1
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Aubert A, Jung K, Hiroyasu S, Pardo J, Granville DJ. Granzyme serine proteases in inflammation and rheumatic diseases. Nat Rev Rheumatol 2024:10.1038/s41584-024-01109-5. [PMID: 38689140 DOI: 10.1038/s41584-024-01109-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 03/15/2024] [Indexed: 05/02/2024]
Abstract
Granzymes (granule-secreted enzymes) are a family of serine proteases that have been viewed as redundant cytotoxic enzymes since their discovery more than 30 years ago. Predominantly produced by cytotoxic lymphocytes and natural killer cells, granzymes are delivered into the cytoplasm of target cells through immunological synapses in cooperation with the pore-forming protein perforin. After internalization, granzymes can initiate cell death through the cleavage of intracellular substrates. However, evidence now also demonstrates the existence of non-cytotoxic, pro-inflammatory, intracellular and extracellular functions that are granzyme specific. Under pathological conditions, granzymes can be produced and secreted extracellularly by immune cells as well as by non-immune cells. Depending on the granzyme, accumulation in the extracellular milieu might contribute to inflammation, tissue injury, impaired wound healing, barrier dysfunction, osteoclastogenesis and/or autoantigen generation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexandre Aubert
- International Collaboration on Repair Discoveries (ICORD) Centre; British Columbia Professional Firefighters' Burn and Wound Healing Group, Vancouver Coastal Health Research Institute; Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada
| | - Karen Jung
- International Collaboration on Repair Discoveries (ICORD) Centre; British Columbia Professional Firefighters' Burn and Wound Healing Group, Vancouver Coastal Health Research Institute; Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada
| | - Sho Hiroyasu
- Department of Dermatology, Osaka Metropolitan University Graduate School of Medicine, Osaka, Japan
| | - Julian Pardo
- Fundación Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria Aragón (IIS Aragón), Biomedical Research Centre of Aragon (CIBA); Department of Microbiology, Radiology, Paediatrics and Public Health, University of Zaragoza, Zaragoza, Spain
- CIBER de Enfermedades Infecciosas, Instituto de Salud Carlos III, Madrid, Spain
| | - David J Granville
- International Collaboration on Repair Discoveries (ICORD) Centre; British Columbia Professional Firefighters' Burn and Wound Healing Group, Vancouver Coastal Health Research Institute; Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada.
- Centre for Heart Lung Innovation, Providence Research, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada.
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2
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Planas R, Felber M, Vavassori S, Pachlopnik Schmid J. The hyperinflammatory spectrum: from defects in cytotoxicity to cytokine control. Front Immunol 2023; 14:1163316. [PMID: 37187762 PMCID: PMC10175623 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2023.1163316] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/10/2023] [Accepted: 04/11/2023] [Indexed: 05/17/2023] Open
Abstract
Cytotoxic lymphocytes kill target cells through polarized release of the content of cytotoxic granules towards the target cell. The importance of this cytotoxic pathway in immune regulation is evidenced by the severe and often fatal condition, known as hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis (HLH) that occurs in mice and humans with inborn errors of lymphocyte cytotoxic function. The clinical and preclinical data indicate that the damage seen in severe, virally triggered HLH is due to an overwhelming immune system reaction and not the direct effects of the virus per se. The main HLH-disease mechanism, which links impaired cytotoxicity to excessive release of pro-inflammatory cytokines is a prolongation of the synapse time between the cytotoxic effector cell and the target cell, which prompts the former to secrete larger amounts of cytokines (including interferon gamma) that activate macrophages. We and others have identified novel genetic HLH spectrum disorders. In the present update, we position these newly reported molecular causes, including CD48-haploinsufficiency and ZNFX1-deficiency, within the pathogenic pathways that lead to HLH. These genetic defects have consequences on the cellular level on a gradient model ranging from impaired lymphocyte cytotoxicity to intrinsic activation of macrophages and virally infected cells. Altogether, it is clear that target cells and macrophages may play an independent role and are not passive bystanders in the pathogenesis of HLH. Understanding these processes which lead to immune dysregulation may pave the way to novel ideas for medical intervention in HLH and virally triggered hypercytokinemia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Raquel Planas
- Division of Immunology, University Children’s Hospital Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
- Department of Cell Biology, Physiology and Immunology, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Matthias Felber
- Division of Immunology, University Children’s Hospital Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Stefano Vavassori
- Division of Immunology, University Children’s Hospital Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Jana Pachlopnik Schmid
- Division of Immunology, University Children’s Hospital Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
- Pediatric Immunology, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
- *Correspondence: Jana Pachlopnik Schmid,
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3
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Studying the Anticancer Effects of Thymoquinone on Breast Cancer Cells through Natural Killer Cell Activity. BIOMED RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2022; 2022:9218640. [PMID: 36199754 PMCID: PMC9527111 DOI: 10.1155/2022/9218640] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/26/2022] [Revised: 08/22/2022] [Accepted: 08/24/2022] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Cancer immunotherapy is quickly growing and can now be viewed as the “fifth column” of cancer treatment. In addition, cancer immunotherapy has shown promising results with different kinds of cancers and may be used as a complementary therapy with various types of treatments. Thus, “immuno-oncology” is showing astounding advantages. However, one of the main challenges that face this type of therapy is that cancer cells can evade immune system elimination through different mechanisms. Many studies were done to overcome this issue including adding immune stimulants to generate synergistic effects or by genetically modifying NK cells themselves to be stronger and more resistant. Nigella sativa, also known as black cumin, is a well-known example of a widely applicable herbal medicine. It can effectively treat a variety of diseases, such as hypertension, diabetes, bronchitis, gastrointestinal upset, and cancer. The anticancer qualities of Nigella sativa appear to be mediated by an immune-modulatory effect that stimulates human natural killer (NK) cells. These are a type of lymphocyte and first line of defense against pathogens. Objectives. In this study, we investigated the therapeutic effect of thymoquinone, a major component of Nigella sativa, on the cytotoxic pathways of NK cells. Methods. NK cells were cultured with breast cancer cell line Michigan Cancer Foundation-7 (MCF-7); and were treated with Thymoquinone. The cytotoxicity of NK cells on cancer cells was measured. The cultured media were then collected and measured via enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) for concentrations of perforin, granzyme B and interferon-α (IFN-α). Results. The cytotoxic effect of NK cells on tumor cells was increased in the presence of thymoquinone, with an increased release of perforin, granzyme B, and IFN-α. Conclusion. Thymoquinone promotes the cytotoxic activity of NK cells against breast cancer MCF-7 cells.
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4
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Rawle DJ, Le TT, Dumenil T, Bishop C, Yan K, Nakayama E, Bird PI, Suhrbier A. Widespread discrepancy in Nnt genotypes and genetic backgrounds complicates granzyme A and other knockout mouse studies. eLife 2022; 11:e70207. [PMID: 35119362 PMCID: PMC8816380 DOI: 10.7554/elife.70207] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/10/2021] [Accepted: 01/10/2022] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Granzyme A (GZMA) is a serine protease secreted by cytotoxic lymphocytes, with Gzma-/- mouse studies having informed our understanding of GZMA's physiological function. We show herein that Gzma-/- mice have a mixed C57BL/6J and C57BL/6N genetic background and retain the full-length nicotinamide nucleotide transhydrogenase (Nnt) gene, whereas Nnt is truncated in C57BL/6J mice. Chikungunya viral arthritis was substantially ameliorated in Gzma-/- mice; however, the presence of Nnt and the C57BL/6N background, rather than loss of GZMA expression, was responsible for this phenotype. A new CRISPR active site mutant C57BL/6J GzmaS211A mouse provided the first insights into GZMA's bioactivity free of background issues, with circulating proteolytically active GZMA promoting immune-stimulating and pro-inflammatory signatures. Remarkably, k-mer mining of the Sequence Read Archive illustrated that ≈27% of Run Accessions and ≈38% of BioProjects listing C57BL/6J as the mouse strain had Nnt sequencing reads inconsistent with a C57BL/6J genetic background. Nnt and C57BL/6N background issues have clearly complicated our understanding of GZMA and may similarly have influenced studies across a broad range of fields.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel J Rawle
- QIMR Berghofer Medical Research InstituteBrisbaneAustralia
| | - Thuy T Le
- QIMR Berghofer Medical Research InstituteBrisbaneAustralia
| | - Troy Dumenil
- QIMR Berghofer Medical Research InstituteBrisbaneAustralia
| | - Cameron Bishop
- QIMR Berghofer Medical Research InstituteBrisbaneAustralia
| | - Kexin Yan
- QIMR Berghofer Medical Research InstituteBrisbaneAustralia
| | - Eri Nakayama
- QIMR Berghofer Medical Research InstituteBrisbaneAustralia
- Department of Virology I, National Institute of Infectious DiseasesTokyoJapan
| | - Phillip I Bird
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Biomedicine Discovery Institute, Monash UniversityMelbourneAustralia
| | - Andreas Suhrbier
- QIMR Berghofer Medical Research InstituteBrisbaneAustralia
- Australian Infectious Disease Research Centre, GVN Center of ExcellenceBrisbaneAustralia
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5
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Papadogianni G, Ravens I, Dittrich-Breiholz O, Bernhardt G, Georgiev H. Impact of Aging on the Phenotype of Invariant Natural Killer T Cells in Mouse Thymus. Front Immunol 2020; 11:575764. [PMID: 33193368 PMCID: PMC7662090 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2020.575764] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/24/2020] [Accepted: 10/12/2020] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Invariant natural killer T (iNKT) cells represent a subclass of T cells possessing a restricted repertoire of T cell receptors enabling them to recognize lipid derived ligands. iNKT cells are continuously generated in thymus and differentiate into three main subpopulations: iNKT1, iNKT2, and iNKT17 cells. We investigated the transcriptomes of these subsets comparing cells isolated from young adult (6–10 weeks old) and aged BALB/c mice (25–30 weeks of age) in order to identify genes subject to an age-related regulation of expression. These time points were selected to take into consideration the consequences of thymic involution that radically alter the existing micro-milieu. Significant differences were detected in the expression of histone genes affecting all iNKT subsets. Also the proliferative capacity of iNKT cells decreased substantially upon aging. Several genes were identified as possible candidates causing significant age-dependent changes in iNKT cell generation and/or function such as genes coding for granzyme A, ZO-1, EZH2, SOX4, IGF1 receptor, FLT4, and CD25. Moreover, we provide evidence that IL2 differentially affects homeostasis of iNKT subsets with iNKT17 cells engaging a unique mechanism to respond to IL2 by initiating a slow rate of proliferation.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Inga Ravens
