A Technical Introduction to Transmission Electron Microscopy for Soft-Matter: Imaging, Possibilities, Choices, and Technical Developments

Aqueous Supramolecular Transformations of Motor Bola-Amphiphiles at Multiple Length-Scale

Molecular motor amphiphiles have already been widely attempted for dynamic nanosystems across multiple length-scale for developments of small functional materials, including controlling macroscopic foam properties, amplifying motion as artificial molecular muscles, and serving as extracellular matrix mimicking cell scaffolds. However, limiting examples of bola-type molecular motor amphiphiles are considered for constructing macroscopic biomaterials. Herein, this work presents the designed two second generation molecular motor amphiphiles, motor bola-amphiphiles (MBAs). Aside from the photoinduced motor rotation of MBAs achieved in both organic and aqueous media, the rate of recovering thermal helix inversion step can be controlled by the rotor part with different steric hindrances. Dynamic assembled structures of MBAs are observed under (cryo)-transmission electron microscopy (TEM). This dynamicity assists MBAs in further assembling as macroscopic soft scaffolds by applying a shear-flow method. Upon photoirradiation, the phototropic bending function of MBA scaffolds is observed, demonstrating the amplification of molecular motion into macroscopic phototropic bending functions at the macroscopic length-scale. Since MBAs are confirmed with low cytotoxicity, human bone marrow-derived mesenchymal stem cells (hBM-MSCs) can grow on the surface of MBA scaffolds. These results clearly demonstrate the concept of designing MBAs for developing photoresponsive dynamic functional materials to create new-generation soft robotic systems and cell-material interfaces.

Seeing the Supracolloidal Assemblies in 3D: Unraveling High-Resolution Structures Using Electron Tomography

Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) imaging has revolutionized modern materials science, nanotechnology, and structural biology. Its ability to provide information about materials' structure, composition, and properties at atomic-level resolution has enabled groundbreaking discoveries and the development of innovative materials with precision and accuracy. Electron tomography, single particle reconstruction, and microcrystal electron diffraction techniques have paved the way for the three-dimensional (3D) reconstruction of biological samples, synthetic materials, and hybrid nanostructures at near atomic-level resolution. TEM tomography using a series of two-dimensional (2D) projections has been used extensively in biological science, but in recent years it has become an important method in synthetic nanomaterials and soft matter research. TEM tomography offers unprecedented morphological details of 3D objects, internal structures, packing patterns, growth mechanisms, and self-assembly pathways of self-assembled colloidal systems. It complements other analytical tools, including small-angle X-ray scattering, and provides valuable data for computational simulations for predictive design and reverse engineering of nanomaterials with the desired structure and properties. In this perspective, I will discuss the importance of TEM tomography in the structural understanding and engineering of self-assembled nanostructures with specific emphasis on colloidal capsids, composite cages, biohybrid superlattices with complex geometries, polymer assemblies, and self-assembled protein-based superstructures.

Dedicated Protocol for Ultrastructural Analysis of Farmed Rainbow Trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) Tissues with Red Mark Syndrome: The Skin-Part One

The present study aims to provide a specific protocol for transmission electron microscopy of a sample of skin of rainbow trout affected by red mark syndrome (RMS). The red mark syndrome is a skin disease that affects the rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss). The disease, probably due to the Midichloria-like organism infection, is not lethal, but morbidity can reach up to 60%, leading to significant economic impact associated with the downgrading of the commercial product, increased labor, and susceptibility to secondary infections. The ultrastructure analyses allowed an earlier study to identify the presence of scattered microorganisms characterized by an oval shape, mainly in the cytoplasm of the cells. The protocol developed in this study will be instrumental in visualizing the ultrastructure of the microorganism, which is probably responsible for red mark syndrome infection.

Label-Free Techniques for Probing Biomolecular Condensates

Biomolecular condensates play important roles in a wide array of fundamental biological processes, such as cellular compartmentalization, cellular regulation, and other biochemical reactions. Since their discovery and first observations, an extensive and expansive library of tools has been developed to investigate various aspects and properties, encompassing structural and compositional information, material properties, and their evolution throughout the life cycle from formation to eventual dissolution. This Review presents an overview of the expanded set of tools and methods that researchers use to probe the properties of biomolecular condensates across diverse scales of length, concentration, stiffness, and time. In particular, we review recent years' exciting development of label-free techniques and methodologies. We broadly organize the set of tools into 3 categories: (1) imaging-based techniques, such as transmitted-light microscopy (TLM) and Brillouin microscopy (BM), (2) force spectroscopy techniques, such as atomic force microscopy (AFM) and the optical tweezer (OT), and (3) microfluidic platforms and emerging technologies. We point out the tools' key opportunities, challenges, and future perspectives and analyze their correlative potential as well as compatibility with other techniques. Additionally, we review emerging techniques, namely, differential dynamic microscopy (DDM) and interferometric scattering microscopy (iSCAT), that have huge potential for future applications in studying biomolecular condensates. Finally, we highlight how some of these techniques can be translated for diagnostics and therapy purposes. We hope this Review serves as a useful guide for new researchers in this field and aids in advancing the development of new biophysical tools to study biomolecular condensates.

