from the periphery and that they have an activated phenotype. In the spleen, the majority of IL-1R2⁺ Tregs express neuropilin-1 (Nrp-1) and Helios, suggesting a thymic origin for these Tregs. Interestingly, among all tissues studied, the highest frequency of IL-1R2⁺ Tregs was observed in the thymus, indicating preferential recruitment of this Treg subset by the thymus. Using fetal thymic organ cultures (FTOCs), we demonstrated that increased concentrations of exogenous IL-1β blocked intrathymic Treg development, resulting in a decreased frequency of CD25⁺Foxp3⁺ tTregs and an accumulation of CD25⁺Foxp3^- Treg precursors. Interestingly, the addition of IL-1R2⁺ Tregs, but not IL-1R2^- Tregs, to reaggregated thymic organ cultures (RTOCs) abrogated the IL-1β-mediated blockade, demonstrating that these recirculating IL-1R2⁺ Tregs can quench IL-1 signaling in the thymus and thereby maintain thymic Treg development even under inflammatory conditions.

Functional Relevance of Interleukin-1 Receptor Inter-domain Flexibility for Cytokine Binding and Signaling

The interleukin 1 (IL-1) receptor family, whose members contain three immunoglobulin-like domains (D1-D3) in the extracellular region, is responsible for transmitting pleiotropic signals of IL-1 cytokines. The inter-domain flexibility of IL-1 receptors and its functional roles have not been fully elucidated. In this study, we used small-angle X-ray scattering to show that ligand-binding primary receptors and co-receptors in the family all have inherent inter-domain flexibility due to the D2/D3 linker. Variants of the IL-1RAcP and IL-18Rβ co-receptors with mutated D2/D3 linkers cannot form a cytokine-receptor complex and mediate signaling. Our analysis further revealed that these mutated co-receptors exhibited a changed conformational ensemble, suggesting that loss of function is due to the alteration of receptor dynamics. Taken together, our results demonstrate that the D2/D3 linker is a critical functional determinant of IL-1 receptor and underscore the important roles of the inter-domain flexibility in cytokine/receptor binding and signaling.

Structural Basis of IL-1 Family Cytokine Signaling

Interleukin-1 (IL-1) family cytokines are key signaling molecules in both the innate and adaptive immune systems, mediating inflammation in response to a wide range of stimuli. The basic mechanism of signal initiation is a stepwise process in which an agonist cytokine binds its cognate receptor. Together, this cytokine-receptor complex recruits an often-common secondary receptor. Intracellularly, the Toll/IL-1 Receptor (TIR) domains of the two receptors are brought into close proximity, initiating an NF-κB signal transduction cascade. Due to the potent inflammatory response invoked by IL-1 family cytokines, several physiological mechanisms exist to inhibit IL-1 family signaling, including antagonist cytokines and decoy receptors. The numerous cytokines and receptors in the IL-1 superfamily are further classified into four subfamilies, dependent on their distinct cognate receptors—the IL-1, IL-33, and IL-36 subfamilies share IL-1RAcP as their secondary receptor, while IL-18 subfamily utilizes a distinct secondary receptor. Here, we describe how structural biology has informed our understanding of IL-1 family cytokine signaling, with a particular focus on molecular mechanisms of signaling complex formation and antagonism at the atomic level, as well as how these findings have advanced therapeutics to treat some chronic inflammatory diseases that are the result of dysregulated IL-1 signaling.

Divergent Roles for the IL-1 Family in Gastrointestinal Homeostasis and Inflammation

Inflammatory disorders of the gastro-intestinal tract are a major cause of morbidity and significant burden from a health and economic perspective in industrialized countries. While the incidence of such conditions has a strong environmental component, in particular dietary composition, epidemiological studies have identified specific hereditary mutations which result in disequilibrium between pro- and anti-inflammatory factors. The IL-1 super-family of cytokines and receptors is highly pleiotropic and plays a fundamental role in the pathogenesis of several auto-inflammatory conditions including rheumatoid arthritis, multiple sclerosis and psoriasis. However, the role of this super-family in the etiology of inflammatory bowel diseases remains incompletely resolved despite extensive research. Herein, we highlight the currently accepted paradigms as they pertain to specific IL-1 family members and focus on some recently described non-classical roles for these pathways in the gastrointestinal tract. Finally, we address some of the shortcomings and sources of variance in the field which to date have yielded several conflicting results from similar studies and discuss the potential effect of these factors on data interpretation.