- Institute of Immunology, Hannover Medical School, Hannover, Germany
| | | | - Günter Bernhardt
- Institute of Immunology, Hannover Medical School, Hannover, Germany
| | - Hristo Georgiev
- Institute of Immunology, Hannover Medical School, Hannover, Germany
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6
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Park S, Griesenauer B, Jiang H, Adom D, Mehrpouya-Bahrami P, Chakravorty S, Kazemian M, Imam T, Srivastava R, Hayes TA, Pardo J, Janga SC, Paczesny S, Kaplan MH, Olson MR. Granzyme A-producing T helper cells are critical for acute graft-versus-host disease. JCI Insight 2020; 5:124465. [PMID: 32809971 PMCID: PMC7526544 DOI: 10.1172/jci.insight.124465] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/24/2018] [Accepted: 08/05/2020] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Acute graft-versus-host disease (aGVHD) can occur after hematopoietic cell transplant in patients undergoing treatment for hematological malignancies or inborn errors. Although CD4+ T helper (Th) cells play a major role in aGVHD, the mechanisms by which they contribute, particularly within the intestines, have remained elusive. We have identified a potentially novel subset of Th cells that accumulated in the intestines and produced the serine protease granzyme A (GrA). GrA+ Th cells were distinct from other Th lineages and exhibited a noncytolytic phenotype. In vitro, GrA+ Th cells differentiated in the presence of IL-4, IL-6, and IL-21 and were transcriptionally unique from cells cultured with either IL-4 or the IL-6/IL-21 combination alone. In vivo, both STAT3 and STAT6 were required for GrA+ Th cell differentiation and played roles in maintenance of the lineage identity. Importantly, GrA+ Th cells promoted aGVHD-associated morbidity and mortality and contributed to crypt destruction within intestines but were not required for the beneficial graft-versus-leukemia effect. Our data indicate that GrA+ Th cells represent a distinct Th subset and are critical mediators of aGVHD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sungtae Park
- Department of Biological Sciences, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana, USA
| | - Brad Griesenauer
- Department of Pediatrics and Herman B Wells Center for Pediatric Research and.,Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, Indiana, USA
| | - Hua Jiang
- Department of Pediatrics and Herman B Wells Center for Pediatric Research and.,Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, Indiana, USA
| | - Djamilatou Adom
- Department of Pediatrics and Herman B Wells Center for Pediatric Research and.,Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, Indiana, USA
| | | | - Srishti Chakravorty
- Departments of Biochemistry and Computer Science, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana, USA
| | - Majid Kazemian
- Departments of Biochemistry and Computer Science, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana, USA
| | - Tanbeena Imam
- Department of Pediatrics and Herman B Wells Center for Pediatric Research and
| | - Rajneesh Srivastava
- Department of Biohealth Informatics, School of Informatics and Computing, Indiana University-Purdue University, Indianapolis, Indianapolis, Indiana, USA
| | - Tristan A Hayes
- Department of Pediatrics and Herman B Wells Center for Pediatric Research and
| | - Julian Pardo
- Biomedical Research Centre of Aragon (CIBA), Department of Microbiology, Preventative Medicine and Public Health, Nanoscience Institute of Aragon (INA), Aragon I+D Foundation, IIS Aragon/University of Zaragoza, Zaragoza, Spain
| | - Sarath Chandra Janga
- Department of Biohealth Informatics, School of Informatics and Computing, Indiana University-Purdue University, Indianapolis, Indianapolis, Indiana, USA
| | - Sophie Paczesny
- Department of Pediatrics and Herman B Wells Center for Pediatric Research and.,Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, Indiana, USA
| | - Mark H Kaplan
- Department of Pediatrics and Herman B Wells Center for Pediatric Research and.,Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, Indiana, USA
| | - Matthew R Olson
- Department of Biological Sciences, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana, USA
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7
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van Daalen KR, Reijneveld JF, Bovenschen N. Modulation of Inflammation by Extracellular Granzyme A. Front Immunol 2020; 11:931. [PMID: 32508827 PMCID: PMC7248576 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2020.00931] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/06/2020] [Accepted: 04/21/2020] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Granzyme A (GrA) has long been recognized as one of the key players in the induction of cell death of neoplastic, foreign or infected cells after granule delivery by cytotoxic cells. While the cytotoxic potential of GrA is controversial in current literature, accumulating evidence now indicates roles for extracellular GrA in modulating inflammation and inflammatory diseases. This paper aims to explore the literature presenting current knowledge on GrA as an extracellular modulator of inflammation by summarizing (i) the presence and role of extracellular GrA in several inflammatory diseases, and (ii) the potential molecular mechanisms of extracellular GrA in augmenting inflammation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kim R van Daalen
- Cardiovascular Epidemiology Unit, Department of Public Health and Primary Care, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom
| | | | - Niels Bovenschen
- Department of Pathology, University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht, Netherlands.,Center for Translational Immunology, University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht, Netherlands
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8
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Zhou Z, He H, Wang K, Shi X, Wang Y, Su Y, Wang Y, Li D, Liu W, Zhang Y, Shen L, Han W, Shen L, Ding J, Shao F. Granzyme A from cytotoxic lymphocytes cleaves GSDMB to trigger pyroptosis in target cells. Science 2020; 368:science.aaz7548. [PMID: 32299851 DOI: 10.1126/science.aaz7548] [Citation(s) in RCA: 623] [Impact Index Per Article: 155.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/07/2019] [Accepted: 04/03/2020] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Cytotoxic lymphocyte-mediated immunity relies on granzymes. Granzymes are thought to kill target cells by inducing apoptosis, although the underlying mechanisms are not fully understood. Here, we report that natural killer cells and cytotoxic T lymphocytes kill gasdermin B (GSDMB)-positive cells through pyroptosis, a form of proinflammatory cell death executed by the gasdermin family of pore-forming proteins. Killing results from the cleavage of GSDMB by lymphocyte-derived granzyme A (GZMA), which unleashes its pore-forming activity. Interferon-γ (IFN-γ) up-regulates GSDMB expression and promotes pyroptosis. GSDMB is highly expressed in certain tissues, particularly digestive tract epithelia, including derived tumors. Introducing GZMA-cleavable GSDMB into mouse cancer cells promotes tumor clearance in mice. This study establishes gasdermin-mediated pyroptosis as a cytotoxic lymphocyte-killing mechanism, which may enhance antitumor immunity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhiwei Zhou
- Research Unit of Pyroptosis and Immunity, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and National Institute of Biological Sciences, Beijing, Beijing 102206, China.,National Institute of Biological Sciences, Beijing, Beijing 102206, China
| | - Huabin He
- Peking University-Tsinghua University-National Institute of Biological Sciences Joint Graduate Program, School of Life Sciences, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China.,National Institute of Biological Sciences, Beijing, Beijing 102206, China
| | - Kun Wang
- National Institute of Biological Sciences, Beijing, Beijing 102206, China
| | - Xuyan Shi
- National Institute of Biological Sciences, Beijing, Beijing 102206, China
| | - Yupeng Wang
- Research Unit of Pyroptosis and Immunity, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and National Institute of Biological Sciences, Beijing, Beijing 102206, China.,National Institute of Biological Sciences, Beijing, Beijing 102206, China
| | - Ya Su
- National Institute of Biological Sciences, Beijing, Beijing 102206, China
| | - Yao Wang
- Department of Molecular and Immunology and Department of Bio-therapeutics, Chinese PLA General Hospital, Beijing 100853, China
| | - Da Li
- National Institute of Biological Sciences, Beijing, Beijing 102206, China
| | - Wang Liu
- Research Unit of Pyroptosis and Immunity, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and National Institute of Biological Sciences, Beijing, Beijing 102206, China.,National Institute of Biological Sciences, Beijing, Beijing 102206, China
| | | | | | - Weidong Han
- Department of Molecular and Immunology and Department of Bio-therapeutics, Chinese PLA General Hospital, Beijing 100853, China
| | - Lin Shen
- Department of Gastrointestinal Oncology, Peking University Cancer Hospital and Institute, Beijing 100142, China
| | - Jingjin Ding
- National Institute of Biological Sciences, Beijing, Beijing 102206, China.,National Laboratory of Biomacromolecules, CAS Center for Excellence in Biomacromolecules, Institute of Biophysics, Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS), Beijing 100101, China
| | - Feng Shao
- Research Unit of Pyroptosis and Immunity, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and National Institute of Biological Sciences, Beijing, Beijing 102206, China. .,National Institute of Biological Sciences, Beijing, Beijing 102206, China.,National Laboratory of Biomacromolecules, CAS Center for Excellence in Biomacromolecules, Institute of Biophysics, Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS), Beijing 100101, China.,Tsinghua Institute of Multidisciplinary Biomedical Research, Tsinghua University, Beijing 102206, China
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9
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Mollah ZUA, Quah HS, Graham KL, Jhala G, Krishnamurthy B, Dharma JFM, Chee J, Trivedi PM, Pappas EG, Mackin L, Chu EPF, Akazawa S, Fynch S, Hodson C, Deans AJ, Trapani JA, Chong MMW, Bird PI, Brodnicki TC, Thomas HE, Kay TWH. Granzyme A Deficiency Breaks Immune Tolerance and Promotes Autoimmune Diabetes Through a Type I Interferon-Dependent Pathway. Diabetes 2017; 66:3041-3050. [PMID: 28733313 DOI: 10.2337/db17-0517] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/02/2017] [Accepted: 07/13/2017] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
Abstract
Granzyme A is a protease implicated in the degradation of intracellular DNA. Nucleotide complexes are known triggers of systemic autoimmunity, but a role in organ-specific autoimmune disease has not been demonstrated. To investigate whether such a mechanism could be an endogenous trigger for autoimmunity, we examined the impact of granzyme A deficiency in the NOD mouse model of autoimmune diabetes. Granzyme A deficiency resulted in an increased incidence in diabetes associated with accumulation of ssDNA in immune cells and induction of an interferon response in pancreatic islets. Central tolerance to proinsulin in transgenic NOD mice was broken on a granzyme A-deficient background. We have identified a novel endogenous trigger for autoimmune diabetes and an in vivo role for granzyme A in maintaining immune tolerance.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Hong Sheng Quah
- St. Vincent's Institute, Fitzroy, Victoria, Australia
- Department of Medicine, St. Vincent's Hospital, The University of Melbourne, Fitzroy, Victoria, Australia
| | - Kate L Graham
- St. Vincent's Institute, Fitzroy, Victoria, Australia
- Department of Medicine, St. Vincent's Hospital, The University of Melbourne, Fitzroy, Victoria, Australia
| | - Gaurang Jhala
- St. Vincent's Institute, Fitzroy, Victoria, Australia
- Department of Medicine, St. Vincent's Hospital, The University of Melbourne, Fitzroy, Victoria, Australia
| | - Balasubramanian Krishnamurthy
- St. Vincent's Institute, Fitzroy, Victoria, Australia
- Department of Medicine, St. Vincent's Hospital, The University of Melbourne, Fitzroy, Victoria, Australia
| | - Joanna Francisca M Dharma
- St. Vincent's Institute, Fitzroy, Victoria, Australia
- Department of Medicine, St. Vincent's Hospital, The University of Melbourne, Fitzroy, Victoria, Australia
| | - Jonathan Chee
