Making the case: married versus separate models of alphaherpes virus anterograde transport in axons

The gE/gI complex is necessary for kinesin-1 recruitment during alphaherpesvirus egress from neurons

Following reactivation of a latent alphaherpesvirus infection, viral particles are assembled in neuronal cell bodies, trafficked anterogradely within axons to nerve termini, and spread to adjacent epithelial cells. The virally encoded membrane proteins US9p and the glycoprotein heterodimer gE/gI of pseudorabies virus (PRV) and herpes simplex virus type 1 (HSV-1) play critical roles in anterograde spread, likely as a tripartite gE/gI-US9p complex. Two kinesin motors, kinesin-1 and kinesin-3, are implicated in the egress of these viruses, but how gE/gI-US9p coordinates their activities is poorly understood. Here, we report that PRV, in addition to associating with the kinesin-3 motor KIF1A, recruits the neuronal kinesin-1 isoforms KIF5A and KIF5C, but not the broadly expressed isoform KIF5B, during egress from differentiated CAD neurons. Similarly, in the axons of dorsal root ganglia (DRG)-derived sensory neurons, PRV colocalized with KIF5C but not KIF5B. In differentiated CAD cells, the association of KIF1A with egressing PRV was dependent upon US9p, whereas the recruitment of KIF5 isoforms required gE/gI. Consistent with these findings, the number of PRV particles trafficking within CAD neurites and the axons of DRG neurons increased when kinesin-1 motor activity was upregulated by hyperacetylating microtubules using trichostatin A (TSA) or tubacin, and this enhanced trafficking depended upon the presence of gE/gI. We propose that, following its recruitment by US9p, KIF1A delivers PRV particles to a location where KIF5 motors are subsequently added by a gE/gI-dependent mechanism. KIF5A/C isoforms then serve to traffic viral particles along axons, resulting in characteristic recrudescent infection.

IMPORTANCE

Alphaherpesviruses include important human and veterinary pathogens that share a unique propensity to establish life-long latent infections in the peripheral nervous system. Upon reactivation, these viruses navigate back to body surfaces and transmit to new hosts. In this study, we demonstrate that the virus gE/gI-US9p membrane complex routes virus particles down this complex neuronal egress pathway by coordinating their association with multiple kinesin microtubule motors.

Pseudorabies virus hijacks DDX3X, initiating an addictive "mad itch" and immune suppression, to facilitate viral spread

Infections with defined Herpesviruses, such as Pseudorabies virus (PRV) and Varicella zoster virus (VZV) can cause neuropathic itch, referred to as "mad itch" in multiple species. The underlying mechanisms involved in neuropathic "mad itch" are poorly understood. Here, we show that PRV infections hijack the RNA helicase DDX3X in sensory neurons to facilitate anterograde transport of the virus along axons. PRV induces re-localization of DDX3X from the cell body to the axons which ultimately leads to death of the infected sensory neurons. Inducible genetic ablation of Ddx3x in sensory neurons results in neuronal death and "mad itch" in mice. This neuropathic "mad itch" is propagated through activation of the opioid system making the animals "addicted to itch". Moreover, we show that PRV co-opts and diverts T cell development in the thymus via a sensory neuron-IL-6-hypothalamus-corticosterone stress pathway. Our data reveal how PRV, through regulation of DDX3X in sensory neurons, travels along axons and triggers neuropathic itch and immune deviations to initiate pathophysiological programs which facilitate its spread to enhance infectivity.

Monosynaptic restriction of the anterograde herpes simplex virus strain H129 for neural circuit tracing

Identification of synaptic partners is a fundamental task for systems neuroscience. To date, few reliable techniques exist for whole brain labeling of downstream synaptic partners in a cell-type-dependent and monosynaptic manner. Herein, we describe a novel monosynaptic anterograde tracing system based on the deletion of the gene UL6 from the genome of a cre-dependent version of the anterograde Herpes Simplex Virus 1 strain H129. Given that this knockout blocks viral genome packaging and thus viral spread, we reasoned that co-infection of a HSV H129 ΔUL6 virus with a recombinant adeno-associated virus expressing UL6 in a cre-dependent manner would result in monosynaptic spread from target cre-expressing neuronal populations. Application of this system to five nonreciprocal neural circuits resulted in labeling of neurons in expected projection areas. While some caveats may preclude certain applications, this system provides a reliable method to label postsynaptic partners in a brain-wide fashion.

An ESCRT/VPS4 envelopment trap to examine the mechanism of alphaherpesvirus assembly and transport in neurons