An insight decipher on photocatalytic degradation of microplastics: Mechanism, limitations, and future outlook

Plastic material manufacturing and buildup over the past 50 years has significantly increased pollution levels. Microplastics (MPs) and non-biodegradable residual plastic films have become the two most pressing environmental issues among the numerous types of plastic pollution. These tiny plastic flakes enter water systems from a variety of sources, contaminating the water. Since MPs can be consumed by people and aquatic species and eventually make their way into the food chain, their presence in the environment poses a serious concern. Traditional technologies can remove MPs to some extent, but their functional groups, stable covalent bonds, and hydrophobic nature make them difficult to eliminate completely. The urgent need to develop a sustainable solution to the worldwide contamination caused by MPs has led to the exploration of various techniques. Advanced oxidation processes (AOPs) such as photo-catalytic oxidation, photo-degradation, and electrochemical oxidation have been investigated. Among these, photocatalysis stands out as the most promising method for degrading MPs. Photocatalysis is an environmentally friendly process that utilizes light energy to facilitate a chemical reaction, breaking down MPs into carbon dioxide and water-soluble hydrocarbons under aqueous conditions. In photocatalysis, semiconductors act as photocatalysts by absorbing energy from a light source, becoming excited, and generating reactive oxygen species (ROS). These ROS, including hydroxyl radicals (•OH) and superoxide ions ( [Formula: see text] ), play a crucial role in the degradation of MPs. This extensive review provides a detailed exploration of the mechanisms and processes underlying the photocatalytic removal of MPs, emphasizing its potential as an efficient and environmentally friendly approach to address the issue of plastic pollution.

All-SnTe-Based Thermoelectric Power Generation Enabled by Stepwise Optimization of n-Type SnTe

The practical application of thermoelectric devices requires both high-performance n-type and p-type materials of the same system to avoid possible mismatches and improve device reliability. Currently, environmentally friendly SnTe thermoelectrics have witnessed extensive efforts to develop promising p-type transport, making it rather urgent to investigate the n-type counterparts with comparable performance. Herein, we develop a stepwise optimization strategy for improving the transport properties of n-type SnTe. First, we improve the n-type dopability of SnTe by PbSe alloying to narrow the band gap and obtain n-type transport in SnTe with halogen doping over the whole temperature range. Then, we introduce additional Pb atoms to compensate for the cationic vacancies in the SnTe-PbSe matrix, further enhancing the electron carrier concentration and electrical performance. Resultantly, the high-ranged thermoelectric performance of n-type SnTe is substantially optimized, achieving a peak ZT of ∼0.75 at 573 K with a high average ZT (ZTave) exceeding 0.5 from 300 to 823 K in the (SnTe0.98I0.02)0.6(Pb1.06Se)0.4 sample. Moreover, based on the performance optimization on n-type SnTe, for the first time, we fabricate an all-SnTe-based seven-pair thermoelectric device. This device can produce a maximum output power of ∼0.2 W and a conversion efficiency of ∼2.7% under a temperature difference of 350 K, demonstrating an important breakthrough for all-SnTe-based thermoelectric devices. Our research further illustrates the effectiveness and application potential of the environmentally friendly SnTe thermoelectrics for mid-temperature power generation.

Effects of various types of organo-mica on the physical properties of polyimide nanocomposites

Poly(amic acid) (PAA) was synthesized using dianhydride 4,4'-oxydiphthalic anhydride and diamine 3,3'-dihydroxybenzidine, and polyimide (PI) hybrid films were synthesized by dispersing organo-mica in PAA through a solution intercalation method. Hexadimethrine-mica (HM-Mica), 1,2-dimethylhexadecylimidazolium-mica (MI-Mica), and didodecyldiphenylammonium-mica (DP-Mica), which were obtained via the organic modification of pristine mica, were used as the organo-micas for the PI hybrid films. The organo-mica content was varied from 0.5 to 3.0 wt% with respect to the PI matrix. The thermomechanical properties, morphology, and optical transparency of the resultant PI hybrid films were measured and compared. Dispersion of even small amounts of organo-mica effectively improved the physical properties of the PI hybrids, and maximum enhancements in physical properties were observed at a specific critical content. Electron microscopy of the hybrid films revealed that the organo-mica uniformly dispersed throughout the polymer matrix at the nanoscale level when added at low contents but aggregated in the matrix when added at levels above the critical content. Structural changes in the organo-mica closely influenced the changes in the physical properties of the hybrid films. All PI hybrid films with various organo-mica contents showed similar optical properties, but that prepared with MI-Mica demonstrated the best thermomechanical properties. All synthesized PI hybrid films were transparent regardless of the type and content of organo-mica used.