- St. Vincent's Institute, Fitzroy, Victoria, Australia
- Department of Medicine, St. Vincent's Hospital, The University of Melbourne, Fitzroy, Victoria, Australia
| | - Prerak M Trivedi
- St. Vincent's Institute, Fitzroy, Victoria, Australia
- Department of Medicine, St. Vincent's Hospital, The University of Melbourne, Fitzroy, Victoria, Australia
| | - Evan G Pappas
- St. Vincent's Institute, Fitzroy, Victoria, Australia
| | - Leanne Mackin
- St. Vincent's Institute, Fitzroy, Victoria, Australia
| | - Edward P F Chu
- St. Vincent's Institute, Fitzroy, Victoria, Australia
- Department of Medicine, St. Vincent's Hospital, The University of Melbourne, Fitzroy, Victoria, Australia
| | | | - Stacey Fynch
- St. Vincent's Institute, Fitzroy, Victoria, Australia
| | | | - Andrew J Deans
- St. Vincent's Institute, Fitzroy, Victoria, Australia
- Department of Medicine, St. Vincent's Hospital, The University of Melbourne, Fitzroy, Victoria, Australia
| | - Joseph A Trapani
- Peter MacCallum Cancer Centre, East Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
| | - Mark M W Chong
- St. Vincent's Institute, Fitzroy, Victoria, Australia
- Department of Medicine, St. Vincent's Hospital, The University of Melbourne, Fitzroy, Victoria, Australia
| | - Phillip I Bird
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Biomedicine Discovery Institute, Monash University, Clayton, Victoria, Australia
| | - Thomas C Brodnicki
- St. Vincent's Institute, Fitzroy, Victoria, Australia
- Department of Medicine, St. Vincent's Hospital, The University of Melbourne, Fitzroy, Victoria, Australia
| | - Helen E Thomas
- St. Vincent's Institute, Fitzroy, Victoria, Australia
- Department of Medicine, St. Vincent's Hospital, The University of Melbourne, Fitzroy, Victoria, Australia
| | - Thomas W H Kay
- St. Vincent's Institute, Fitzroy, Victoria, Australia
- Department of Medicine, St. Vincent's Hospital, The University of Melbourne, Fitzroy, Victoria, Australia
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10
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Expression and Function of Granzymes A and B in Escherichia coli Peritonitis and Sepsis. Mediators Inflamm 2017; 2017:4137563. [PMID: 28694562 PMCID: PMC5485334 DOI: 10.1155/2017/4137563] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/12/2017] [Revised: 04/05/2017] [Accepted: 04/20/2017] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Escherichia (E.) coli is the most common causative pathogen in peritonitis, the second most common cause of sepsis. Granzymes (gzms) are serine proteases traditionally implicated in cytotoxicity and, more recently, in the inflammatory response. We here sought to investigate the role of gzms in the host response to E. coli-induced peritonitis and sepsis in vivo. For this purpose, we used a murine model of E. coli intraperitoneal infection, resembling the clinical condition commonly associated with septic peritonitis by this bacterium, in wild-type and gzmA-deficient (gzmA−/−), gzmB−/−, and gzmAxB−/−mice. GzmA and gzmB were predominantly expressed by natural killer cells, and during abdominal sepsis, the percentage of these cells expressing gzms in peritoneal lavage fluid decreased, while the amount of expression in the gzm+ cells increased. Deficiency of gzmA and/or gzmB was associated with increased bacterial loads, especially in the case of gzmB at the primary site of infection at late stage sepsis. While gzm deficiency did not impact neutrophil recruitment into the abdominal cavity, it was accompanied by enhanced nucleosome release at the primary site of infection, earlier hepatic necrosis, and more renal dysfunction. These results suggest that gzms influence bacterial growth and the host inflammatory response during abdominal sepsis caused by E. coli.
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11
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Arias M, Martínez-Lostao L, Santiago L, Ferrandez A, Granville DJ, Pardo J. The Untold Story of Granzymes in Oncoimmunology: Novel Opportunities with Old Acquaintances. Trends Cancer 2017; 3:407-422. [PMID: 28718416 DOI: 10.1016/j.trecan.2017.04.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/03/2017] [Revised: 03/31/2017] [Accepted: 04/03/2017] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
For more than 20 years perforin and granzymes (GZMs) have been recognized as key cell death executors of cytotoxic T (Tc) and natural killer (NK) cells during cancer immunosurveillance. In immune surveillance, perforin and GZMB, the most potent cytotoxic molecules, act mainly as antitumoral and anti-infectious factors. However, when expressed by immune regulatory cells they may contribute to immune evasion of specific cancer types. By contrast, the other major granzyme, GZMA, seems not to play a major role in Tc/NK cell-mediated cytotoxicity, but acts as a proinflammatory cytokine that might contribute to cancer development. Members of the GZM family also regulate other biological processes unrelated to cell death, such as angiogenesis, vascular integrity, extracellular matrix remodeling, and barrier function, all of which contribute to cancer initiation and progression. Thus, a new paradigm is emerging in the field of oncoimmunology. Can GZMs act as protumoral factors under some circumstances? We review the diverse roles of GZMs in cancer progression, and new therapeutic opportunities emerging from targeting these protumoral roles.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maykel Arias
- Fundación Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria Aragón (IIS Aragón), Biomedical Research Centre of Aragon (CIBA), 50009 Zaragoza, Spain; These authors contributed equally to this work
| | - Luis Martínez-Lostao
- Fundación Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria Aragón (IIS Aragón), Biomedical Research Centre of Aragon (CIBA), 50009 Zaragoza, Spain; Department of Biochemistry and Molecular and Cell Biology, and Department of Microbiology, Preventive Medicine, and Public Health, University of Zaragoza, 50009 Zaragoza, Spain; Servicio de Inmunología Hospital Clínico Universitario Lorenzo Blesa, Zaragoza, Spain; Nanoscience Institute of Aragon (INA), University of Zaragoza, 50018 Zaragoza, Spain; These authors contributed equally to this work
| | - Llipsy Santiago
- Fundación Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria Aragón (IIS Aragón), Biomedical Research Centre of Aragon (CIBA), 50009 Zaragoza, Spain
| | - Angel Ferrandez
- Fundación Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria Aragón (IIS Aragón), Biomedical Research Centre of Aragon (CIBA), 50009 Zaragoza, Spain; Servicio de Aparato Digestivo, Hospital Clínico Universitario Lorenzo Blesa, Zaragoza, Spain
| | - David J Granville
- International Collaboration on Repair Discoveries (ICORD), Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada
| | - Julián Pardo
- Fundación Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria Aragón (IIS Aragón), Biomedical Research Centre of Aragon (CIBA), 50009 Zaragoza, Spain; Department of Biochemistry and Molecular and Cell Biology, and Department of Microbiology, Preventive Medicine, and Public Health, University of Zaragoza, 50009 Zaragoza, Spain; Nanoscience Institute of Aragon (INA), University of Zaragoza, 50018 Zaragoza, Spain; Aragon I+D Foundation (ARAID), Zaragoza, Spain.
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12
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Granzyme K‐deficient mice show no evidence of impaired antiviral immunity. Immunol Cell Biol 2017; 95:676-683. [DOI: 10.1038/icb.2017.35] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/26/2016] [Revised: 04/13/2017] [Accepted: 04/13/2017] [Indexed: 01/16/2023]
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13
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van den Boogaard FE, van Gisbergen KPJM, Vernooy JH, Medema JP, Roelofs JJTH, van Zoelen MAD, Endeman H, Biesma DH, Boon L, Van't Veer C, de Vos AF, van der Poll T. Granzyme A impairs host defense during Streptococcus pneumoniae pneumonia. Am J Physiol Lung Cell Mol Physiol 2016; 311:L507-16. [PMID: 27343190 DOI: 10.1152/ajplung.00116.2016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/18/2016] [Accepted: 06/16/2016] [Indexed: 01/16/2023] Open
Abstract
Streptococcus pneumoniae is the most common causative pathogen in community-acquired pneumonia (CAP). Granzyme A (GzmA) is a serine protease produced by a variety of cell types involved in the immune response. We sought to determine the role of GzmA on the host response during pneumococcal pneumonia. GzmA was measured in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid (BALF) harvested from CAP patients from the infected and contralateral uninfected side and in lung tissue slides from CAP patients and controls. In CAP patients, GzmA levels were increased in BALF obtained from the infected lung. Human lungs showed constitutive GzmA expression by both parenchymal and nonparenchymal cells. In an experimental setting, pneumonia was induced in wild-type (WT) and GzmA-deficient (GzmA(-/-)) mice by intranasal inoculation of S. pneumoniae In separate experiments, WT and GzmA(-/-) mice were treated with natural killer (NK) cell depleting antibodies. Upon infection with S. pneumoniae, GzmA(-/-) mice showed a better survival and lower bacterial counts in BALF and distant body sites compared with WT mice. Although NK cells showed strong GzmA expression, NK cell depletion did not influence bacterial loads in either WT or GzmA(-/-) mice. These results implicate that GzmA plays an unfavorable role in host defense during pneumococcal pneumonia by a mechanism that does not depend on NK cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Florry E van den Boogaard
- Center for Experimental and Molecular Medicine (CEMM), Academic Medical Center, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands; Center for Infection and Immunity Amsterdam (CINIMA), Academic Medical Center, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands;
| | - Klaas P J M van Gisbergen
- Laboratory of Experimental Immunology, Academic Medical Center, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands; Department of Hematopoiesis, Sanquin Research and Landsteiner Laboratory, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Juanita H Vernooy
- Department of Respiratory Medicine, University Maastricht, The Netherlands
| | - Jan P Medema
- Center for Experimental and Molecular Medicine (CEMM), Academic Medical Center, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands; Laboratory of Experimental Oncology and Radiobiology, Academic Medical Center, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Joris J T H Roelofs
- Department of Pathology, Academic Medical Center, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Marieke A D van Zoelen
- Center for Experimental and Molecular Medicine (CEMM), Academic Medical Center, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands; Center for Infection and Immunity Amsterdam (CINIMA), Academic Medical Center, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Henrik Endeman
- Department of Internal Medicine, St. Antonius Hospital, Nieuwegein, The Netherlands
| | - Douwe H Biesma
- Department of Internal Medicine, St. Antonius Hospital, Nieuwegein, The Netherlands
| | | | - Cornelis Van't Veer
- Center for Experimental and Molecular Medicine (CEMM), Academic Medical Center, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands; Center for Infection and Immunity Amsterdam (CINIMA), Academic Medical Center, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Alex F de Vos
- Center for Experimental and Molecular Medicine (CEMM), Academic Medical Center, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands; Center for Infection and Immunity Amsterdam (CINIMA), Academic Medical Center, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Tom van der Poll
- Center for Experimental and Molecular Medicine (CEMM), Academic Medical Center, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands; Center for Infection and Immunity Amsterdam (CINIMA), Academic Medical Center, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands; Department of Medicine, Division of Infectious Diseases, Academic Medical Center, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
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14