Attributes of alternatively activated (M2) macrophages

Macrophages are cells of innate immunity and are derived from circulating monocytes and embryonic yolk sac. They exhibit high plasticity and polarize functionally in response to stimulus triggering it into classically activated M1 macrophages and alternatively activated M2 macrophages. This review summarizes markers of M2 macrophages like transmembrane surface receptors and signaling cascades initiated on their activation; cytokine and chemokine repertoires along with their receptors; and genetic markers and their involvement in immunomodulation. The detailed discussion emphasizes the role of these markers in imparting functional benefits to this subset of macrophages which define their venture in various physiological and pathological conditions.

Influence of IL-1R2 polymorphisms on endometrial cancer susceptibility in the Chinese Han population

Background

Recently, many studies have identified that genetic factor plays a crucial role in endometrial cancer development. The purpose of this study is to investigate the influence of single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) of IL‐1R2 on endometrial cancer susceptibility.

Methods

We performed a case‐control study that included 293 patients with endometrial cancer and 579 healthy controls. Six SNPs in the IL‐1R2 gene were genotyped using the Agena MassARRAY platform. Genetic models and haplotype analyses were used to assess the association between SNPs and endometrial cancer risk by computing odds ratios (ORs) and 95% confidence intervals (CIs).

Results

Overall analysis results found that two SNPs (rs4851527 and rs3218896) and haplotypes TGTC and TACT were significantly associated with endometrial cancer risk. Stratified analysis by age showed that rs2072472 was associated with endometrial cancer risk in age >54 subgroup.

Conclusions

These findings suggested that IL‐1R2 polymorphisms may contribute to the development of endometrial cancer. Further studies are required to confirm the results.

Interleukin-1 alpha increases anti-tumor efficacy of cetuximab in head and neck squamous cell carcinoma

BACKGROUND

Despite the high prevalence of epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) overexpression in head and neck squamous cell carcinomas (HNSCCs), incorporation of the EGFR inhibitor cetuximab into the clinical management of HNSCC has not led to significant changes in long-term survival outcomes. Therefore, the identification of novel therapeutic approaches to enhance the clinical efficacy of cetuximab could lead to improved long-term survival for HNSCC patients. Our previous work suggests that EGFR inhibition activates the interleukin-1 (IL-1) pathway via tumor release of IL-1 alpha (IL-1α), although the clinical implications of activating this pathway are unclear in the context of cetuximab therapy. Given the role of IL-1 signaling in anti-tumor immune response, we hypothesized that increases in IL-1α levels would enhance tumor response to cetuximab.

METHODS

Parental and stable myeloid differentiation primary response gene 88 (MyD88) and IL-1 receptor 1 (IL-1R1) knockdown HNSCC cell lines, an IL-1R antagonist (IL-1RA), neutralizing antibodies to IL-1α and IL-1β, and recombinant IL-1α and IL-1β were used to determine cytokine production (using ELISA) in response to cetuximab in vitro. IL-1 pathway modulation in mouse models was accomplished by administration of IL-1RA, stable overexpression of IL-1α in SQ20B cells, administration of rIL-1α, and administration of a polyanhydride nanoparticle formulation of IL-1α. CD4⁺ and CD8⁺ T cell-depleting antibodies were used to understand the contribution of T cell-dependent anti-tumor immune responses. Baseline serum levels of IL-1α were measured using ELISA from HNSCC patients treated with cetuximab-based therapy and analyzed for association with progression free survival (PFS).

RESULTS

Cetuximab induced pro-inflammatory cytokine secretion from HNSCC cells in vitro which was mediated by an IL-1α/IL-1R1/MyD88-dependent signaling pathway. IL-1 signaling blockade did not affect the anti-tumor efficacy of cetuximab, while increased IL-1α expression using polyanhydride nanoparticles in combination with cetuximab safely and effectively induced a T cell-dependent anti-tumor immune response. Detectable baseline serum levels of IL-1α were associated with a favorable PFS in cetuximab-based therapy-treated HNSCC patients compared to HNSCC patients with undetectable levels.