Crotonaldehyde induced structural alterations in Low-Density Lipoprotein: Immunogenicity of the modified protein in experimental animals and auto-antibodies generation in various cancers

Crotonaldehyde (CA), a prominent component of cigarette smoke (CS) is a pervasive environmental pollutant that is a highly toxic, unsaturated aldehyde. Exposure to CA-rich pollutants has been linked to the emergence of many malignancies in humans. To better understand the role of CA in biomolecule modification, this study investigated the detailed structural alterations in low-density lipoprotein (LDL) modified by CA, as well as the immunogenicity of the modified protein in experimental animals and the search for autoantibodies in various cancers patients.In vitro, results indicated alterations in secondary and tertiary structures; examined using UV-visible, fluorescence, far-UV circular dichroism, and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy techniques. Changes in the oxidation status of LDL were studied by carbonyl content assay and NBT assay. ThT binding assay, scanning, and transmission electron microscopy were used to study aggregate formation. The findings revealed significant structural damage in LDL modified by CA. The modification resulted in the unmasking of hydrophobic clusters, the loss of the protein α-helix, and the formation of β-pleated sheet structure. The amyloid aggregate formation was confirmed through ThT microscopy and electron spectroscopy. Rabbits immunized with crotonaldehyde; lead to structural changes in the LDL; that acted as extra antigenic determinants, eliciting strong antibody response. Immunoglobulin response is highly specific for modified LDL as demonstrated by the ELISA. The presence of antibodies against CA-modified LDL was confirmed by the immunoglobulin content of blood sera from human subjects with lung cancer, and competitive ELISA demonstrated the specificity of these antibodies. This study offers insights into the CA-mediated LDL modification and immunogenicity in lung cancer that will have diagnostic importance.

Research-based Analytical Procedures to Evaluate Diabetic Biomarkers and Related Parameters: In Vitro and In Vivo Methods

BACKGROUND

The degenerative tendency of diabetes leads to micro- and macrovascular complications due to abnormal levels of biochemicals, particularly in patients with poor diabetic control. Diabetes is supposed to be treated by reducing blood glucose levels, scavenging free radicals, and maintaining other relevant parameters close to normal ranges. In preclinical studies, numerous in vivo trials on animals as well as in vitro tests are used to assess the antidiabetic and antioxidant effects of the test substances. Since a substance that performs poorly in vitro won't perform better in vivo, the outcomes of in vitro studies can be utilized as a direct indicator of in vivo activities.

OBJECTIVE

The objective of the present study is to provide research scholars with a comprehensive overview of laboratory methods and procedures for a few selected diabetic biomarkers and related parameters.

METHOD

The search was conducted on scientific database portals such as ScienceDirect, PubMed, Google Scholar, BASE, DOAJ, etc. Conclusion: The development of new biomarkers is greatly facilitated by modern technology such as cell culture research, lipidomics study, microRNA biomarkers, machine learning techniques, and improved electron microscopies. These biomarkers do, however, have some usage restrictions. There is a critical need to find more accurate and sensitive biomarkers. With a few modifications, these biomarkers can be used with or even replace conventional markers of diabetes.

Observation and Measurement of Ice Morphology in Foods: A Review

Freezing is an effective technology with which to maintain food quality. However, the formation of ice crystals during this process can cause damage to the cellular structure, leading to food deterioration. A good understanding of the relationship between food microstructure and ice morphology, as well as the ability to effectively measure and control ice crystals, is very useful to achieve high-quality frozen foods. Hence, a brief discussion is presented on the fundamentals/principles of optical microscopic techniques (light microscopy), electronic microscopic techniques (transmission electron microscopy (TEM) and scanning electron microscopy (SEM)), as well as other non-invasive techniques (X-rays, spectroscopy, and magnetic resonance) and their application to measuring ice formation rates and characterizing ice crystals, providing insight into the freezing mechanisms as well as direct monitoring of the entire process. And, in addition, this review compares (the negative and positive aspects of) the use of simple and cheap but destructive technologies (optical microscopy) with detailed microscopic technologies at the micro/nanometer scale but with pretreatments that alter the original sample (SEM and TEM), and non-destructive technologies that do not require sample preparation but which have high acquisition and operational costs. Also included are images and examples which demonstrate how useful an analysis using these techniques can be.

Emerging synthesis and characterization techniques for hybrid polymer nanocomposites

Metallic nanoparticles and carbon nanotubes are two of the most promising nanomaterials, due to their distinctive properties occurring from spatial confinement of electron-hole pairs. The unique combination of metallic nanoparticles and carbon nanotubes (CNTs) in a polymer matrix offers unparalleled advantages, making them highly desirable in various fields. Advanced methods and techniques for synthesizing and characterizing hybrid metal-CNT-polymer nanocomposites have undergone significant progress in recent years, paving their integration into various fields, including aerospace, electronics, energy, water treatment and environmental remediation. These advances have allowed better understanding of nanocomposite properties and imparted ability to tune specific properties through size, shape, and distribution control of the nanofillers within the matrix material or by altering filler properties through functionalization. This study aims to critically judge the emerging tools, techniques and methods used in polymer nanocomposites with specific focus on metal-CNT based hybrid polymer nanocomposites, and suggest new avenues for research in the field. Furthermore, by examining the mechanisms affecting the performance of these composites, we can understand how the inclusion of fillers alters the microstructure and overall behavior of the material. Ultimately, this knowledge could lay the foundation for the development of novel nanocomposites with tailored properties and enhanced performance in a plethora of applications.