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Uranga S, Marinova D, Martin C, Pardo J, Aguilo N. Granzyme A Is Expressed in Mouse Lungs during Mycobacterium tuberculosis Infection but Does Not Contribute to Protection In Vivo. PLoS One 2016; 11:e0153028. [PMID: 27055232 PMCID: PMC4824395 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0153028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/10/2015] [Accepted: 03/21/2016] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Granzyme A, a serine protease expressed in the granules of cytotoxic T and Natural Killer cells, is involved in the generation of pro-inflammatory cytokines by macrophages. Granzyme A has been described to induce in macrophages in vitro the activation of pro-inflammatory pathways that impair intracellular mycobacterial replication. In the present study, we explored the physiological relevance of Granzyme A in the control of pulmonary Mycobacterium tuberculosis infection in vivo. Our results show that, even though Granzyme A is expressed by cytotoxic cells from mouse lungs during pulmonary infection, its deficiency in knockout mice does not have an effect in the control of M. tuberculosis infection. In addition our findings indicate that absence of Granzyme A does not affect the protection conferred by the live-attenuated M. tuberculosis vaccine MTBVAC. Altogether, our findings are in apparent contradiction with previously published in vitro results and suggest that Granzyme A does not have a crucial role in vivo in the protective response to tuberculosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Santiago Uranga
- Grupo de Genética de Micobacterias, Dpto. Microbiología, Medicina Preventiva y Salud Pública, Universidad de Zaragoza, C/ Domingo Miral s/n, 50009, Zaragoza, Spain
- CIBER Enfermedades Respiratorias, Instituto de Salud Carlos III, Madrid, Spain
| | - Dessislava Marinova
- Grupo de Genética de Micobacterias, Dpto. Microbiología, Medicina Preventiva y Salud Pública, Universidad de Zaragoza, C/ Domingo Miral s/n, 50009, Zaragoza, Spain
- CIBER Enfermedades Respiratorias, Instituto de Salud Carlos III, Madrid, Spain
| | - Carlos Martin
- Grupo de Genética de Micobacterias, Dpto. Microbiología, Medicina Preventiva y Salud Pública, Universidad de Zaragoza, C/ Domingo Miral s/n, 50009, Zaragoza, Spain
- CIBER Enfermedades Respiratorias, Instituto de Salud Carlos III, Madrid, Spain
- Servicio de Microbiología, Hospital Universitario Miguel Servet, ISS Aragón, Paseo Isabel la Católica 1–3, 50009, Zaragoza, Spain
| | - Julián Pardo
- Immune Effector Cells Group (ICE), 3 Aragón Health Research Institute (IIS Aragón), Edificio CIBA, Biomedical Research Centre of Aragón (CIBA), Zaragoza, Spain
- Nanoscience Institute of Aragon (INA), University of Zaragoza, Zaragoza, Spain
- Fundación Aragón I+D (ARAID), Gobierno de Aragón, Zaragoza, Spain
| | - Nacho Aguilo
- Grupo de Genética de Micobacterias, Dpto. Microbiología, Medicina Preventiva y Salud Pública, Universidad de Zaragoza, C/ Domingo Miral s/n, 50009, Zaragoza, Spain
- CIBER Enfermedades Respiratorias, Instituto de Salud Carlos III, Madrid, Spain
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15
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Perišić Nanut M, Sabotič J, Jewett A, Kos J. Cysteine cathepsins as regulators of the cytotoxicity of NK and T cells. Front Immunol 2014; 5:616. [PMID: 25520721 PMCID: PMC4251435 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2014.00616] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/01/2014] [Accepted: 11/18/2014] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Cysteine cathepsins are lysosomal peptidases involved at different levels in the processes of the innate and adaptive immune responses. Some, such as cathepsins B, L, and H are expressed constitutively in most immune cells. In cells of innate immunity they play a role in cell adhesion and phagocytosis. Other cysteine cathepsins are expressed more specifically. Cathepsin X promotes dendritic cell maturation, adhesion of macrophages, and migration of T cells. Cathepsin S is implicated in major histocompatibility complex class II antigen presentation, whereas cathepsin C, expressed in cytotoxic T lymphocytes and natural killer (NK) cells, is involved in processing pro-granzymes into proteolytically active forms, which trigger cell death in their target cells. The activity of cysteine cathepsins is controlled by endogenous cystatins, cysteine protease inhibitors. Of these, cystatin F is the only cystatin that is localized in endosomal/lysosomal vesicles. After proteolytic removal of its N-terminal peptide, cystatin F becomes a potent inhibitor of cathepsin C with the potential to regulate pro-granzyme processing and cell cytotoxicity. This review is focused on the role of cysteine cathepsins and their inhibitors in the molecular mechanisms leading to the cytotoxic activity of T lymphocytes and NK cells in order to address new possibilities for regulation of their function in pathological processes.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Jerica Sabotič
- Department of Biotechnology, Jožef Stefan Institute , Ljubljana , Slovenia
| | - Anahid Jewett
- Division of Oral Biology and Medicine, The Jane and Jerry Weintraub Center for Reconstructive Biotechnology, UCLA School of Dentistry, University of California Los Angeles , Los Angeles, CA , USA
| | - Janko Kos
- Department of Biotechnology, Jožef Stefan Institute , Ljubljana , Slovenia ; Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Ljubljana , Ljubljana , Slovenia
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16
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NK cell intrinsic regulation of MIP-1α by granzyme M. Cell Death Dis 2014; 5:e1115. [PMID: 24625974 PMCID: PMC3973215 DOI: 10.1038/cddis.2014.74] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/22/2013] [Revised: 12/17/2013] [Accepted: 01/30/2014] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
Granzymes are generally recognized for their capacity to induce various pathways of perforin-dependent target cell death. Within this serine protease family, Granzyme M (GrzM) is unique owing to its preferential expression in innate effectors such as natural killer (NK) cells. During Listeria monocytogenes infection, we observed markedly reduced secretion of macrophage inflammatory protein-1 alpha (MIP-1α) in livers of GrzM-deficient mice, which resulted in significantly impaired NK cell recruitment. Direct stimulation with IL-12 and IL-15 demonstrated that GrzM was required for maximal secretion of active MIP-1α. This effect was not due to reduced protein induction but resulted from heightened intracellular accumulation of MIP-1α, with reduced release. These results demonstrate that GrzM is a critical mediator of innate immunity that can regulate chemotactic networks and has an important role in the initiation of immune responses and pathogen control.
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17
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Joeckel LT, Bird PI. Are all granzymes cytotoxic in vivo? Biol Chem 2014; 395:181-202. [DOI: 10.1515/hsz-2013-0238] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/04/2013] [Accepted: 08/30/2013] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
Abstract
Granzymes are serine proteases mainly found in cytotoxic lymphocytes. The most-studied member of this group is granzyme B, which is a potent cytotoxin that has set the paradigm that all granzymes are cyototoxic. In the last 5 years, this paradigm has become controversial. On one hand, there is a plethora of sometimes contradictory publications showing mainly caspase-independent cytotoxic effects of granzyme A and the so-called orphan granzymes in vitro. On the other hand, there are increasing numbers of reports of granzymes failing to induce cell death in vitro unless very high (potentially supra-physiological) concentrations are used. Furthermore, experiments with granzyme A or granzyme M knock-out mice reveal little or no deficit in their cytotoxic lymphocytes’ killing ability ex vivo, but indicate impairment in the inflammatory response. These findings of non-cytotoxic effects of granzymes challenge dogma, and thus require alternative or additional explanations to be developed of the role of granzymes in defeating pathogens. Here we review evidence for granzyme cytotoxicity, give an overview of their non-cytotoxic functions, and suggest technical improvements for future investigations.
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18
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Hellman L, Thorpe M. Granule proteases of hematopoietic cells, a family of versatile inflammatory mediators – an update on their cleavage specificity, in vivo substrates, and evolution. Biol Chem 2014; 395:15-49. [DOI: 10.1515/hsz-2013-0211] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/23/2013] [Accepted: 08/18/2013] [Indexed: 01/24/2023]
Abstract
Abstract
Cells from several of the hematopoietic cell lineages including mast cells, basophils, neutrophils, cytotoxic T cells, and natural killer (NK) cells store proteases at very high levels within their cytoplasmic granules. In mast cells, these proteases can account for up to 35% of the total cellular protein, and the absolute majority of these belong to the chymotrypsin-related serine protease family. A number of very diverse functions have been identified for these proteases, including apoptosis induction, blood pressure regulation, inactivation of insect and snake toxins, intestinal parasite expulsion, killing of bacteria and fungi, induction, mobilization, or degradation of cytokines, and the degradation of connective tissue components. A very broad spectrum of primary cleavage specificities has also been observed, including chymase, tryptase, asp-ase, elastase, and met-ase specificities, which highlights the large flexibility in the active site of these proteases. Mast cells primarily express chymases and tryptases with chymotryptic or tryptic primary cleavage specificities, respectively. Neutrophils have several enzymes with chymase, elastase, and tryptase specificities. T cells and NK cells express between 5 and 14 different granzymes, depending on the species, and these enzymes have tryptase, asp-ase, chymase, and met-ase specificities. This review focuses on the appearance of these proteases during vertebrate evolution, their primary and extended cleavage specificities, and their potential in vivo substrates. The in vivo substrates and functions are a particular challenging issue because several of these enzymes have a relatively broad specificity and may therefore cleave a wide range of different substrates.
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19
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Susanto O, Stewart SE, Voskoboinik I, Brasacchio D, Hagn M, Ellis S, Asquith S, Sedelies KA, Bird PI, Waterhouse NJ, Trapani JA. Mouse granzyme A induces a novel death with writhing morphology that is mechanistically distinct from granzyme B-induced apoptosis. Cell Death Differ 2013; 20:1183-93. [PMID: 23744295 DOI: 10.1038/cdd.2013.59] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/16/2012] [Revised: 03/28/2013] [Accepted: 04/30/2013] [Indexed: 02/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Human and mouse granzyme (Gzm)B both induce target cell apoptosis in concert with pore-forming perforin (Pfp); however the mechanisms by which other Gzms induce non-apoptotic death remain controversial and poorly characterised. We used timelapse microscopy to document, quantitatively and in real time, the death of target cells exposed to primary natural killer (NK) cells from mice deficient in key Gzms. We found that in the vast majority of cases, NK cells from wild-type mice induced classic apoptosis. However, NK cells from syngeneic Gzm B-deficient mice induced a novel form of cell death characterised by slower kinetics and a pronounced, writhing, 'worm-like' morphology. Dying cells initially contracted but did not undergo membrane blebbing, and annexin-V staining was delayed until the onset of secondary necrosis. As it is different from any cell death process previously reported, we tentatively termed this cell death 'athetosis'. Two independent lines of evidence showed this alternate form of death was due to Gzm A: first, cell death was revealed in the absence of Gzm B, but was completely lost when the NK cells were deficient in both Gzm A and B; second, the athetotic morphology was precisely reproduced when recombinant mouse Gzm A was delivered by an otherwise innocuous dose of recombinant Pfp. Gzm A-mediated athetosis did not require caspase activation, early mitochondrial disruption or generation of reactive oxygen species, but did require an intact actin cytoskeleton and was abolished by latrunculin B and mycalolide B. This work defines an authentic role for mouse Gzm A in granule-induced cell death by cytotoxic lymphocytes.