The assembly and egress of alphaherpesviruses, including Herpes simplex virus type 1 (HSV-1) and Pseudorabies virus (PRV), within neurons is poorly understood. A key unresolved question is the structure of the viral particle that moves by anterograde transport along the axon, and two alternative mechanisms have been described. In the "Married" model capsids acquire their envelopes in the cell body, then traffic along axons as enveloped virions within a bounding organelle. In the "Separate" model non-enveloped capsids travel from the cell body into and along the axon, eventually encountering their envelopment organelles at a distal site such as the nerve cell terminal. Here we describe an "envelopment trap" to test these models using the dominant negative terminal ESCRT component VPS4-EQ. GFP-tagged VPS4-EQ was used to arrest HSV-1 or PRV capsid envelopment, inhibit downstream trafficking and GFP-label envelopment intermediates. We found that GFP-VPS4-EQ inhibited trafficking of HSV-1 capsids into and along the neurites and axons of mouse CAD cells and rat embryonic primary cortical neurons, consistent with egress via the married pathway. In contrast, transport of HSV-1 capsids was unaffected in the neurites of human SK-N-SH neuroblastoma cells, consistent with the separate mechanism. Unexpectedly, PRV (generally thought to utilize the married pathway) also appeared to employ the separate mechanism in SK-N-SH cells. We propose that apparent differences in the methods of HSV-1 and PRV egress are more likely a reflection of the host neuron in which transport is studied, rather than true biological differences between the viruses themselves. IMPORTANCE Alphaherpesviruses, including Herpes simplex virus type 1 (HSV-1) and Pseudorabies virus (PRV), are pathogens of the nervous system. They replicate in the nerve cell body then travel great distances along axons to reach nerve termini and spread to adjacent epithelial cells, however key aspects of how these viruses travel along axons remain controversial. Here we test two alternative mechanisms for transport, the married and separate models, by blocking envelope assembly, a critical step in viral egress. When we arrest formation of the viral envelope using a mutated component of the cellular ESCRT apparatus we find that entry of viral particles into axons is blocked in some types of neuron, but not others. This approach allows us to determine whether envelope assembly occurs prior to entry of viruses into axons, or afterwards, and thus to distinguish between the alternative models for viral transport.

Methods and Applications of Campenot Trichamber Neuronal Cultures for the Study of Neuroinvasive Viruses

The development of compartmentalized neuron culture systems has been invaluable in the study of neuroinvasive viruses, including the alpha herpesviruses Herpes Simplex Virus 1 (HSV-1) and Pseudorabies Virus (PRV). This chapter provides updated protocols for assembling and culturing rodent embryonic superior cervical ganglion (SCG) and dorsal root ganglion (DRG) neurons in Campenot trichamber cultures. In addition, we provide several illustrative examples of the types of experiments that are enabled by Campenot cultures: (1) Using fluorescence microscopy to investigate axonal outgrowth/extension through the chambers, and alpha herpesvirus infection, intracellular trafficking, and cell-cell spread via axons. (2) Using correlative fluorescence microscopy and cryo electron tomography to investigate the ultrastructure of virus particles trafficking in axons.

Pathogenesis and virulence of herpes simplex virus

Two of the most prevalent human viruses worldwide, herpes simplex virus type 1 and type 2 (HSV-1 and HSV-2, respectively), cause a variety of diseases, including cold sores, genital herpes, herpes stromal keratitis, meningitis and encephalitis. The intrinsic, innate and adaptive immune responses are key to control HSV, and the virus has developed mechanisms to evade them. The immune response can also contribute to pathogenesis, as observed in stromal keratitis and encephalitis. The fact that certain individuals are more prone than others to suffer severe disease upon HSV infection can be partially explained by the existence of genetic polymorphisms in humans. Like all herpesviruses, HSV has two replication cycles: lytic and latent. During lytic replication HSV produces infectious viral particles to infect other cells and organisms, while during latency there is limited gene expression and lack of infectious virus particles. HSV establishes latency in neurons and can cause disease both during primary infection and upon reactivation. The mechanisms leading to latency and reactivation and which are the viral and host factors controlling these processes are not completely understood. Here we review the HSV life cycle, the interaction of HSV with the immune system and three of the best-studied pathologies: Herpes stromal keratitis, herpes simplex encephalitis and genital herpes. We also discuss the potential association between HSV-1 infection and Alzheimer's disease.

Motor Skills: Recruitment of Kinesins, Myosins and Dynein during Assembly and Egress of Alphaherpesviruses

The alphaherpesviruses are pathogens of the mammalian nervous system. Initial infection is commonly at mucosal epithelia, followed by spread to, and establishment of latency in, the peripheral nervous system. During productive infection, viral gene expression, replication of the dsDNA genome, capsid assembly and genome packaging take place in the infected cell nucleus, after which mature nucleocapsids emerge into the cytoplasm. Capsids must then travel to their site of envelopment at cytoplasmic organelles, and enveloped virions need to reach the cell surface for release and spread. Transport at each of these steps requires movement of alphaherpesvirus particles through a crowded and viscous cytoplasm, and for distances ranging from several microns in epithelial cells, to millimeters or even meters during egress from neurons. To solve this challenging problem alphaherpesviruses, and their assembly intermediates, exploit microtubule- and actin-dependent cellular motors. This review focuses upon the mechanisms used by alphaherpesviruses to recruit kinesin, myosin and dynein motors during assembly and egress.

Transneuronal Degeneration in the Brain During Glaucoma

The death of retinal ganglion cells (RGCs) is a key factor in the pathophysiology of all types of glaucoma, but the mechanism of pathogenesis of glaucoma remains unclear. RGCs are a group of central nervous system (CNS) neurons whose soma are in the inner retina. The axons of RGCs form the optic nerve and converge at the optic chiasma; from there, they project to the visual cortex via the lateral geniculate nucleus (LGN). In recent years, there has been increasing interest in the dysfunction and death of CNS and retinal neurons caused by transneuronal degeneration of RGCs, and the view that glaucoma is a widespread neurodegenerative disease involving CNS damage appears more and more frequently in the literature. In this review, we summarize the current knowledge of LGN and visual cortex neuron damage in glaucoma and possible mechanisms behind the damage. This review presents an updated and expanded view of neuronal damage in glaucoma, and reveals new and potential targets for neuroprotection and treatment.