CONCLUSIONS

Altogether, these results suggest that IL-1α in combination with cetuximab can induce a T cell-dependent anti-tumor immune response and may represent a novel immunotherapeutic strategy for EGFR-positive HNSCCs.

Embryonic and postnatal tendon cells respond differently to interleukin-1β

Adult tendons heal as scar tissue, whereas embryonic tendons heal scarlessly via unknown mechanisms. Scarred tendon healing results from inflammation-driven imbalances in anabolic and catabolic functions. To test scarless versus scarring age tendon cell responses to inflammatory conditions, we treated embryonic and postnatal tendon cells with interleukin (IL)-1β and characterized expression of collagens, matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs), inflammatory mediators, and phosphorylation of signaling molecules. At baseline, postnatal cells expressed significantly higher levels of inflammatory mediators. When treated with IL-1β, both postnatal and embryonic cells upregulated inflammatory mediators and MMPs. Notably, postnatal cells secreted inflammatory factors up to 12.5 times the concentration in embryonic cultures. IL-1β activated NF-κB p65 and p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) pathways in both cell types, but phosphorylated p38 MAPK levels were two times higher in postnatal than embryonic cells. Our results suggest that scarred healing tendon cells respond to proinflammatory cytokines by promoting an imbalance in anabolic and catabolic functions, and that the heightened response involves p38 MAPK signaling activity. In contrast, embryonic cell responses are smaller in magnitude. These intriguing findings support a potential role for tendon cells in determining scarless versus scarred healing outcomes by regulating the balance between anabolic and catabolic functions during tendon healing.

A novel mechanism for the protection of embryonic stem cell derived tenocytes from inflammatory cytokine interleukin 1 beta

Interleukin 1β (IL-1β) is upregulated following tendon injury. Here we demonstrate that in adult and fetal tenocytes IL-1β increases the expression of matrix metalloproteinases, tenascin-C and Sox9 and decreases the expression of scleraxis and cartilage oligomeric matrix protein. When cultured in 3-dimensional collagen gels adult and fetal tenocytes exposed to IL-1β have reduced contraction ability and generate tendon-like constructs with a lower storage modulus. In contrast, equine embryonic stem cell (ESC) derived tenocytes exposed to IL-1β exhibit no changes in gene expression and generate identical tendon-like constructs. We propose that ESC-derived tenocytes do not respond to IL-1β due to their low expression of interleukin 1 (IL-1) receptor 1 and high expression of the decoy receptor IL-1 receptor 2 and IL-1 receptor antagonist protein (IL1Ra). This may make ESC-derived tenocytes an advantageous source of cells for tissue regeneration and allow the development of novel pharmaceutical interventions to protect endogenous cells from inflammation.

Inflammasome-Dependent Cytokines at the Crossroads of Health and Autoinflammatory Disease

As key regulators of both innate and adaptive immunity, it is unsurprising that the activity of interleukin (IL)-1 cytokine family members is tightly controlled by decoy receptors, antagonists, and a variety of other mechanisms. Additionally, inflammasome-mediated proteolytic maturation is a prominent and distinguishing feature of two important members of this cytokine family, IL-1β and IL-18, because their full-length gene products are biologically inert. Although vital in antimicrobial host defense, deregulated inflammasome signaling is linked with a growing number of autoimmune and autoinflammatory diseases. Here, we focus on introducing the diverse inflammasome types and discussing their causal roles in periodic fever syndromes. Therapies targeting IL-1 or IL-18 show great efficacy in some of these autoinflammatory diseases, although further understanding of the molecular mechanisms leading to unregulated production of these key cytokines is required to benefit more patients.