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Affiliation(s)
- O Susanto
- Cancer Cell Death Laboratory, Peter MacCallum Cancer Centre, East Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
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20
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Susanto O, Trapani JA, Brasacchio D. Controversies in granzyme biology. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2012; 80:477-87. [DOI: 10.1111/tan.12014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- O. Susanto
- Cancer Cell Death Laboratory; Peter MacCallum Cancer Centre; East Melbourne; Australia
| | | | - D. Brasacchio
- Cancer Cell Death Laboratory; Peter MacCallum Cancer Centre; East Melbourne; Australia
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21
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The Sorting Receptor Sortilin Exhibits a Dual Function in Exocytic Trafficking of Interferon-γ and Granzyme A in T Cells. Immunity 2012; 37:854-66. [DOI: 10.1016/j.immuni.2012.07.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/20/2011] [Revised: 07/16/2012] [Accepted: 07/20/2012] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
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22
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Mollah ZU, Graham KL, Krishnamurthy B, Trivedi P, Brodnicki TC, Trapani JA, Kay TW, Thomas HE. Granzyme B is dispensable in the development of diabetes in non-obese diabetic mice. PLoS One 2012; 7:e40357. [PMID: 22792290 PMCID: PMC3392222 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0040357] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/02/2012] [Accepted: 06/04/2012] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Pancreatic beta cell destruction in type 1 diabetes is mediated by cytotoxic CD8(+) T lymphoctyes (CTL). Granzyme B is an effector molecule used by CTL to kill target cells. We previously showed that granzyme B-deficient allogeneic CTL inefficiently killed pancreatic islets in vitro. We generated granzyme B-deficient non-obese diabetic (NOD) mice to test whether granzyme B is an important effector molecule in spontaneous type 1 diabetes. Granzyme B-deficient islet antigen-specific CD8(+) T cells had impaired homing into islets of young mice. Insulitis was reduced in granzyme B-deficient mice at 70 days of age (insulitis score 0.043±0.019 in granzyme B-deficient versus 0.139±0.034 in wild-type NOD mice p<0.05), but was similar to wild-type at 100 and 150 days of age. We observed a reduced frequency of CD3(+)CD8(+) T cells in the islets and peripheral lymphoid tissues of granzyme B-deficient mice (p<0.005 and p<0.0001 respectively), but there was no difference in cell proportions in the thymus. Antigen-specific CTL developed normally in granzyme B-deficient mice, and were able to kill NOD islet target cells as efficiently as wild-type CTL in vitro. The incidence of spontaneous diabetes in granzyme B-deficient mice was the same as wild-type NOD mice. We observed a delayed onset of diabetes in granzyme B-deficient CD8-dependent NOD8.3 mice (median onset 102.5 days in granzyme B-deficient versus 57.50 days in wild-type NOD8.3 mice), which may be due to the delayed onset of insulitis or inefficient priming at an earlier age in this accelerated model of diabetes. Our data indicate that granzyme B is dispensable for beta cell destruction in type 1 diabetes, but is required for efficient early activation of CTL.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zia U. Mollah
- St. Vincent’s Institute, Fitzroy, Victoria, Australia
| | | | | | - Prerak Trivedi
- St. Vincent’s Institute, Fitzroy, Victoria, Australia
- Department of Medicine, The University of Melbourne, St. Vincent’s Hospital, Fitzroy, Victoria, Australia
| | - Thomas C. Brodnicki
- St. Vincent’s Institute, Fitzroy, Victoria, Australia
- Department of Medicine, The University of Melbourne, St. Vincent’s Hospital, Fitzroy, Victoria, Australia
| | | | - Thomas W. Kay
- St. Vincent’s Institute, Fitzroy, Victoria, Australia
- Department of Medicine, The University of Melbourne, St. Vincent’s Hospital, Fitzroy, Victoria, Australia
| | - Helen E. Thomas
- St. Vincent’s Institute, Fitzroy, Victoria, Australia
- Department of Medicine, The University of Melbourne, St. Vincent’s Hospital, Fitzroy, Victoria, Australia
- * E-mail:
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23
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Dumitriu IE, Baruah P, Finlayson CJ, Loftus IM, Antunes RF, Lim P, Bunce N, Carlos Kaski J. High Levels of Costimulatory Receptors OX40 and 4-1BB Characterize CD4
+
CD28
null
T Cells in Patients With Acute Coronary Syndrome. Circ Res 2012; 110:857-69. [DOI: 10.1161/circresaha.111.261933] [Citation(s) in RCA: 84] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Rationale:
Patients with acute coronary syndrome (ACS) predisposed to recurrent coronary events have an expansion of a distinctive T-cell subset, the CD4
+
CD28
null
T cells. These cells are highly inflammatory and cytotoxic in spite of lacking the costimulatory receptor CD28, which is crucial for optimal T cell function. The mechanisms that govern CD4
+
CD28
null
T cell function are unknown.
Objective:
Our aim was to investigate the expression and role of alternative costimulatory receptors in CD4
+
CD28
null
T cells in ACS.
Methods and Results:
Expression of alternative costimulatory receptors (inducible costimulator, OX40, 4–1BB, cytotoxic T lymphocyte associated antigen-4, programmed death-1) was quantified in CD4
+
CD28
null
T cells from circulation of ACS and stable angina patients. Strikingly, in ACS, levels of OX40 and 4-1BB were significantly higher in circulating CD4
+
CD28
null
T cells compared to classical CD4
+
CD28
+
T lymphocytes. This was not observed in stable angina patients. Furthermore, CD4
+
CD28
null
T cells constituted an important proportion of CD4
+
T lymphocytes in human atherosclerotic plaques and exhibited high levels of OX40 and 4-1BB. In addition, the ligands for OX40 and 4-1BB were present in plaques and also expressed on monocytes in circulation. Importantly, blockade of OX40 and 4-1BB reduced the ability of CD4
+
CD28
null
T cells to produce interferon-γ and tumor necrosis factor-α and release perforin.
Conclusions:
Costimulatory pathways are altered in CD4
+
CD28
null
T cells in ACS. We show that the inflammatory and cytotoxic function of CD4
+
CD28
null
T cells can be inhibited by blocking OX40 and 4-1BB costimulatory receptors. Modulation of costimulatory receptors may allow specific targeting of this cell subset and may improve the survival of ACS patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ingrid E. Dumitriu
- From the Cardiovascular Sciences Research Centre (I.E.D., P.B., R.F.A., J.C.K.), Division of Clinical Sciences, St. George's University of London, London, UK; Department of Pathology (C.J.F.), St. George's Vascular Institute (I.M.L.), and Department of Cardiology (P.L., N.B.), St. George's NHS Trust, London, UK
| | - Paramita Baruah
- From the Cardiovascular Sciences Research Centre (I.E.D., P.B., R.F.A., J.C.K.), Division of Clinical Sciences, St. George's University of London, London, UK; Department of Pathology (C.J.F.), St. George's Vascular Institute (I.M.L.), and Department of Cardiology (P.L., N.B.), St. George's NHS Trust, London, UK
| | - Caroline J. Finlayson
- From the Cardiovascular Sciences Research Centre (I.E.D., P.B., R.F.A., J.C.K.), Division of Clinical Sciences, St. George's University of London, London, UK; Department of Pathology (C.J.F.), St. George's Vascular Institute (I.M.L.), and Department of Cardiology (P.L., N.B.), St. George's NHS Trust, London, UK
| | - Ian M. Loftus
- From the Cardiovascular Sciences Research Centre (I.E.D., P.B., R.F.A., J.C.K.), Division of Clinical Sciences, St. George's University of London, London, UK; Department of Pathology (C.J.F.), St. George's Vascular Institute (I.M.L.), and Department of Cardiology (P.L., N.B.), St. George's NHS Trust, London, UK
| | - Ricardo F. Antunes
- From the Cardiovascular Sciences Research Centre (I.E.D., P.B., R.F.A., J.C.K.), Division of Clinical Sciences, St. George's University of London, London, UK; Department of Pathology (C.J.F.), St. George's Vascular Institute (I.M.L.), and Department of Cardiology (P.L., N.B.), St. George's NHS Trust, London, UK
| | - Pitt Lim
- From the Cardiovascular Sciences Research Centre (I.E.D., P.B., R.F.A., J.C.K.), Division of Clinical Sciences, St. George's University of London, London, UK; Department of Pathology (C.J.F.), St. George's Vascular Institute (I.M.L.), and Department of Cardiology (P.L., N.B.), St. George's NHS Trust, London, UK
| | - Nicholas Bunce
- From the Cardiovascular Sciences Research Centre (I.E.D., P.B., R.F.A., J.C.K.), Division of Clinical Sciences, St. George's University of London, London, UK; Department of Pathology (C.J.F.), St. George's Vascular Institute (I.M.L.), and Department of Cardiology (P.L., N.B.), St. George's NHS Trust, London, UK
| | - Juan Carlos Kaski
- From the Cardiovascular Sciences Research Centre (I.E.D., P.B., R.F.A., J.C.K.), Division of Clinical Sciences, St. George's University of London, London, UK; Department of Pathology (C.J.F.), St. George's Vascular Institute (I.M.L.), and Department of Cardiology (P.L., N.B.), St. George's NHS Trust, London, UK
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24
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Salti SM, Hammelev EM, Grewal JL, Reddy ST, Zemple SJ, Grossman WJ, Grayson MH, Verbsky JW. Granzyme B regulates antiviral CD8+ T cell responses. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2011; 187:6301-9. [PMID: 22084442 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.1100891] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
CTLs and NK cells use the perforin/granzyme cytotoxic pathway to kill virally infected cells and tumors. Human regulatory T cells also express functional granzymes and perforin and can induce autologous target cell death in vitro. Perforin-deficient mice die of excessive immune responses after viral challenges, implicating a potential role for this pathway in immune regulation. To further investigate the role of granzyme B in immune regulation in response to viral infections, we characterized the immune response in wild-type, granzyme B-deficient, and perforin-deficient mice infected with Sendai virus. Interestingly, granzyme B-deficient mice, and to a lesser extent perforin-deficient mice, exhibited a significant increase in the number of Ag-specific CD8(+) T cells in the lungs and draining lymph nodes of virally infected animals. This increase was not the result of failure in viral clearance because viral titers in granzyme B-deficient mice were similar to wild-type mice and significantly less than perforin-deficient mice. Regulatory T cells from WT mice expressed high levels of granzyme B in response to infection, and depletion of regulatory T cells from these mice resulted in an increase in the number of Ag-specific CD8(+) T cells, similar to that observed in granzyme B-deficient mice. Furthermore, granzyme B-deficient regulatory T cells displayed defective suppression of CD8(+) T cell proliferation in vitro. Taken together, these results suggest a role for granzyme B in the regulatory T cell compartment in immune regulation to viral infections.
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Affiliation(s)
- Suzan M Salti
- Department of Pediatrics, Medical College of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, WI 53226, USA
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25
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Abstract
Granzymes (Grs) were discovered just over a quarter century ago. They are produced by cytotoxic T cells and natural killer cells and are released upon interaction with target cells. Intensive biochemical, genetic, and biological studies have been performed in order to study their roles in immunity and inflammation. This review summarizes research on the family of Grs.