Anterograde transport of α-herpesviruses in neuronal axons

α-herpesviruses have been very successful, principally because they establish lifelong latency in sensory ganglia. An essential piece of the lifecycle of α-herpesviruses involves the capacity to travel from sensory neurons to epithelial tissues following virus reactivation from latency, a process known as anterograde transport. Virus particles formed in neuron cell bodies hitchhike on kinesin motors that run along microtubules, the length of axons. Herpes simplex virus (HSV) and pseudorabies virus (PRV) have been intensely studied to elucidate anterograde axonal transport. Both viruses use similar strategies for anterograde transport, although there are significant differences in the form of virus particles transported in axons, the identity of the kinesins that transport viruses, and how certain viral membrane proteins, gE/gI and US9, participate in this process. This review compares the older models for HSV and PRV anterograde transport with recent results, which are casting a new light on several aspects of this process.

HSV-1 Cytoplasmic Envelopment and Egress

Herpes simplex virus type 1 (HSV-1) is a structurally complex enveloped dsDNA virus that has evolved to replicate in human neurons and epithelia. Viral gene expression, DNA replication, capsid assembly, and genome packaging take place in the infected cell nucleus, which mature nucleocapsids exit by envelopment at the inner nuclear membrane then de-envelopment into the cytoplasm. Once in the cytoplasm, capsids travel along microtubules to reach, dock, and envelope at cytoplasmic organelles. This generates mature infectious HSV-1 particles that must then be sorted to the termini of sensory neurons, or to epithelial cell junctions, for spread to uninfected cells. The focus of this review is upon our current understanding of the viral and cellular molecular machinery that enables HSV-1 to travel within infected cells during egress and to manipulate cellular organelles to construct its envelope.

Anterograde Viral Tracer Herpes Simplex Virus 1 Strain H129 Transports Primarily as Capsids in Cortical Neuron Axons

The features of herpes simplex virus 1 (HSV-1) strain 129 (H129), including natural neurotropism and anterograde transneuronal trafficking, make it a potential tool for anterograde neural circuitry tracing. Recently anterograde polysynaptic and monosynaptic tracers were developed from H129 and have been applied for the identification of novel connections and functions of different neural circuitries. However, how H129 viral particles are transported in neurons, especially those of the central nervous system, remains unclear. In this study, we constructed recombinant H129 variants with mCherry-labeled capsids and/or green fluorescent protein (GFP)-labeled envelopes and infected the cortical neurons to study axonal transport of H129 viral particles. We found that different types of viral particles were unevenly distributed in the nucleus, cytoplasm of the cell body, and axon. Most H129 progeny particles were unenveloped capsids and were transported as capsids rather than virions in the axon. Notably, capsids acquired envelopes at axonal varicosities and terminals where the sites forming synapses are connected with other neurons. Moreover, viral capsids moved more frequently in the anterograde direction in axons, with an average velocity of 0.62 ± 0.18 μm/s and maximal velocity of 1.80 ± 0.15 μm/s. We also provided evidence that axonal transport of capsids requires the kinesin-1 molecular motor. These findings support that H129-derived tracers map the neural circuit anterogradely and possibly transsynaptically. These data will guide future modifications and improvements of H129-based anterograde viral tracers.IMPORTANCE Anterograde transneuronal tracers derived from herpes simplex virus 1 (HSV-1) strain 129 (H129) are important tools for mapping neural circuit anatomic and functional connections. It is, therefore, critical to elucidate the transport pattern of H129 within neurons and between neurons. We constructed recombinant H129 variants with genetically encoded fluorescence-labeled capsid protein and/or glycoprotein to visualize viral particle movement in neurons. Both electron microscopy and light microscopy data show that H129 capsids and envelopes move separately, and notably, capsids are enveloped at axonal varicosity and terminals, which are the sites forming synapses to connect with other neurons. Superresolution microscopy-based colocalization analysis and inhibition of H129 particle movement by inhibitors of molecular motors support that kinesin-1 contributes to the anterograde transport of capsids. These results shed light into the mechanisms for anterograde transport of H129-derived tracer in axons and transmission between neurons via synapses, explaining the anterograde labeling of neural circuits by H129-derived tracers.

Mechanisms of Pathogen Invasion into the Central Nervous System

CNS infections continue to rise in incidence in conjunction with increases in immunocompromised populations or conditions that contribute to the emergence of pathogens, such as global travel, climate change, and human encroachment on animal territories. The severity and complexity of these diseases is impacted by the diversity of etiologic agents and their routes of neuroinvasion. In this review, we present historical, clinical, and molecular concepts regarding the mechanisms of pathogen invasion of the CNS. We also discuss the structural components of CNS compartments that influence pathogen entry and recent discoveries of the pathways exploited by pathogens to facilitate CNS infections. Advances in our understanding of the CNS invasion mechanisms of different neurotropic pathogens may enable the development of strategies to control their entry and deliver drugs to mitigate established infections.