Exosomes in Cancer Progression and Therapy Resistance: Molecular Insights and Therapeutic Opportunities

The development of therapy resistance still represents a major hurdle in treating cancers, leading to impaired treatment success and increased patient morbidity. The establishment of minimally invasive liquid biopsies is a promising approach to improving the early diagnosis, as well as therapy monitoring, of solid tumors. Because of their manifold functions in the tumor microenvironment, tumor-associated small extracellular vesicles, referred to as exosomes, have become a subject of intense research. Besides their important roles in cancer progression, metastasis, and the immune response, it has been proposed that exosomes also contribute to the acquisition and transfer of therapy resistance, mainly by delivering functional proteins and RNAs, as well as facilitating the export of active drugs or functioning as extracellular decoys. Extensive research has focused on understanding the molecular mechanisms underlying the occurrence of resistance and translating these into strategies for early detection. With this review, we want to provide an overview of the current knowledge about the (patho-)biology of exosomes, as well as state-of-the-art methods of isolation and analysis. Furthermore, we highlight the role of exosomes in tumorigenesis and cancer treatment, where they can function as therapeutic agents, biomarkers, and/or targets. By focusing on their roles in therapy resistance, we will reveal new paths of exploiting exosomes for cancer diagnosis and treatment.

A Review of the Current State of Magnetic Force Microscopy to Unravel the Magnetic Properties of Nanomaterials Applied in Biological Systems and Future Directions for Quantum Technologies

Magnetism plays a pivotal role in many biological systems. However, the intensity of the magnetic forces exerted between magnetic bodies is usually low, which demands the development of ultra-sensitivity tools for proper sensing. In this framework, magnetic force microscopy (MFM) offers excellent lateral resolution and the possibility of conducting single-molecule studies like other single-probe microscopy (SPM) techniques. This comprehensive review attempts to describe the paramount importance of magnetic forces for biological applications by highlighting MFM's main advantages but also intrinsic limitations. While the working principles are described in depth, the article also focuses on novel micro- and nanofabrication procedures for MFM tips, which enhance the magnetic response signal of tested biomaterials compared to commercial nanoprobes. This work also depicts some relevant examples where MFM can quantitatively assess the magnetic performance of nanomaterials involved in biological systems, including magnetotactic bacteria, cryptochrome flavoproteins, and magnetic nanoparticles that can interact with animal tissues. Additionally, the most promising perspectives in this field are highlighted to make the reader aware of upcoming challenges when aiming toward quantum technologies.

Current evidence of biofilms in chronic rhinosinusitis- a microbiological perspective

INTRODUCTION

Chronic rhinosinusitis (CRS) is characterized by inflammation of the paranasal sinus mucosa persisting for more than 12 weeks. This condition is associated with reduced quality-of-life and causes a high direct and indirect economic burden. Several pathogenic factors have been attributed to CRS, including bacterial and fungal biofilms on the sinonasal mucosa. Biofilms are well-established contributors to recalcitrance to treatment in other chronic inflammatory mucosal conditions such as cystic fibrosis and otitis media.

AREAS COVERED

This review will present an overview of the role of biofilms in CRS, including the evidence for biofilms being present on the sinonasal mucosa and their implications for disease severity. Furthermore, the interactions between biofilms and host-mediated immune factors are explored.

EXPERT OPINION

The eradication of biofilms has been a focus of research shortly after their recognition as a cause of disease. The currently available methodologies for identifying biofilms on mucosal surfaces are not sufficiently well-developed to be used in a clinical setting. A more accurate, cheaper, faster approach for biofilm detection is necessary, and molecular techniques may provide the possibility for this.

Imaging Approaches to Investigate Pathophysiological Mechanisms of Brain Disease in Zebrafish

Zebrafish has become an essential model organism in modern biomedical research. Owing to its distinctive features and high grade of genomic homology with humans, it is increasingly employed to model diverse neurological disorders, both through genetic and pharmacological intervention. The use of this vertebrate model has recently enhanced research efforts, both in the optical technology and in the bioengineering fields, aiming at developing novel tools for high spatiotemporal resolution imaging. Indeed, the ever-increasing use of imaging methods, often combined with fluorescent reporters or tags, enable a unique chance for translational neuroscience research at different levels, ranging from behavior (whole-organism) to functional aspects (whole-brain) and down to structural features (cellular and subcellular). In this work, we present a review of the imaging approaches employed to investigate pathophysiological mechanisms underlying functional, structural, and behavioral alterations of human neurological diseases modeled in zebrafish.