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26
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Kreijtz JHCM, Fouchier RAM, Rimmelzwaan GF. Immune responses to influenza virus infection. Virus Res 2011; 162:19-30. [PMID: 21963677 DOI: 10.1016/j.virusres.2011.09.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 223] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/12/2011] [Revised: 09/15/2011] [Accepted: 09/15/2011] [Indexed: 10/17/2022]
Abstract
Influenza viruses cause annual outbreaks of respiratory tract infection with attack rates of 5-10%. This means that humans are infected repeatedly with intervals of, on average, 10-20 years. Upon each infection subjects develop innate and adaptive immune responses which aim at clearing the infection. Strain-specific antibody responses are induced, which exert selective pressure on circulating influenza viruses and which drive antigenic drift of seasonal influenza viruses, especially in the hemagglutinin molecule. This antigenic drift necessitates updating of seasonal influenza vaccines regularly in order to match the circulating strains. Upon infection also virus-specific T cell responses are induced, including CD4+ T helper cells and CD8+ cytotoxic T cells. These cells are mainly directed to conserved proteins and therefore display cross-reactivity with a variety of influenza A viruses of different subtypes. T cell mediated immunity therefore may contribute to so-called heterosubtypic immunity and may afford protection against antigenically distinct, potentially pandemic influenza viruses. At present, novel viral targets are identified that may help to develop broad-protective vaccines. Here we review the various arms of the immune response to influenza virus infections and their viral targets and discuss the possibility of developing universal vaccines. The development of such novel vaccines would imply that also new immune correlates of protection need to be established in order to facilitate assessment of vaccine efficacy.
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Affiliation(s)
- J H C M Kreijtz
- Department of Virology, Erasmus MC, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
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27
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In vivo elimination of MHC-I-deficient lymphocytes by activated natural killer cells is independent of granzymes A and B. PLoS One 2011; 6:e23252. [PMID: 21853094 PMCID: PMC3154924 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0023252] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/19/2011] [Accepted: 07/12/2011] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
NK cells kill target cells mainly via exocytosis of granules containing perforin (perf) and granzymes (gzm). In vitro, gzm delivery into the target cell cytosol results in apoptosis, and induction of apoptosis is severely impaired in the absence of gzm A and B. However, their importance for in vivo cytotoxicity by cytotoxic T cells has been questioned. We used an in vivo NK cytotoxicity assay, in which splenocytes from wild-type and β(2)microglobulin-deficient (MHC-I(neg)) mice are co-injected into recipients whose NK cells were activated by virus infection or synthetic Toll-like receptor ligands. Elimination of adoptively transferred MHC-I(neg) splenocytes was unimpaired in the absence of gzmA and gzmB, but dependent on perforin. This target cell rejection was NK cell dependent, since NK cell depletion abrogated it. Furthermore, target cell elimination in vivo was equally rapid in both wild-type and gzmAxB-deficient recipients, with the majority of specific target cells lost from lymphoid tissue within less than one to two hours after transfer. Thus, similar to T cell cytotoxicity, the contribution of gzmA and B to in vivo target cell elimination remains unresolved.
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van Domselaar R, Bovenschen N. Cell death-independent functions of granzymes: hit viruses where it hurts. Rev Med Virol 2011; 21:301-14. [PMID: 21714121 DOI: 10.1002/rmv.697] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/25/2011] [Revised: 05/03/2011] [Accepted: 05/06/2011] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Granule exocytosis by cytotoxic lymphocytes is the key mechanism of our immune response to eliminate virus-infected cells. These lytic granules contain the pore-forming protein perforin and a set of five serine proteases called granzymes (GrA, GrB, GrH, GrK, GrM) that display distinct substrate specificities. Granzymes have mostly been studied for their ability to induce cell death. However, viruses have evolved many inhibitors to effectively block apoptosis. Evidence is emerging that granzymes also use noncytotoxic strategies to inhibit viral replication and potential viral reactivation from latency. Granzymes directly cleave viral or host cell proteins that are required in the viral life cycle. Furthermore, granzymes induce a pro-inflammatory cytokine response to create an antiviral environment. In this review, we summarize and discuss these novel strategies by which the immune system counteracts viral infections, and we will address the potential therapeutic applications that could emerge from this intriguing mechanism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robert van Domselaar
- Department of Pathology, University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht, the Netherlands
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29
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Hoves S, Sutton VR, Haynes NM, Hawkins ED, Fernández Ruiz D, Baschuk N, Sedelies KA, Schnurr M, Stagg J, Andrews DM, Villadangos JA, Trapani JA. A critical role for granzymes in antigen cross-presentation through regulating phagocytosis of killed tumor cells. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2011; 187:1166-75. [PMID: 21709155 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.1001670] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/03/2023]
Abstract
Granzymes A and B (GrAB) are known principally for their role in mediating perforin-dependent death of virus-infected or malignant cells targeted by CTL. In this study, we show that granzymes also play a critical role as inducers of Ag cross-presentation by dendritic cells (DC). This was demonstrated by the markedly reduced priming of naive CD8(+) T cells specific for the model Ag OVA both in vitro and in vivo in response to tumor cells killed in the absence of granzymes. Reduced cross-priming was due to impairment of phagocytosis of tumor cell corpses by CD8α(+) DC but not CD8α(-) DC, demonstrating the importance of granzymes in inducing the exposure of prophagocytic "eat-me" signals on the dying target cell. Our data reveal a critical and previously unsuspected role for granzymes A and B in dictating immunogenicity by influencing the mode of tumor cell death and indicate that granzymes contribute to the efficient generation of immune effector pathways in addition to their well-known role in apoptosis induction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sabine Hoves
- Cancer Cell Death Laboratory, Cancer Immunology Program, Peter MacCallum Cancer Centre, Melbourne 3002, Victoria, Australia.
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Iłżecka J. Granzymes A and B levels in serum of patients with amyotrophic lateral sclerosis. Clin Biochem 2011; 44:650-3. [PMID: 21349256 DOI: 10.1016/j.clinbiochem.2011.02.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/17/2010] [Revised: 02/07/2011] [Accepted: 02/13/2011] [Indexed: 01/20/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES There are evidences that immuno-inflammatory mechanisms and apoptosis may play a role in the pathophysiology of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS). It is known that Granzyme A (GzmA) and granzyme B (GzmB) are implicated in these mechanisms. The aim of the study was to investigate serum GzmA and GzmB levels in patients with ALS. DESIGN AND METHODS The study included 30 patients with ALS and 30 patients from the control group. Serum GzmA and GzmB levels were measured using the enzyme-linked immunosorbent method. RESULTS The study showed that GzmA and GzmB levels are significantly increased in serum of patients with ALS when compared to the control group (p<0.05). There was a significant correlation of serum GzmB levels with severity of clinical state of ALS patients (p<0.05). CONCLUSION The results indicate that GzmA and GzmB are implicated in mechanisms of neurodegeneration in ALS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joanna Iłżecka
- Department of Neurological Rehabilitation, Medical University, ul. Chodźki 6, 20–953 Lublin, Poland.
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31
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Pegram HJ, Haynes NM, Smyth MJ, Kershaw MH, Darcy PK. Characterizing the anti-tumor function of adoptively transferred NK cells in vivo. Cancer Immunol Immunother 2010; 59:1235-46. [PMID: 20376439 PMCID: PMC11030891 DOI: 10.1007/s00262-010-0848-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/18/2009] [Accepted: 03/10/2010] [Indexed: 02/03/2023]
Abstract
Natural killer (NK) cells represent a promising cell type to utilize for effective adoptive immunotherapy. However, little is known about the important cytolytic molecules and signaling pathways used by NK cells in the adoptive transfer setting. To address this issue, we developed a novel mouse model to investigate the trafficking and mechanism of action of these cells. We demonstrate that methylcholanthrene-induced RKIK sarcoma cells were susceptible to NK cell-mediated lysis in vitro and in vivo following adoptive transfer of NK cells in C57BL/6 RAG-2(-/-)gammac(-/-) mice. Cytotoxic molecules perforin, granzymes B and M as well as the death ligand TRAIL and pro-inflammatory cytokine IFN-gamma were found to be important in the anti-tumor effect mediated by adoptively transferred NK cells. Importantly, we demonstrate that adoptively transferred NK cells could traffic to the tumor site and persisted in vivo which correlated with the anti-tumor effect observed. Overall, the results of this study have important implications for enhancing NK cell-based immunotherapies.
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MESH Headings
- Animals
- Cell Line, Tumor
- Cytotoxicity, Immunologic
- DNA-Binding Proteins/genetics
- Immunotherapy, Adoptive
- Interleukin-2/immunology
- Interleukin-2/metabolism
- Killer Cells, Natural/immunology
- Killer Cells, Natural/metabolism
- Killer Cells, Natural/pathology
- Lymphocyte Activation
- Methylcholanthrene
- Mice
- Mice, Inbred C57BL
- Mice, Knockout
- Mice, Mutant Strains
- Sarcoma, Experimental/immunology
- Sarcoma, Experimental/pathology
- Sarcoma, Experimental/therapy
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Affiliation(s)
- Hollie J. Pegram
- Cancer Immunology Program, Cancer Immunotherapy Research Laboratory, Peter MacCallum Cancer Centre, 14 St Andrews Place, East Melbourne, VIC 3002 Australia
| | - Nicole M. Haynes
- Cancer Immunology Program, Cancer Immunotherapy Research Laboratory, Peter MacCallum Cancer Centre, 14 St Andrews Place, East Melbourne, VIC 3002 Australia
| | - Mark J. Smyth
- Cancer Immunology Program, Cancer Immunotherapy Research Laboratory, Peter MacCallum Cancer Centre, 14 St Andrews Place, East Melbourne, VIC 3002 Australia
- Department of Pathology, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Australia
| | - Michael H. Kershaw
- Cancer Immunology Program, Cancer Immunotherapy Research Laboratory, Peter MacCallum Cancer Centre, 14 St Andrews Place, East Melbourne, VIC 3002 Australia
- Department of Pathology, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Australia
| | - Phillip K. Darcy
- Cancer Immunology Program, Cancer Immunotherapy Research Laboratory, Peter MacCallum Cancer Centre, 14 St Andrews Place, East Melbourne, VIC 3002 Australia
- Department of Pathology, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Australia
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32
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Voskoboinik I, Dunstone MA, Baran K, Whisstock JC, Trapani JA. Perforin: structure, function, and role in human immunopathology. Immunol Rev 2010; 235:35-54. [PMID: 20536554 DOI: 10.1111/j.0105-2896.2010.00896.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 139] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
The secretory granule-mediated cell death pathway is the key mechanism for elimination of virus-infected and transformed target cells by cytotoxic lymphocytes. The formation of the immunological synapse between an effector and a target cell leads to exocytic trafficking of the secretory granules and the release of their contents, which include pro-apoptotic serine proteases, granzymes, and pore-forming perforin into the synapse. There, perforin polymerizes and forms a transmembrane pore that allows the delivery of granzymes into the cytosol, where they initiate various apoptotic death pathways. Unlike relatively redundant individual granzymes, functional perforin is absolutely essential for cytotoxic lymphocyte function and immune regulation in the host. Nevertheless, perforin is still the least studied and understood cytotoxic molecule in the immune system. In this review, we discuss the current state of affairs in the perforin field: the protein's structure and function as well as its role in immune-mediated diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ilia Voskoboinik
- Cancer Cell Death Laboratory, Peter MacCallum Cancer Centre, East Melbourne, Vic. 8006, Australia
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33
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de Saint Basile G, Ménasché G, Fischer A. Molecular mechanisms of biogenesis and exocytosis of cytotoxic granules. Nat Rev Immunol 2010; 10:568-79. [PMID: 20634814 DOI: 10.1038/nri2803] [Citation(s) in RCA: 303] [Impact Index Per Article: 21.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Cytotoxic T cells and natural killer cells are crucial for immune surveillance against virus-infected cells and tumour cells. Molecular studies of individuals with inherited defects that impair lymphocyte cytotoxic function have also highlighted the importance of cytotoxicity in the regulation and termination of immune responses. As discussed in this Review, characterization of these defects has contributed to our understanding of the key steps that are required for the maturation of cytotoxic granules and the secretion of their contents at the immunological synapse during target cell killing. This has revealed a marked similarity between cytotoxic granule exocytosis at the immunological synapse and synaptic vesicle exocytosis at the neurological synapse. We explore the possibility that comparison of these two kinetically and spatially regulated secretory pathways will provide clues to uncover additional effectors that regulate the cytotoxic function of lymphocytes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Geneviève de Saint Basile
- Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale (INSERM), U768, Hôpital Necker Enfants Malades, 149 rue de Sèvres, 75015 Paris, France.