Microtubule-Dependent Trafficking of Alphaherpesviruses in the Nervous System: The Ins and Outs

The Alphaherpesvirinae include the neurotropic pathogens herpes simplex virus and varicella zoster virus of humans and pseudorabies virus of swine. These viruses establish lifelong latency in the nuclei of peripheral ganglia, but utilize the peripheral tissues those neurons innervate for productive replication, spread, and transmission. Delivery of virions from replicative pools to the sites of latency requires microtubule-directed retrograde axonal transport from the nerve terminus to the cell body of the sensory neuron. As a corollary, during reactivation newly assembled virions must travel along axonal microtubules in the anterograde direction to return to the nerve terminus and infect peripheral tissues, completing the cycle. Neurotropic alphaherpesviruses can therefore exploit neuronal microtubules and motors for long distance axonal transport, and alternate between periods of sustained plus end- and minus end-directed motion at different stages of their infectious cycle. This review summarizes our current understanding of the molecular details by which this is achieved.

Hitchhiking on the neuronal highway: Mechanisms of transsynaptic specificity

Transsynaptic viral tracers are an invaluable neuroanatomical tool to define neuronal circuit connectivity across single or multiple synapses. There are variants that label either inputs or outputs of defined starter populations, most of which are based on the herpes and rabies viruses. However, we still have an incomplete understanding of the factors influencing specificity of neuron-neuron transmission and labeling of inputs vs. outputs. This article will touch on three topics: First, how specific are the directional transmission patterns of these viruses? Second, what are the properties that confer synaptic specificity of viral transmission? Lastly, what can we learn from this specificity, and can we use it to devise better transsynaptic tracers?

Infection and Transport of Herpes Simplex Virus Type 1 in Neurons: Role of the Cytoskeleton

Herpes simplex virus type 1 (HSV-1) is a neuroinvasive human pathogen that has the ability to infect and replicate within epithelial cells and neurons and establish a life-long latent infection in sensory neurons. HSV-1 depends on the host cellular cytoskeleton for entry, replication, and exit. Therefore, HSV-1 has adapted mechanisms to promote its survival by exploiting the microtubule and actin cytoskeletons to direct its active transport, infection, and spread between neurons and epithelial cells during primary and recurrent infections. This review will focus on the currently known mechanisms utilized by HSV-1 to harness the neuronal cytoskeleton, molecular motors, and the secretory and exocytic pathways for efficient virus entry, axonal transport, replication, assembly, and exit from the distinct functional compartments (cell body and axon) of the highly polarized sensory neurons.

Virus Assembly and Egress of HSV

The assembly and egress of herpes simplex virus (HSV) is a complicated multistage process that involves several different cellular compartments and the activity of many viral and cellular proteins. The process begins in the nucleus, with capsid assembly followed by genome packaging into the preformed capsids. The DNA-filled capsids (nucleocapsids) then exit the nucleus by a process of envelopment at the inner nuclear membrane followed by fusion with the outer nuclear membrane. In the cytoplasm nucleocapsids associate with tegument proteins, which form a complicated protein network that links the nucleocapsid to the cytoplasmic domains of viral envelope proteins. Nucleocapsids and associated tegument then undergo secondary envelopment at intracellular membranes originating from late secretory pathway and endosomal compartments. This leads to assembled virions in the lumen of large cytoplasmic vesicles, which are then transported to the cell periphery to fuse with the plasma membrane and release virus particles from the cell. The details of this multifaceted process are described in this chapter.

Inner tegument proteins of Herpes Simplex Virus are sufficient for intracellular capsid motility in neurons but not for axonal targeting

Upon reactivation from latency and during lytic infections in neurons, alphaherpesviruses assemble cytosolic capsids, capsids associated with enveloping membranes, and transport vesicles harboring fully enveloped capsids. It is debated whether capsid envelopment of herpes simplex virus (HSV) is completed in the soma prior to axonal targeting or later, and whether the mechanisms are the same in neurons derived from embryos or from adult hosts. We used HSV mutants impaired in capsid envelopment to test whether the inner tegument proteins pUL36 or pUL37 necessary for microtubule-mediated capsid transport were sufficient for axonal capsid targeting in neurons derived from the dorsal root ganglia of adult mice. Such neurons were infected with HSV1-ΔUL20 whose capsids recruited pUL36 and pUL37, with HSV1-ΔUL37 whose capsids associate only with pUL36, or with HSV1-ΔUL36 that assembles capsids lacking both proteins. While capsids of HSV1-ΔUL20 were actively transported along microtubules in epithelial cells and in the somata of neurons, those of HSV1-ΔUL36 and -ΔUL37 could only diffuse in the cytoplasm. Employing a novel image analysis algorithm to quantify capsid targeting to axons, we show that only a few capsids of HSV1-ΔUL20 entered axons, while vesicles transporting gD utilized axonal transport efficiently and independently of pUL36, pUL37, or pUL20. Our data indicate that capsid motility in the somata of neurons mediated by pUL36 and pUL37 does not suffice for targeting capsids to axons, and suggest that capsid envelopment needs to be completed in the soma prior to targeting of herpes simplex virus to the axons, and to spreading from neurons to neighboring cells.