Gel Formulations for Topical Treatment of Skin Cancer: A Review

Skin cancer, with all its variations, is the most common type of cancer worldwide. Chemotherapy by topical application is an attractive strategy because of the ease of application and non-invasiveness. At the same time, the delivery of antineoplastic agents through the skin is difficult because of their challenging physicochemical properties (solubility, ionization, molecular weight, melting point) and the barrier function of the stratum corneum. Various approaches have been applied in order to improve drug penetration, retention, and efficacy. This systematic review aims at identifying the most commonly used techniques for topical drug delivery by means of gel-based topical formulations in skin cancer treatment. The excipients used, the preparation approaches, and the methods characterizing gels are discussed in brief. The safety aspects are also highlighted. The combinatorial formulation of nanocarrier-loaded gels is also reviewed from the perspective of improving drug delivery characteristics. Some limitations and drawbacks in the identified strategies are also outlined and considered within the future scope of topical chemotherapy.

Fundamentals and Applications of Raman-Based Techniques for the Design and Development of Active Biomedical Materials

Raman spectroscopy is an analytical method based on light-matter interactions that can interrogate the vibrational modes of matter and provide representative molecular fingerprints. Mediated by its label-free, non-invasive nature, and high molecular specificity, Raman-based techniques have become ubiquitous tools for in situ characterization of materials. This review comprehensively describes the theoretical and practical background of Raman spectroscopy and its advanced variants. The numerous facets of material characterization that Raman scattering can reveal, including biomolecular identification, solid-to-solid phase transitions, and spatial mapping of biomolecular species in bioactive materials, are highlighted. The review illustrates the potential of these techniques in the context of active biomedical material design and development by highlighting representative studies from the literature. These studies cover the use of Raman spectroscopy for the characterization of both natural and synthetic biomaterials, including engineered tissue constructs, biopolymer systems, ceramics, and nanoparticle formulations, among others. To increase the accessibility and adoption of these techniques, the present review also provides the reader with practical recommendations on the integration of Raman techniques into the experimental laboratory toolbox. Finally, perspectives on how recent developments in plasmon- and coherently-enhanced Raman spectroscopy can propel Raman from underutilized to critical for biomaterial development are provided.

Urany-Less Low Voltage Transmission Electron Microscopy: A Powerful Tool for Ultrastructural Studying of Cyanobacterial Cells

Sample preparation protocols for conventional high voltage transmission electron microscopy (TEM) heavily rely on the usage of staining agents containing various heavy metals, most commonly uranyl acetate and lead citrate. However high toxicity, rising legal regulations, and problematic waste disposal of uranyl acetate have increased calls for the reduction or even complete replacement of this staining agent. One of the strategies for uranyless imaging is the employment of low-voltage transmission electron microscopy. To investigate the influence of different imaging and staining strategies on the final image of cyanobacterial cells, samples stained by uranyl acetate with lead citrate, as well as unstained samples, were observed using TEM and accelerating voltages of 200 kV or 25 kV. Moreover, to examine the possibilities of reducing chromatic aberration, which often causes issues when imaging using electrons of lower energies, samples were also imaged using a scanning transmission electron microscopy at 15 kV accelerating voltages. The results of this study demonstrate that low-voltage electron microscopy offers great potential for uranyless electron microscopy.

In Situ and Operando Characterizations of Metal Halide Perovskite and Solar Cells: Insights from Lab-Sized Devices to Upscaling Processes

The performance and stability of metal halide perovskite solar cells strongly depend on precursor materials and deposition methods adopted during the perovskite layer preparation. There are often a number of different formation pathways available when preparing perovskite films. Since the precise pathway and intermediary mechanisms affect the resulting properties of the cells, in situ studies have been conducted to unravel the mechanisms involved in the formation and evolution of perovskite phases. These studies contributed to the development of procedures to improve the structural, morphological, and optoelectronic properties of the films and to move beyond spin-coating, with the use of scalable techniques. To explore the performance and degradation of devices, operando studies have been conducted on solar cells subjected to normal operating conditions, or stressed with humidity, high temperatures, and light radiation. This review presents an update of studies conducted in situ using a wide range of structural, imaging, and spectroscopic techniques, involving the formation/degradation of halide perovskites. Operando studies are also addressed, emphasizing the latest degradation results for perovskite solar cells. These works demonstrate the importance of in situ and operando studies to achieve the level of stability required for scale-up and consequent commercial deployment of these cells.

The Relevance of Building an Appropriate Environment around an Atomic Resolution Transmission Electron Microscope as Prerequisite for Reliable Quantitative Experiments: It Should Be Obvious, but It Is a Subtle Never-Ending Story!