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34
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Anthony DA, Andrews DM, Chow M, Watt SV, House C, Akira S, Bird PI, Trapani JA, Smyth MJ. A role for granzyme M in TLR4-driven inflammation and endotoxicosis. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2010; 185:1794-803. [PMID: 20585036 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.1000430] [Citation(s) in RCA: 72] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Lymphocyte perforin and serine protease granzymes are well-recognized extrinsic mediators of apoptosis. We now demonstrate that cytotoxic lymphocyte granule components profoundly augment the myeloid cell inflammatory cytokine cascade in response to TLR4 ligation. Whereas caspase-1-deficient mice were completely resistant to LPS, reduced serum cytokine production and resistance to lethal endotoxicosis were also obtained with perforin-deficient mice, indicating a role for granzymes. Consistently, a lack of granzyme M (GrzM) resulted in reduced serum IL-1alpha, IL-1beta, TNF, and IFN-gamma levels and significantly reduced susceptibility to lethal endotoxicosis. These altered responses were also observed in granzyme A-deficient but not granzyme B-deficient mice. A role for APC-NK cell cross-talk in the inflammatory cascade was highlighted, as GrzM was exclusively expressed by NK cells and resistance to LPS was also observed on a RAG-1/GrzM-double deficient background. Collectively, the data suggest that NK cell GrzM augments the inflammatory cascade downstream of LPS-TLR4 signaling, which ultimately results in lethal endotoxicosis. Most importantly, these data demonstrate that granzymes should no longer be considered solely as mediators of apoptosis, but additionally as potential key regulators of inflammation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Desiree A Anthony
- Cancer Immunology Program, Sir Donald and Lady Trescowthick Laboratories, Peter MacCallum Cancer Centre, Locked Bag 1, A'Beckett Street, 8006, East Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
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35
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Abstract
Granzyme A (GzmA) is the most abundant serine protease in killer cell cytotoxic granules. GzmA activates a novel programed cell death pathway that begins in the mitochondrion, where cleavage of NDUFS3 in electron transport complex I disrupts mitochondrial metabolism and generates reactive oxygen species (ROS). ROS drives the endoplasmic reticulum-associated SET complex into the nucleus, where it activates single-stranded DNA damage. GzmA also targets other important nuclear proteins for degradation, including histones, the lamins that maintain the nuclear envelope, and several key DNA damage repair proteins (Ku70, PARP-1). Cells that are resistant to the caspases or GzmB by overexpressing bcl-2 family anti-apoptotic proteins or caspase or GzmB protease inhibitors are sensitive to GzmA. By activating multiple cell death pathways, killer cells provide better protection against a variety of intracellular pathogens and tumors. GzmA also has proinflammatory activity; it activates pro-interleukin-1beta and may also have other proinflammatory effects that remain to be elucidated.
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Affiliation(s)
- Judy Lieberman
- Immune Disease Institute and Program in Cellular and Molecular Medicine, Children's Hospital Boston, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA.
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36
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Anthony DA, Andrews DM, Watt SV, Trapani JA, Smyth MJ. Functional dissection of the granzyme family: cell death and inflammation. Immunol Rev 2010; 235:73-92. [DOI: 10.1111/j.0105-2896.2010.00907.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 111] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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37
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Zhou F. Expression of Multiple Granzymes by Cytotoxic T Lymphocyte Implies that They Activate Diverse Apoptotic Pathways in Target Cells. Int Rev Immunol 2010; 29:38-55. [DOI: 10.3109/08830180903247889] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/18/2023]
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38
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Abstract
Cytotoxic lymphocytes (CLs) are the killer cells that destroy intracellular pathogen-infected and transformed cells, predominantly through the cytotoxic granule-mediated death pathway. Soluble cytotoxic granule components, including pore-forming perforin and pro-apoptotic serine proteases, granzymes, synergize to induce unscheduled apoptosis of the target cell. A complete loss of CL function results in an aggressive immunoregulatory disorder, familial hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis, whereas a partial loss of function seems to be a factor strongly predisposing to hematological malignancies. This review discusses the pathological manifestations of CL deficiencies due to impaired perforin function and describes novel aspects of perforin biology.
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39
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Bird PI, Trapani JA, Villadangos JA. Endolysosomal proteases and their inhibitors in immunity. Nat Rev Immunol 2009; 9:871-82. [PMID: 19935806 DOI: 10.1038/nri2671] [Citation(s) in RCA: 94] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
Abstract
The cellular endolysosomal compartment is dynamic, complex and incompletely understood. Its organelles and constituents vary between different cell types, but endolysosomal proteases are key components of this compartment in all cells. In immune cells, these proteases function in pathogen recognition and elimination, signal processing and cell homeostasis, and they are regulated by dedicated inhibitors. Pathogens can produce analogous proteases to subvert the host immune response. The balance in activity between a protease and its inhibitor can tune the immune response or cause damage as a result of mislocalized proteolysis. In this Review, we highlight recent developments in this area and emphasize the importance of studying the role of endolysosomal proteases, and their natural inhibitors, in the initiation and regulation of immune responses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Phillip I Bird
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Monash University, Clayton, Victoria 3800, Australia.
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40
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Bem RA, van Woensel JBM, Lutter R, Domachowske JB, Medema JP, Rosenberg HF, Bos AP. Granzyme A- and B-cluster deficiency delays acute lung injury in pneumovirus-infected mice. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2009; 184:931-8. [PMID: 20018616 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.0903029] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
Abstract
Lower respiratory tract infection by the human pneumovirus respiratory syncytial virus is a frequent cause of acute lung injury in children. Severe pneumovirus disease in humans is associated with activation of the granzyme pathway by effector lymphocytes, which may promote pathology by exaggerating proapoptotic caspase activity and proinflammatory activity. The main goal of this study was to determine whether granzymes contribute to the development of acute lung injury in pneumovirus-infected mice. Granzyme-expressing mice and granzyme A- and B-cluster single- and double-knockout mice were inoculated with the rodent pneumovirus pneumonia virus of mice strain J3666, and were studied for markers of lung inflammation and injury. Expression of granzyme A and B is detected in effector lymphocytes in mouse lungs in response to pneumovirus infection. Mice deficient for granzyme A and the granzyme B cluster have unchanged virus titers in the lungs but show a significantly delayed clinical response to fatal pneumovirus infection, a feature that is associated with delayed neutrophil recruitment, diminished activation of caspase-3, and reduced lung permeability. We conclude that granzyme A- and B-cluster deficiency delays the acute progression of pneumovirus disease by reducing alveolar injury.
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Affiliation(s)
- Reinout A Bem
- Pediatric Intensive Care Unit, Emma Children's Hospital, Academic Medical Center, Amsterdam, The Netherlands.
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41
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42
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Froelich CJ, Pardo J, Simon MM. Granule-associated serine proteases: granzymes might not just be killer proteases. Trends Immunol 2009; 30:117-23. [DOI: 10.1016/j.it.2009.01.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/16/2008] [Revised: 01/07/2009] [Accepted: 01/08/2009] [Indexed: 01/17/2023]
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43
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Metkar SS, Menaa C, Pardo J, Wang B, Wallich R, Freudenberg M, Kim S, Raja SM, Shi L, Simon MM, Froelich CJ. Human and mouse granzyme A induce a proinflammatory cytokine response. Immunity 2008; 29:720-33. [PMID: 18951048 DOI: 10.1016/j.immuni.2008.08.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 227] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/13/2007] [Revised: 04/11/2008] [Accepted: 08/12/2008] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
Granzyme A (GzmA) is considered a major proapoptotic protease. We have discovered that GzmA-induced cell death involves rapid membrane damage that depends on the synergy between micromolar concentrations of GzmA and sublytic perforin (PFN). Ironically, GzmA and GzmB, independent of their catalytic activity, both mediated this swift necrosis. Even without PFN, lower concentrations of human GzmA stimulated monocytic cells to secrete proinflammatory cytokines (interleukin-1beta [IL-1beta], TNFalpha, and IL-6) that were blocked by a caspase-1 inhibitor. Moreover, murine GzmA and GzmA(+) cytotoxic T lymphocytes (CTLs) induce IL-1beta from primary mouse macrophages, and GzmA(-/-) mice resist lipopolysaccharide-induced toxicity. Thus, the granule secretory pathway plays an unexpected role in inflammation, with GzmA acting as an endogenous modulator.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sunil S Metkar
- Department of Medicine, NorthShore University HealthSystem Research Institute, Evanston, IL 60201, USA
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44
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Chowdhury D, Lieberman J. Death by a thousand cuts: granzyme pathways of programmed cell death. Annu Rev Immunol 2008; 26:389-420. [PMID: 18304003 DOI: 10.1146/annurev.immunol.26.021607.090404] [Citation(s) in RCA: 445] [Impact Index Per Article: 27.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
The granzymes are cell death-inducing enzymes, stored in the cytotoxic granules of cytotoxic T lymphocytes and natural killer cells, that are released during granule exocytosis when a specific virus-infected or transformed target cell is marked for elimination. Recent work suggests that this homologous family of serine esterases can activate at least three distinct pathways of cell death. This redundancy likely evolved to provide protection against pathogens and tumors with diverse strategies for evading cell death. This review discusses what is known about granzyme-mediated pathways of cell death as well as recent studies that implicate granzymes in immune regulation and extracellular proteolytic functions in inflammation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dipanjan Chowdhury
- Dana Farber Cancer Institute and Department of Radiation Oncology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts 02115, USA.