Assembly and Egress of an Alphaherpesvirus Clockwork

All viruses produce infectious particles that possess some degree of stability in the extracellular environment yet disassemble upon cell contact and entry. For the alphaherpesviruses, which include many neuroinvasive viruses of mammals, these metastable virions consist of an icosahedral capsid surrounded by a protein matrix (referred to as the tegument) and a lipid envelope studded with glycoproteins. Whereas the capsid of these viruses is a rigid structure encasing the DNA genome, the tegument and envelope are dynamic assemblies that orchestrate a sequential series of events that ends with the delivery of the genome into the nucleus. These particles are adapted to infect two different polarized cell types in their hosts: epithelial cells and neurons of the peripheral nervous system. This review considers how the virion is assembled into a primed state and is targeted to infect these cell types such that the incoming particles can subsequently negotiate the diverse environments they encounter on their way from plasma membrane to nucleus and thereby achieve their remarkably robust neuroinvasive infectious cycle.

Asna1/TRC40 that mediates membrane insertion of tail-anchored proteins is required for efficient release of Herpes simplex virus 1 virions

BACKGROUND

Herpes simplex virus type 1 (HSV1), a member of the alphaherpesvirinae, can cause recurrent facial lesions and encephalitis. Two membrane envelopment processes, one at the inner nuclear membrane and a second at cytoplasmic membranes are crucial for a productive viral infection. Depending on the subfamily, herpesviruses encode more than 11 different transmembrane proteins including members of the tail-anchored protein family. HSV1 encodes three tail-anchored proteins pUL34, pUL56 and pUS9 characterized by a single hydrophobic region positioned at their C-terminal end that needs to be released from the ribosome prior to posttranslational membrane insertion. Asna1/TRC40 is an ATPase that targets tail-anchored proteins to the endoplasmic reticulum in a receptor-dependent manner. Cell biological data point to a critical and general role of Asna1/TRC40 in tail-anchored protein biogenesis. With this study, we aimed to determine the importance of the tail-anchored insertion machinery for HSV1 infection.

METHODS

To determine protein-protein interactions, the yeast-two hybrid system was applied. Asna1/TRC40 was depleted using RNA interference. Transient transfection and virus infection experiments followed by indirect immunofluorescence analysis were applied to analyse the localization of viral proteins as well as the impact of Asna1/TRC40 depletion on virus infection.

RESULTS

All HSV1 tail-anchored proteins specifically bound to Asna1/TRC40 but independently localized to their target membranes. While non-essential for cell viability, Asna1/TRC40 is required for efficient HSV1 replication. We show that early events of the replication cycle like virion entry and overall viral gene expression were unaffected by depletion of Asna1/TRC40. Furthermore, equal amounts of infectious virions were formed and remained cell-associated. This indicated that both nuclear egress of capsids that requires the essential tail-anchored protein pUL34, and secondary envelopment to form infectious virions were successfully completed. Despite large part of the virus life cycle proceeding normally, viral propagation was more than 10 fold reduced. We show that depletion of Asna1/TRC40 specifically affected a step late in infection during release of infectious virions to the extracellular milieu.

CONCLUSIONS

Asna1/TRC40 is required at a late step of herpesviral infection for efficient release of mature virions to the extracellular milieu. This study reveals novel tools to decipher exocytosis of newly formed virions as well as hitherto unknown cellular targets for antiviral therapy.

Dual-Color Herpesvirus Capsids Discriminate Inoculum from Progeny and Reveal Axonal Transport Dynamics

Alphaherpesviruses such as herpes simplex virus and pseudorabies virus (PRV) are neuroinvasive double-stranded DNA (dsDNA) viruses that establish lifelong latency in peripheral nervous system (PNS) neurons of their native hosts. Following reactivation, infection can spread back to the initial mucosal site of infection or, in rare cases, to the central nervous system, with usually serious outcomes. During entry and egress, viral capsids depend on microtubule-based molecular motors for efficient and fast transport. In axons of PNS neurons, cytoplasmic dynein provides force for retrograde movements toward the soma, and kinesins move cargo in the opposite, anterograde direction. The dynamic properties of virus particles in cells can be imaged by fluorescent protein fusions to the small capsid protein VP26, which are incorporated into capsids. However, single-color fluorescent protein tags fail to distinguish the virus inoculum from progeny. Therefore, we established a dual-color system by growing a recombinant PRV expressing a red fluorescent VP26 fusion (PRV180) on a stable cell line expressing a green VP26 fusion (PK15-mNG-VP26). The resulting dual-color virus preparation (PRV180G) contains capsids tagged with both red and green fluorescent proteins, and 97% of particles contain detectable levels of mNeonGreen (mNG)-tagged VP26. After replication in neuronal cells, all PRV180G progeny exclusively contain monomeric red fluorescent protein (mRFP)-VP26-tagged capsids. We used PRV180G for an analysis of axonal capsid transport dynamics in PNS neurons. Fast dual-color total internal reflection fluorescence (TIRF) microscopy, single-particle tracking, and motility analyses reveal robust, bidirectional capsid motility mediated by cytoplasmic dynein and kinesin during entry, whereas egressing progeny particles are transported exclusively by kinesins. IMPORTANCE Alphaherpesviruses are neuroinvasive viruses that infect the peripheral nervous system (PNS) of infected hosts as an integral part of their life cycle. Establishment of a quiescent or latent infection in PNS neurons is a hallmark of most alphaherpesviruses. Spread of infection to the central nervous system is surprisingly rare in natural hosts but can be fatal. Pseudorabies virus (PRV) is a broad-host-range swine alphaherpesvirus that enters neuronal cells and utilizes intracellular transport processes to establish infection and to spread between cells. By using a virus preparation with fluorescent viral capsids that change color depending on the stage of the infectious cycle, we find that during entry, axons of PNS neurons support robust, bidirectional capsid motility, similar to cellular cargo, toward the cell body. In contrast, progeny particles appear to be transported unidirectionally by kinesin motors toward distal egress sites.