The realization of electron microscopy facilities all over the world has experienced a paramount increase in the last decades. This means huge investments of public and private money due to the high costs of equipment, but also for maintenance and running costs. The proper design of a transmission electron microscopy facility is mandatory to fully use the advanced performances of modern equipment, capable of atomic resolution imaging and spectroscopies, and it is a prerequisite to conceive new methodologies for future advances of the knowledge. Nonetheless, even today, in too many cases around the world, the realization of the environment hosting the equipment is not appropriate and negatively influences the scientific quality of the results during the life of the infrastructure, practically vanishing the investment made. In this study, the key issues related to the realization of an advanced electron microscopy infrastructure are analyzed based on personal experience of more than thirty years, and on the literature.

Frozen in time: analyzing molecular dynamics with time-resolved cryo-EM

Molecular machines, such as polymerases, ribosomes, or proteasomes, fulfill complex tasks requiring the thermal energy of their environment. They achieve this by restricting random motion along a path of possible conformational changes. These changes are often directed through engagement with different cofactors, which can best be compared to a Brownian ratchet. Many molecular machines undergo three major steps throughout their functional cycles, including initialization, repetitive processing, and termination. Several of these major states have been elucidated by cryogenic electron microscopy (cryo-EM). However, the individual steps for these machines are unique and multistep processes themselves, and their coordination in time is still elusive. To measure these short-lived intermediate events by cryo-EM, the total reaction time needs to be shortened to enrich for the respective pre-equilibrium states. This approach is termed time-resolved cryo-EM (trEM). In this review, we sum up the methodological development of trEM and its application to a range of biological questions.

TRPC1 channel clustering during store-operated Ca2+ entry in keratinocytes

Skin is the largest organ in the human body with ∼95% of its surface made up of keratinocytes. These cells maintain a healthy skin barrier through regulated differentiation driven by Ca²⁺-transcriptional coupling. Many important skin conditions arise from disruption of this process although not all stages are fully understood. We know that elevated extracellular Ca²⁺ at the skin surface is detected by keratinocyte Gα_q-coupled receptors that signal to empty endoplasmic reticulum Ca²⁺ stores. Orai channel store-operated Ca²⁺ entry (SOCE) and Ca²⁺ influx via "canonical" transient receptor potential (TRPC)-composed channels then activates transcription factors that drive differentiation. While STIM-mediated activation of Orai channels following store depletion is well defined, how TRPC channels are activated is less clear. Multiple modes of TRPC channel activation have been proposed, including 1) independent TRPC activation by STIM, 2) formation of Orai-TRPC-STIM complexes, and 3) the insertion of constitutively-active TRPC channels into the membrane during SOCE. To help distinguish between these models, we used high-resolution microscopy of intact keratinocyte (HaCaT) cells and immunogold transmission electron microscopy (TEM) of HaCaT plasma membrane sheets. Our data shows no evidence of significant insertion of Orai1 or TRPC subunits into the membrane during SOCE. Analysis of transmission electron microscopy data shows that during store-depletion and SOCE, Orai1 and TRPC subunits form separate membrane-localized clusters that migrate towards each other. This clustering of TRPC channel subunits in keratinocytes may support the formation of TRPC-STIM interactions at ER-plasma membrane junctions that are distinct from Orai-STIM junctions.

A Review on Low-Dimensional Nanomaterials: Nanofabrication, Characterization and Applications

The development of modern cutting-edge technology relies heavily on the huge success and advancement of nanotechnology, in which nanomaterials and nanostructures provide the indispensable material cornerstone. Owing to their nanoscale dimensions with possible quantum limit, nanomaterials and nanostructures possess a high surface-to-volume ratio, rich surface/interface effects, and distinct physical and chemical properties compared with their bulk counterparts, leading to the remarkably expanded horizons of their applications. Depending on their degree of spatial quantization, low-dimensional nanomaterials are generally categorized into nanoparticles (0D); nanorods, nanowires, and nanobelts (1D); and atomically thin layered materials (2D). This review article provides a comprehensive guide to low-dimensional nanomaterials and nanostructures. It begins with the classification of nanomaterials, followed by an inclusive account of nanofabrication and characterization. Both top-down and bottom-up fabrication approaches are discussed in detail. Next, various significant applications of low-dimensional nanomaterials are discussed, such as photonics, sensors, catalysis, energy storage, diverse coatings, and various bioapplications. This article would serve as a quick and facile guide for scientists and engineers working in the field of nanotechnology and nanomaterials.

Investigation of a Minocycline-Loaded Nanoemulgel for the Treatment of Acne Rosacea

In the present investigation, a nanoemulgel of minocycline was formulated and optimized for an improved drug delivery and longer retention time in the targeted area. Combining eucalyptus oil, Tween 20, and Transcutol HP, different o/w nanoemulsions were formulated by the oil phase titration method and optimized by pseudo-ternary phase diagrams. The morphology, droplet size, viscosity, and refractive index of the thermodynamically stable nanoemulsion were determined. Furthermore, optimized nanoemulsion was suspended in 1.0% w/v of Carbopol 940 gel to formulate the nanoemulgel, and for this, pH, viscosity, and spreadability were determined and texture analysis was performed. To compare the extent of drug penetration between nanoemulsion and nanoemulgel, ex vivo skin permeation studies were conducted with Franz diffusion cell using rat skin as the permeation membrane, and the nanoemulgel exhibited sustained-release behavior. It can be concluded that the suggested minocycline-containing naoemulgel is expected to treat acne rosacea more effectively.