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45
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Sutton VR, Waterhouse NJ, Baran K, Browne K, Voskoboinik I, Trapani JA. Measuring cell death mediated by cytotoxic lymphocytes or their granule effector molecules. Methods 2008; 44:241-9. [PMID: 18314055 DOI: 10.1016/j.ymeth.2007.11.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/20/2007] [Accepted: 11/20/2007] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Cytotoxic lymphocytes (CL) are highly motile cells that utilize granule exocytosis to kill virus-infected or transformed targets. Isolated CL and purified granule proteins have been used to investigate the molecular processes that CL use to kill their targets and to investigate the basis of human disease. We have set out various methods that are routinely used to isolate CL and characterize the cell death pathways they induce. As cell death mediated through TNF-superfamily members and their respective receptors is covered elsewhere, this manuscript will deal specifically with cytotoxic granule-mediated cell death.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vivien R Sutton
- Cancer Cell Death Laboratory, Peter MacCallum Cancer Centre, Locked Bag 1, A'Beckett Street, Melbourne, Vic. 8006, Australia
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46
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Baschuk N, Utermöhlen O, Gugel R, Warnecke G, Karow U, Paulsen D, Brombacher F, Krönke M, Deppert W. Interleukin-4 impairs granzyme-mediated cytotoxicity of Simian virus 40 large tumor antigen-specific CTL in BALB/c mice. Cancer Immunol Immunother 2007; 56:1625-36. [PMID: 17431618 PMCID: PMC11030854 DOI: 10.1007/s00262-007-0309-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/07/2006] [Accepted: 02/26/2007] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
In this report we analyzed the impact of interleukin-4 (IL-4) on tumor-associated simian virus 40 (SV40) large T-antigen (TAg)-specific CD8+ cytotoxic T cells during rejection of syngeneic SV40 transformed mKSA tumor cells in BALB/c mice. Strikingly, challenge of naïve mice with low doses of mKSA tumor cells revealed a CD8+ T cell-dependent prolonged survival time of naïve IL-4-/- mice. In mice immunized with SV40 TAg we observed in IL-4-/- mice, or in wild type mice treated with neutralizing anti-IL-4 monoclonal antibody, a strongly enhanced TAg-specific cytotoxicity of tumor associated CD8+ T cells. The enhanced cytotoxicity in IL-4-/- mice was accompanied by a significant increase in the fraction of CD8+ tumor associated T-cells expressing the cytotoxic effector molecules granzyme A and B and in granzyme B-specific enzymatic activity. The data suggest that endogenous IL-4 can suppress the generation of CD8+ CTL expressing cytotoxic effector molecules especially when the antigen induces only a very weak CTL response.
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MESH Headings
- Animals
- Antibodies, Monoclonal/pharmacology
- Antigens, Polyomavirus Transforming/immunology
- Antigens, Viral, Tumor/immunology
- Cell Line, Transformed
- Cytotoxicity, Immunologic/genetics
- Granzymes/metabolism
- Interleukin-4/antagonists & inhibitors
- Interleukin-4/genetics
- Interleukin-4/physiology
- Mice
- Mice, Inbred BALB C
- Mice, Mutant Strains
- Neoplasms/immunology
- T-Lymphocytes, Cytotoxic/enzymology
- T-Lymphocytes, Cytotoxic/immunology
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Affiliation(s)
- Nikola Baschuk
- Institute for Medical Microbiology, Immunology und Hygiene, Medical Center of the University of Cologne, 50935 Cologne, Germany
| | - Olaf Utermöhlen
- Institute for Medical Microbiology, Immunology und Hygiene, Medical Center of the University of Cologne, 50935 Cologne, Germany
| | - Roland Gugel
- Heinrich-Pette-Institute for Experimental Virology and Immunology, University of Hamburg, 20251 Hamburg, Germany
- Present Address: PolyGene AG, 8153 Rümlang, Switzerland
| | - Gabriele Warnecke
- Heinrich-Pette-Institute for Experimental Virology and Immunology, University of Hamburg, 20251 Hamburg, Germany
| | - Ulrike Karow
- Institute for Medical Microbiology, Immunology und Hygiene, Medical Center of the University of Cologne, 50935 Cologne, Germany
| | - Daniela Paulsen
- Heinrich-Pette-Institute for Experimental Virology and Immunology, University of Hamburg, 20251 Hamburg, Germany
- Present Address: AiCuris GmbH & Co. KG, Aprather Weg 18a / Geb. 405, 42113 Wuppertal, Germany
| | - Frank Brombacher
- Institute for Infectious Diseases and Molecular Medicine (IIDMM), University of Cape Town, 7925 Cape Town, South Africa
| | - Martin Krönke
- Institute for Medical Microbiology, Immunology und Hygiene, Medical Center of the University of Cologne, 50935 Cologne, Germany
- Center for Molecular Medicine, University of Cologne, 50935 Cologne, Germany
| | - Wolfgang Deppert
- Heinrich-Pette-Institute for Experimental Virology and Immunology, University of Hamburg, 20251 Hamburg, Germany
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47
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Fehniger TA, Cai SF, Cao X, Bredemeyer AJ, Presti RM, French AR, Ley TJ. Acquisition of murine NK cell cytotoxicity requires the translation of a pre-existing pool of granzyme B and perforin mRNAs. Immunity 2007; 26:798-811. [PMID: 17540585 DOI: 10.1016/j.immuni.2007.04.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 333] [Impact Index Per Article: 19.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/17/2006] [Revised: 03/28/2007] [Accepted: 04/04/2007] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
Although activated murine NK cells can use the granule exocytosis pathway to kill target cells immediately upon recognition, resting murine NK cells are minimally cytotoxic for unknown reasons. Here, we showed that resting NK cells contained abundant granzyme A, but little granzyme B or perforin; in contrast, the mRNAs for all three genes were abundant. Cytokine-induced in vitro activation of NK cells resulted in potent cytotoxicity associated with a dramatic increase in granzyme B and perforin, but only minimal changes in mRNA abundance for these genes. The same pattern of regulation was found in vivo with murine cytomegalovirus infection as a physiologic model of NK cell activation. These data suggest that resting murine NK cells are minimally cytotoxic because of a block in perforin and granzyme B mRNA translation that is released by NK cell activation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Todd A Fehniger
- Division of Oncology, Department of Internal Medicine, Siteman Cancer Center, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO 63110, USA
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48
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Andrade F, Fellows E, Jenne DE, Rosen A, Young CSH. Granzyme H destroys the function of critical adenoviral proteins required for viral DNA replication and granzyme B inhibition. EMBO J 2007; 26:2148-57. [PMID: 17363894 PMCID: PMC1852776 DOI: 10.1038/sj.emboj.7601650] [Citation(s) in RCA: 83] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/25/2007] [Accepted: 02/22/2007] [Indexed: 11/08/2022] Open
Abstract
Granzymes are key components of the immune response that play important roles in eliminating host cells infected by intracellular pathogens. Several granzymes are potent inducers of cell death. However, whether granzymes use additional mechanisms to exert their antipathogen activity remains elusive. Here, we show that in adenovirus-infected cells in which granzyme B (gzmB) and downstream apoptosis pathways are inhibited, granzyme H (gzmH), an orphan granzyme without known function, directly cleaves the adenovirus DNA-binding protein (DBP), a viral component absolutely required for viral DNA replication. We directly addressed the functional consequences of the cleavage of the DBP by gzmH through the generation of a virus that encodes a gzmH-resistant DBP. This virus demonstrated that gzmH directly induces an important decay in viral DNA replication. Interestingly, gzmH also cleaves the adenovirus 100K assembly protein, a major inhibitor of gzmB, and relieves gzmB inhibition. These results provide the first evidence that granzymes can mediate antiviral activity through direct cleavage of viral substrates, and further suggest that different granzymes have synergistic functions to outflank viral defenses that block host antiviral activities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Felipe Andrade
- Department of Immunology and Rheumatology, Instituto Nacional de Ciencias Médicas y Nutrición Salvador Zubirán, México City, Mexico.
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49
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Sutton VR, Waterhouse NJ, Browne KA, Sedelies K, Ciccone A, Anthony D, Koskinen A, Mullbacher A, Trapani JA. Residual active granzyme B in cathepsin C-null lymphocytes is sufficient for perforin-dependent target cell apoptosis. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2007; 176:425-33. [PMID: 17283185 PMCID: PMC2063978 DOI: 10.1083/jcb.200609077] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Cathepsin C activates serine proteases expressed in hematopoietic cells by cleaving an N-terminal dipeptide from the proenzyme upon granule packaging. The lymphocytes of cathepsin C–null mice are therefore proposed to totally lack granzyme B activity and perforin-dependent cytotoxicity. Surprisingly, we show, using live cell microscopy and other methodologies, that cells targeted by allogenic CD8+ cytotoxic T lymphocyte (CTL) raised in cathepsin C–null mice die through perforin-dependent apoptosis indistinguishable from that induced by wild-type CTL. The cathepsin C–null CTL expressed reduced but still appreciable granzyme B activity, but minimal granzyme A activity. Also, in contrast to mice with inactivation of both their granzyme A/B genes, cathepsin C deficiency did not confer susceptibility to ectromelia virus infection in vivo. Overall, our results indicate that although cathepsin C clearly generates the majority of granzyme B activity, some is still generated in its absence, pointing to alternative mechanisms for granzyme B processing and activation. Cathepsin C deficiency also results in considerably milder immune deficiency than perforin or granzyme A/B deficiency.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vivien R Sutton
- Cancer Immunology Program, Research Division, Peter MacCallum Cancer Centre, East Melbourne, VIC, Australia
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50
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van Dommelen SLH, Sumaria N, Schreiber RD, Scalzo AA, Smyth MJ, Degli-Esposti MA. Perforin and Granzymes Have Distinct Roles in Defensive Immunity and Immunopathology. Immunity 2006; 25:835-48. [PMID: 17088087 DOI: 10.1016/j.immuni.2006.09.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 108] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/11/2006] [Revised: 08/11/2006] [Accepted: 09/06/2006] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
Abstract
Successful control of viral infection requires the host to eliminate the infecting pathogen without causing overt immunopathology. Here we showed that perforin (Prf1) and granzymes (Gzms) have distinct roles in defensive immunity and immunopathology in a well-established model of viral infection. Both Prf1 and Gzms drastically affected the outcome of murine cytomegalovirus (MCMV) infection. Viral titres increased markedly in both Prf1(-/-) and Gzma(-/-)Gzmb(-/-) mice, but Gzma(-/-)Gzmb(-/-) mice recovered and survived infection, whereas Prf1(-/-) mice did not. Indeed, infected Prf1-deficient hosts developed a fatal hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis (HLH)-like syndrome. This distinction in outcome depended on accumulation of mononuclear cells and T cells in infected Prf1(-/-) mice. Importantly, blocking experiments that clearly identified tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-alpha) as the principal contributor to the lethality observed in infected Prf1(-/-) mice provided support for the clinical potential of such an approach in HLH patients whose disease is triggered by viral infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Serani L H van Dommelen
- Immunology and Virology Program, Centre for Ophthalmology and Visual Science, The University of Western Australia, Western Australia, Australia
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