Fluorescent Protein Approaches in Alpha Herpesvirus Research

In the nearly two decades since the popularization of green fluorescent protein (GFP), fluorescent protein-based methodologies have revolutionized molecular and cell biology, allowing us to literally see biological processes as never before. Naturally, this revolution has extended to virology in general, and to the study of alpha herpesviruses in particular. In this review, we provide a compendium of reported fluorescent protein fusions to herpes simplex virus 1 (HSV-1) and pseudorabies virus (PRV) structural proteins, discuss the underappreciated challenges of fluorescent protein-based approaches in the context of a replicating virus, and describe general strategies and best practices for creating new fluorescent fusions. We compare fluorescent protein methods to alternative approaches, and review two instructive examples of the caveats associated with fluorescent protein fusions, including describing several improved fluorescent capsid fusions in PRV. Finally, we present our future perspectives on the types of powerful experiments these tools now offer.

Neuroanatomy goes viral!

The nervous system is complex not simply because of the enormous number of neurons it contains but by virtue of the specificity with which they are connected. Unraveling this specificity is the task of neuroanatomy. In this endeavor, neuroanatomists have traditionally exploited an impressive array of tools ranging from the Golgi method to electron microscopy. An ideal method for studying anatomy would label neurons that are interconnected, and, in addition, allow expression of foreign genes in these neurons. Fortuitously, nature has already partially developed such a method in the form of neurotropic viruses, which have evolved to deliver their genetic material between synaptically connected neurons while largely eluding glia and the immune system. While these characteristics make some of these viruses a threat to human health, simple modifications allow them to be used in controlled experimental settings, thus enabling neuroanatomists to trace multi-synaptic connections within and across brain regions. Wild-type neurotropic viruses, such as rabies and alpha-herpes virus, have already contributed greatly to our understanding of brain connectivity, and modern molecular techniques have enabled the construction of recombinant forms of these and other viruses. These newly engineered reagents are particularly useful, as they can target genetically defined populations of neurons, spread only one synapse to either inputs or outputs, and carry instructions by which the targeted neurons can be made to express exogenous proteins, such as calcium sensors or light-sensitive ion channels, that can be used to study neuronal function. In this review, we address these uniquely powerful features of the viruses already in the neuroanatomist's toolbox, as well as the aspects of their biology that currently limit their utility. Based on the latter, we consider strategies for improving viral tracing methods by reducing toxicity, improving control of transsynaptic spread, and extending the range of species that can be studied.

Axonal spread of neuroinvasive viral infections

Neuroinvasive viral infections invade the nervous system, often eliciting serious disease and death. Members of four viral families are both neuroinvasive and capable of transmitting progeny virions or virion components within the long neuronal extensions known as axons. Axons provide physical structures that enable viral infection to spread within the host while avoiding extracellular immune responses. Technological advances in the analysis of in vivo neural circuits, neuronal culturing, and live imaging of fluorescent fusion proteins have enabled an unprecedented view into the steps of virion assembly, transport, and egress involved in axonal spread. In this review we summarize the literature supporting anterograde (axon to cell) spread of viral infection, describe the various strategies of virion transport, and discuss the effects of spread on populations of neuroinvasive viruses.

Blocking ESCRT-mediated envelopment inhibits microtubule-dependent trafficking of alphaherpesviruses in vitro

Herpes simplex virus (HSV) and, as reported here, pseudorabies virus (PRV) utilize the ESCRT apparatus to drive cytoplasmic envelopment of their capsids. Here, we demonstrate that blocking ESCRT-mediated envelopment using the dominant-negative inhibitor Vps4A-EQ (Vps4A in which glutamate [E] at position 228 in the ATPase active site is replaced by a glutamine [Q]) reduced the ability of HSV and PRV particles to subsequently traffic along microtubules in vitro. HSV and PRV capsid-associated particles with bound green fluorescent protein (GFP)-labeled Vps4A-EQ were readily detected by fluorescence microscopy in cytoplasmic extracts of infected cells. These Vps4A-EQ-associated capsid-containing particles bound to microtubules in vitro but were unable to traffic along them. Using a PRV strain expressing a fluorescent capsid and a fluorescently tagged form of the envelope protein gD, we found that similar numbers of gD-positive and gD-negative capsid-associated particles accumulated in cytoplasmic extracts under our conditions. Both classes of PRV particle bound to microtubules in vitro with comparable efficiency, and similar results were obtained for HSV using anti-gD immunostaining. The gD-positive and gD-negative PRV capsids were both capable of trafficking along microtubules in vitro; however, motile gD-positive particles were less numerous and their trafficking was more sensitive to the inhibitory effects of Vps4A-EQ. We discuss our data in the context of microtubule-mediated trafficking of naked and enveloped alphaherpesvirus capsids.

IMPORTANCE

The alphaherpesviruses include several important human pathogens. These viruses utilize microtubule-mediated transport to travel through the cell cytoplasm; however, the molecular mechanisms of trafficking are not well understood. In this study, we have used a cell-free system to examine the requirements for microtubule trafficking and have attempted to distinguish between the movement of so-called "naked" and membrane-associated cytoplasmic alphaherpesvirus capsids.