Regulation of IL-1 signaling by the decoy receptor IL-1R2

The pleiotropic cytokine IL-1 mediates its biological functions via association with the signaling receptor IL-1R1. Despite an apparent simplicity in IL-1 signaling activation, multiple negative regulators have been identified. The decoy receptor IL-1R2 (also known as CD121b) can suppress IL-1 maturation, sequester its active forms or hinder the signaling complex assembly. IL-1R2 is differentially expressed among numerous cell types and displays cis- and trans- modes of action. In this review, we link different forms of IL-1R2 (membrane-bound (mIL-1R2), secreted (sIL-1R2), shedded (shIL-1R2), cytoplasmic, and intracellular domain (IL-1R2^ICD) restricted) with their ability to interfere with IL-1, thereby regulating immune responses. We also discuss the intriguing possible function of IL-1R2 as a transcriptional regulator. Finally, we summarize the known impact of IL-1R2 in disease pathogenesis and discuss its potential role in treatment of inflammatory conditions.

Interleukin-1 Beta-A Friend or Foe in Malignancies?

Interleukin-1 beta (IL-1β) is induced by inflammatory signals in a broad number of immune cell types. IL-1β (and IL-18) are the only cytokines which are processed by caspase-1 after inflammasome-mediated activation. This review aims to summarize current knowledge about parameters of regulation of IL-1β expression and its multi-facetted role in pathophysiological conditions. IL-1 signaling activates innate immune cells including antigen presenting cells, and drives polarization of CD4+ T cells towards T helper type (Th) 1 and Th17 cells. Therefore, IL-1β has been attributed a largely beneficial role in resolving acute inflammations, and by initiating adaptive anti-tumor responses. However, IL-1β generated in the course of chronic inflammation supports tumor development. Furthermore, IL-1β generated within the tumor microenvironment predominantly by tumor-infiltrating macrophages promotes tumor growth and metastasis via different mechanisms. These include the expression of IL-1 targets which promote neoangiogenesis and of soluble mediators in cancer-associated fibroblasts that evoke antiapoptotic signaling in tumor cells. Moreover, IL-1 promotes the propagation of myeloid-derived suppressor cells. Using genetic mouse models as well as agents for pharmacological inhibition of IL-1 signaling therapeutically applied for treatment of IL-1 associated autoimmune diseases indicate that IL-1β is a driver of tumor induction and development.

The family of the interleukin-1 receptors

The extracellular forms of the IL-1 cytokines are active through binding to specific receptors on the surface of target cells. IL-1 ligands bind to the extracellular portion of their ligand-binding receptor chain. For signaling to take place, a non-binding accessory chain is recruited into a heterotrimeric complex. The intracellular approximation of the Toll-IL-1-receptor (TIR) domains of the 2 receptor chains is the event that initiates signaling. The family of IL-1 receptors (IL-1R) includes 10 structurally related members, and the distantly related soluble protein IL-18BP that acts as inhibitor of the cytokine IL-18. Over the years the receptors of the IL-1 family have been known with many different names, with significant confusion. Thus, we will use here a recently proposed unifying nomenclature. The family includes several ligand-binding chains (IL-1R1, IL-1R2, IL-1R4, IL-1R5, and IL-1R6), 2 types of accessory chains (IL-1R3, IL-1R7), molecules that act as inhibitors of signaling (IL-1R2, IL-1R8, IL-18BP), and 2 orphan receptors (IL-1R9, IL-1R10). In this review, we will examine how the receptors of the IL-1 family regulate the inflammatory and anti-inflammatory functions of the IL-1 cytokines and are, more at large, involved in modulating defensive and pathological innate immunity and inflammation. Regulation of the IL-1/IL-1R system in the brain will be also described, as an example of the peculiarities of organ-specific modulation of inflammation.

Tuning inflammation and immunity by the negative regulators IL-1R2 and IL-1R8

Interleukin-1 receptor family members (ILRs) and Toll-Like Receptors (TLRs) are key players in immunity and inflammation and are tightly regulated at different levels. Most cell types, including cells of the innate and adaptive immune system express ILRs and TLRs. In addition, IL-1 family members are emerging as key players in the differentiation and function of innate and adaptive lymphoid cells. IL-1R2 and IL-1R8 (also known as TIR8 or SIGIRR) are members of the ILR family acting as negative regulators of the IL-1 system. IL-1R2 binds IL-1 and the accessory protein IL-1RAcP without activating signaling and can be released as a soluble form (sIL-1R2), thus modulating IL-1 availability for the signaling receptor. IL-1R8 dampens ILR- and TLR-mediated cell activation and it is a component of the receptor recognizing human IL-37. Here, we summarize our current understanding of the structure and function of IL-1R2 and IL-1R8, focusing on their role in different pathological conditions, ranging from infectious and sterile inflammation, to autoimmunity and cancer-related inflammation. We also address the emerging evidence regarding the role of IL-1R8 as a crucial checkpoint molecule in NK cells in anti-cancer and antiviral activity and the potential therapeutic implications of IL-1R8 blockade in specific pathological contexts.