Protocol for live-cell fluorescence-guided cryoFIB-milling and electron cryo-tomography of virus-infected cells

Here, we present a protocol for assessing virus-infected cells using electron cryo-tomography (cryoET). It includes the basic workflows of seeding cells, plunge-freezing, clipping, cryo-focused ion beam milling (cryoFIB-milling), and cryoET, as well as two optional modules: micropatterning and live-cell fluorescence microscopy. We use an A549 human cell line and the virus HAdV5-pIX-mcherry in this protocol, but the comprehensive workflow can be easily transferred to other cell types and different types of virus infection or treatment. For complete details on the use and execution of this protocol, please refer to Pfitzner et al. (2021).

Microscopic Visualization of Cell-Cell Adhesion Complexes at Micro and Nanoscale

Considerable progress has been made in our knowledge of the morphological and functional varieties of anchoring junctions. Cell-cell adhesion contacts consist of discrete junctional structures responsible for the mechanical coupling of cytoskeletons and allow the transmission of mechanical signals across the cell collective. The three main adhesion complexes are adherens junctions, tight junctions, and desmosomes. Microscopy has played a fundamental role in understanding these adhesion complexes on different levels in both physiological and pathological conditions. In this review, we discuss the main light and electron microscopy techniques used to unravel the structure and composition of the three cell-cell contacts in epithelial and endothelial cells. It functions as a guide to pick the appropriate imaging technique(s) for the adhesion complexes of interest. We also point out the latest techniques that have emerged. At the end, we discuss the problems investigators encounter during their cell-cell adhesion research using microscopic techniques.

Use of a Hybrid Porous Carbon Material Derived from Expired Polysaccharides Snack/Iron Salt Exhibiting Magnetic Properties, for Hexavalent Chromium Removal

Nowadays, the scientific interest is focused more and more on the development of new strategies in recycling of waste products as well as on the development of clean technologies due to the increased environmental pollution. In this work we studied the valorization of an expired cheese-tomato flavor corn snack, which is polysaccharide food product, by producing advanced hybrid magnetic materials for environmental remediation purposes. The carbonization-chemical activation of this snack using potassium hydroxide leads to a microporous activated carbon with high surface area (SgBET ~800 m2/g). The magnetic hybrid material was synthesized via an in-situ technique using iron acetate complex as the precursor to produce iron based magnetic nanoparticles. The resulting material retains a fraction of the microporous structure with surface area SgBET ~500 m2/g. Such material consists, of homogenously dispersed magnetic isolated zero valent iron nanoparticles and of iron carbides (Fe3C), into the carbon matrix. The magnetic carbon exhibited high adsorption capacity in Cr(VI) removal applications following a pseudosecond order kinetic model. The maximum adsorption capacity was 88.382 mgCr(VI)/gAC at pH = 3. Finally, oxidation experiments, in combination with FT-IR, Mössbauer, and VSM measurements indicated that the possible Cr6+ removal mechanism involves oxidation of iron phases and reduction of Cr6+ to Cr3+.

Cost and Capability Compromises in STEM Instrumentation for Low-Voltage Imaging

Low-voltage transmission electron microscopy (≤80 kV) has many applications in imaging beam-sensitive samples, such as metallic nanoparticles, which may become damaged at higher voltages. To improve resolution, spherical aberration can be corrected for in a scanning transmission electron microscope (STEM); however, chromatic aberration may then dominate, limiting the ultimate resolution of the microscope. Using image simulations, we examine how a chromatic aberration corrector, different objective lenses, and different beam energy spreads each affect the image quality of a gold nanoparticle imaged at low voltages in a spherical aberration-corrected STEM. A quantitative analysis of the simulated examples can inform the choice of instrumentation for low-voltage imaging. We here demonstrate a methodology whereby the optimum energy spread to operate a specific STEM can be deduced. This methodology can then be adapted to the specific sample and instrument of the reader, enabling them to make an informed economical choice as to what would be most beneficial for their STEM in the cost-conscious landscape of scientific infrastructure.