Herpes simplex virus gE/gI extracellular domains promote axonal transport and spread from neurons to epithelial cells

Following reactivation from latency, there are two distinct steps in the spread of herpes simplex virus (HSV) from infected neurons to epithelial cells: (i) anterograde axonal transport of virus particles from neuron bodies to axon tips and (ii) exocytosis and spread of extracellular virions across cell junctions into adjacent epithelial cells. The HSV heterodimeric glycoprotein gE/gI is important for anterograde axonal transport, and gE/gI cytoplasmic domains play important roles in sorting of virus particles into axons. However, the roles of the large (∼400-residue) gE/gI extracellular (ET) domains in both axonal transport and neuron-to-epithelial cell spread have not been characterized. Two gE mutants, gE-277 and gE-348, contain small insertions in the gE ET domain, fold normally, form gE/gI heterodimers, and are incorporated into virions. Both gE-277 and gE-348 did not function in anterograde axonal transport; there were markedly reduced numbers of viral capsids and glycoproteins compared with wild-type HSV. The defects in axonal transport were manifest in neuronal cell bodies, involving missorting of HSV capsids before entry into proximal axons. Although there were diminished numbers of mutant gE-348 capsids and glycoproteins in distal axons, there was efficient spread to adjacent epithelial cells, similar to wild-type HSV. In contrast, virus particles produced by HSV gE-277 spread poorly to epithelial cells, despite numbers of virus particles similar to those for HSV gE-348. These results genetically separate the two steps in HSV spread from neurons to epithelial cells and demonstrate that the gE/gI ET domains function in both processes.

IMPORTANCE

An essential phase of the life cycle of herpes simplex virus (HSV) and other alphaherpesviruses is the capacity to reactivate from latency and then spread from infected neurons to epithelial tissues. This spread involves at least two steps: (i) anterograde transport to axon tips followed by (ii) exocytosis and extracellular spread from axons to epithelial cells. HSV gE/gI is a glycoprotein that facilitates this virus spread, although by poorly understood mechanisms. Here, we show that the extracellular (ET) domains of gE/gI promote the sorting of viral structural proteins into proximal axons to begin axonal transport. However, the gE/gI ET domains also participate in the extracellular spread from axon tips across cell junctions to epithelial cells. Understanding the molecular mechanisms involved in gE/gI-mediated sorting of virus particles into axons and extracellular spread to adjacent cells is fundamentally important for identifying novel targets to reduce alphaherpesvirus disease.

Live cell imaging of alphaherpes virus anterograde transport and spread

Advances in live cell fluorescence microscopy techniques, as well as the construction of recombinant viral strains that express fluorescent fusion proteins have enabled real-time visualization of transport and spread of alphaherpes virus infection of neurons. The utility of novel fluorescent fusion proteins to viral membrane, tegument, and capsids, in conjunction with live cell imaging, identified viral particle assemblies undergoing transport within axons. Similar tools have been successfully employed for analyses of cell-cell spread of viral particles to quantify the number and diversity of virions transmitted between cells. Importantly, the techniques of live cell imaging of anterograde transport and spread produce a wealth of information including particle transport velocities, distributions of particles, and temporal analyses of protein localization. Alongside classical viral genetic techniques, these methodologies have provided critical insights into important mechanistic questions. In this article we describe in detail the imaging methods that were developed to answer basic questions of alphaherpes virus transport and spread.

Glycoproteins gE and gI are required for efficient KIF1A-dependent anterograde axonal transport of alphaherpesvirus particles in neurons

Alphaherpesviruses, including pseudorabies virus (PRV), spread directionally within the nervous systems of their mammalian hosts. Three viral membrane proteins are required for efficient anterograde-directed spread of infection in neurons, including Us9 and a heterodimer composed of the glycoproteins gE and gI. We previously demonstrated that the kinesin-3 motor KIF1A mediates anterograde-directed transport of viral particles in axons of cultured peripheral nervous system (PNS) neurons. The PRV Us9 protein copurifies with KIF1A, recruiting the motor to transport vesicles, but at least one unidentified additional viral protein is necessary for this interaction. Here we show that gE/gI are required for efficient anterograde transport of viral particles in axons by mediating the interaction between Us9 and KIF1A. In the absence of gE/gI, viral particles containing green fluorescent protein (GFP)-tagged Us9 are assembled in the cell body but are not sorted efficiently into axons. Importantly, we found that gE/gI are necessary for efficient copurification of KIF1A with Us9, especially at early times after infection. We also constructed a PRV recombinant that expresses a functional gE-GFP fusion protein and used affinity purification coupled with mass spectrometry to identify gE-interacting proteins. Several viral and host proteins were found to associate with gE-GFP. Importantly, both gI and Us9, but not KIF1A, copurified with gE-GFP. We propose that gE/gI are required for efficient KIF1A-mediated anterograde transport of viral particles because they indirectly facilitate or stabilize the interaction between Us9 and KIF1A.