Under control: The innate immunity of fish from the inhibitors' perspective

The innate immune response involves a concerted network of induced gene products, preformed immune effectors, biochemical signalling cascades and specialised cells. However, the multifaceted activation of these defensive measures can derail or overshoot and, if left unchecked, overwhelm the host. A plenty of regulatory devices therefore mediate the fragile equilibrium between pathogen defence and pathophysiological manifestations. Over the past decade in particular, an almost complete set of teleostean sequences orthologous to mammalian immunoregulatory factors has been identified in various fish species, which prove the remarkable conservation of innate immune-control concepts among vertebrates. This review will present the current knowledge on more than 50 teleostean regulatory factors (plus additional fish-specific paralogs) that are of paramount importance for controlling the clotting cascade, the complement system, pattern-recognition pathways and cytokine-signalling networks. A special focus lies on those immunoregulatory features that have emerged as potential biomarker genes in transcriptome-wide research studies. Moreover, we report on the latest progress in elucidating control elements that act directly with immune-gene-encoding nucleic acids, such as transcription factors, hormone receptors and micro- and long noncoding RNAs. Investigations into the function of teleostean inhibitory factors are still mainly based on gene-expression profiling or overexpression studies. However, in support of structural and in-vitro analyses, evidence from in-vivo trials is also available and revealed many biochemical details on piscine immune regulation. The presence of multiple gene copies in fish adds a degree of complexity, as it is so far hardly understood if they might play distinct roles during inflammation. The present review addresses this and other open questions that should be tackled by fish immunologists in future.

Involvement of prolactin in the meloxicam-dependent inflammatory response of the gonadotropic axis to prolonged lipopolysaccharide treatment in anoestrous ewes

An immune challenge can affect the reproductive process in females. Peripheral administration of bacterial endotoxin (lipopolysaccharide; LPS) decreases LH secretion and disrupts ovarian cyclicity. The aim of the present study was to determine the effects of a cyclo-oxygenase (COX)-2 inhibitor (meloxicam) on gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) and LH secretion in anoestrous ewes during systemic inflammation induced by LPS. LPS (400ngkg^-1 per day) suppressed LH release. In three individuals, meloxicam (500μgkg^-1, i.v.) abolished LPS-induced LH suppression. In another three ewes LH was ineffective. Similar changes were observed in hypothalamic GnRH expression. The effect of meloxicam depended on the circulating level of prolactin: meloxicam abolished inflammatory-dependent suppression of GnRH and LH secretion when plasma prolactin levels were similar to those in untreated animals, but was ineffective in those with elevated levels of prolactin. We conclude that COX-2 inhibitors minimise the negative effect of inflammation on the reproductive system but that this effect may be antagonised by prolactin.

Could the inhibition of IL-17 or IL-18 be a potential therapeutic opportunity for gastric cancer?

Chronic inflammation is recognized as a key tumor-promoting factor in a number of epithelial cancers, including gastric cancer (GC). The production of pro-inflammatory cytokines in the tumor microenvironment by both the innate and the adaptive immune response can activate signaling pathways that are associated with increased cell survival and proliferation of cancer cells. Among the cytokines that have most commonly been linked to inflammation-associated cancers, are the Th17 cell-associated cytokines IL-17A, IL-23, IL-22, and the IL-1 family members IL-1β and IL-18. However, whether their contribution to inflammation-associated cancers is universal, or specific to individual types of cancers, remains to be elucidated. This review will explore our current understanding of the known roles of these cytokines in gastritis and discuss how their therapeutic inhibition may be useful for GC.