Role of Us9 phosphorylation in axonal sorting and anterograde transport of pseudorabies virus

Alphaherpes viruses, such as pseudorabies virus (PRV), undergo anterograde transport in neuronal axons to facilitate anterograde spread within hosts. Axonal sorting and anterograde transport of virions is dependent on the viral membrane protein Us9, which interacts with the host motor protein Kif1A to direct transport. Us9-Kif1A interactions are necessary but not sufficient for these processes, indicating that additional cofactors or post-translational modifications are needed. In this study, we characterized two conserved serine phosphorylation sites (S51 and S53) in the PRV Us9 protein that are necessary for anterograde spread in vivo. We assessed the subcellular localization of phospho-Us9 subspecies during infection of neurons and found that the phospho-form is detectable on the majority, but not all, of axonal vesicles containing Us9 protein. In biochemical assays, phospho-Us9 was enriched in lipid raft membrane microdomains, though Us9 phosphorylation did not require prior lipid raft association. During infections of chambered neuronal cultures, we observed only a modest reduction in anterograde spread capacity for diserine mutant Us9, and no defect for monoserine mutants. Conversely, mutation of the kinase recognition sequence residues adjacent to the phosphorylation sites completely abrogated anterograde spread. In live-cell imaging analyses, anterograde transport of virions was reduced during infection with a recombinant PRV strain expressing GFP-tagged diserine mutant Us9. Phosphorylation was not required for Us9-Kif1A interaction, suggesting that Us9-Kif1A binding is a distinct step from the activation and/or stabilization of the transport complex. Taken together, our findings indicate that, while not essential, Us9 phosphorylation enhances Us9-Kif1A-based transport of virions in axons to modulate the overall efficiency of long-distance anterograde spread of infection.

Directional spread of alphaherpesviruses in the nervous system

Alphaherpesviruses are pathogens that invade the nervous systems of their mammalian hosts. Directional spread of infection in the nervous system is a key component of the viral lifecycle and is critical for the onset of alphaherpesvirus-related diseases. Many alphaherpesvirus infections originate at peripheral sites, such as epithelial tissues, and then enter neurons of the peripheral nervous system (PNS), where lifelong latency is established. Following reactivation from latency and assembly of new viral particles, the infection typically spreads back out towards the periphery. These spread events result in the characteristic lesions (cold sores) commonly associated with herpes simplex virus (HSV) and herpes zoster (shingles) associated with varicella zoster virus (VZV). Occasionally, the infection spreads transsynaptically from the PNS into higher order neurons of the central nervous system (CNS). Spread of infection into the CNS, while rarer in natural hosts, often results in severe consequences, including death. In this review, we discuss the viral and cellular mechanisms that govern directional spread of infection in the nervous system. We focus on the molecular events that mediate long distance directional transport of viral particles in neurons during entry and egress.

Herpes simplex virus membrane proteins gE/gI and US9 act cooperatively to promote transport of capsids and glycoproteins from neuron cell bodies into initial axon segments

Herpes simplex virus (HSV) and other alphaherpesviruses must move from sites of latency in ganglia to peripheral epithelial cells. How HSV navigates in neuronal axons is not well understood. Two HSV membrane proteins, gE/gI and US9, are key to understanding the processes by which viral glycoproteins, unenveloped capsids, and enveloped virions are transported toward axon tips. Whether gE/gI and US9 function to promote the loading of viral proteins onto microtubule motors in neuron cell bodies or to tether viral proteins onto microtubule motors within axons is not clear. One impediment to understanding how HSV gE/gI and US9 function in axonal transport relates to observations that gE(-), gI(-), or US9(-) mutants are not absolutely blocked in axonal transport. Mutants are significantly reduced in numbers of capsids and glycoproteins in distal axons, but there are less extensive effects in proximal axons. We constructed HSV recombinants lacking both gE and US9 that transported no detectable capsids and glycoproteins to distal axons and failed to spread from axon tips to adjacent cells. Live-cell imaging of a gE(-)/US9(-) double mutant that expressed fluorescent capsids and gB demonstrated >90% diminished capsids and gB in medial axons and no evidence for decreased rates of transport, stalling, or increased retrograde transport. Instead, capsids, gB, and enveloped virions failed to enter proximal axons. We concluded that gE/gI and US9 function in neuron cell bodies, in a cooperative fashion, to promote the loading of HSV capsids and vesicles containing glycoproteins and enveloped virions onto microtubule motors or their transport into proximal axons.

Alphaherpesvirus axon-to-cell spread involves limited virion transmission

The spread of viral infection within a host can be restricted by bottlenecks that limit the size and diversity of the viral population. An essential process for alphaherpesvirus infection is spread from axons of peripheral nervous system neurons to cells in peripheral epithelia (anterograde-directed spread, ADS). ADS is necessary for the formation of vesicular lesions characteristic of reactivated herpesvirus infections; however, the number of virions transmitted is unknown. We have developed two methods to quantitate ADS events using a compartmentalized neuronal culture system. The first method uses HSV-1 and pseudorabies virus recombinants that express one of three different fluorescent proteins. The fluorescence profiles of cells infected with the virus mixtures are used to quantify the number of expressed viral genomes. Strikingly, although epithelial or neuronal cells express 3-10 viral genomes after infection by free virions, epithelial cells infected by HSV-1 or pseudorabies virus following ADS express fewer than two viral genomes. The second method uses live-cell fluorescence microscopy to track individual capsids involved in ADS. We observed that most ADS events involve a single capsid infecting a target epithelial cell. Together, these complementary analyses reveal that ADS events are restricted to small numbers of viral particles, most often a single virion, resulting in a single viral genome initiating infection.