Biomaterials via peptide assembly: Design, characterization, and application in tissue engineering

A core challenge in biomaterials, with both fundamental significance and technological relevance, concerns the rational design of bioactive microenvironments. Designed properly, peptides can undergo supramolecular assembly into dynamic, physical hydrogels that mimic the mechanical, topological, and biochemical features of native tissue microenvironments. The relatively facile, inexpensive, and automatable preparation of peptides, coupled with low batch-to-batch variability, motivates the expanded use of assembling peptide hydrogels for biomedical applications. Integral to realizing dynamic peptide assemblies as functional biomaterials for tissue engineering is an understanding of the molecular and macroscopic features that govern assembly, morphology, and biological interactions. In this review, we first discuss the design of assembling peptides, including primary structure (sequence), secondary structure (e.g., α-helix and β-sheets), and molecular interactions that facilitate assembly into multiscale materials with desired properties. Next, we describe characterization tools for elucidating molecular structure and interactions, morphology, bulk properties, and biological functionality. Understanding of these characterization methods enables researchers to access a variety of approaches in this ever-expanding field. Finally, we discuss the biological properties and applications of peptide-based biomaterials for engineering several important tissues. By connecting molecular features and mechanisms of assembling peptides to the material and biological properties, we aim to guide the design and characterization of peptide-based biomaterials for tissue engineering and regenerative medicine. STATEMENT OF SIGNIFICANCE: Engineering peptide-based biomaterials that mimic the topological and mechanical properties of natural extracellular matrices provide excellent opportunities to direct cell behavior for regenerative medicine and tissue engineering. Here we review the molecular-scale features of assembling peptides that result in biomaterials that exhibit a variety of relevant extracellular matrix-mimetic properties and promote beneficial cell-biomaterial interactions. Aiming to inspire and guide researchers approaching this challenge from both the peptide biomaterial design and tissue engineering perspectives, we also present characterization tools for understanding the connection between peptide structure and properties and highlight the use of peptide-based biomaterials in neural, orthopedic, cardiac, muscular, and immune engineering applications.

Imperative role of electron microscopy in toxicity assessment: A review

Electron microscope (EM) was developed in 1931 and since then microscopical examination of both the biological and non-biological samples has been revolutionized. Modifications in electron microscopy techniques, such as scanning EM and transmission EM, have widened their applicability in the various sectors such as understanding of drug toxicity, development of mechanism, criminal site investigation, and characterization of the nano-molecule. The present review summarizes its role in important aspects such as toxicity assessment and disease diagnosis in special reference to SARS-COV2. In the biological system, EM studies have elucidated the impact of toxicants at the ultra-structural level in various tissue in conformity to physiological alterations. Thus, EM can be concluded as an important tool in toxicity assessment and disease prognosis.

Making the Most of your Electrons: Challenges and Opportunities in Characterizing Hybrid Interfaces with STEM

Inspired by the unique architectures composed of hard and soft materials in natural and biological systems, synthetic hybrid structures and associated soft-hard interfaces have recently evoked significant interest. Soft matter is typically dominated by fluctuations even at room temperature, while hard matter (which often serves as the substrate or anchor for the soft component) is governed by rigid mechanical behavior. This dichotomy offers considerable opportunities to leverage the disparate properties offered by these components across a wide spectrum spanning from basic science to engineering insights with significant technological overtones. Such hybrid structures, which include polymer nanocomposites, DNA functionalized nanoparticle superlattices and metal organic frameworks to name a few, have delivered promising insights into the areas of catalysis, environmental remediation, optoelectronics, medicine, and beyond. The interfacial structure between these hard and soft phases exists across a variety of length scales and often strongly influence the functionality of hybrid systems. While scanning/transmission electron microscopy (S/TEM) has proven to be a valuable tool for acquiring intricate molecular and nanoscale details of these interfaces, the unusual nature of hybrid composites presents a suite of challenges that make assessing or establishing the classical structure-property relationships especially difficult. These include challenges associated with preparing electron-transparent samples and obtaining sufficient contrast to resolve the interface between dissimilar materials given the dose sensitivity of soft materials. We discuss each of these challenges and supplement a review of recent developments in the field with additional experimental investigations and simulations to present solutions for attaining a nano or atomic-level understanding of these interfaces. These solutions present a host of opportunities for investigating and understanding the role interfaces play in this unique class of functional materials.

Where Biology and Traditional Polymers Meet: The Potential of Associating Sequence-Defined Polymers for Materials Science

Polymers with precisely defined monomeric sequences present an exquisite tool for controlling material properties by harnessing both the robustness of synthetic polymers and the ability to tailor the inter- and intramolecular interactions so crucial to many biological materials. While polymer scientists traditionally synthesized and studied the physics of long molecules best described by their statistical nature, many biological polymers derive their highly tailored functions from precisely controlled sequences. Therefore, significant effort has been applied toward developing new methods of synthesizing, characterizing, and understanding the physics of non-natural sequence-defined polymers. This perspective considers the synergistic advantages that can be achieved via tailoring both precise sequence control and attributes of traditional polymers in a single system. Here, we focus on the potential of sequence-defined polymers in highly associating systems, with a focus on the unique properties, such as enhanced proton conductivity, that can be attained by incorporating sequence. In particular, we examine these materials as key model systems for studying previously unresolvable questions in polymer physics including the role of chain shape near interfaces and how to tailor compatibilization between dissimilar polymer blocks. Finally, we discuss the critical challenges-in particular, truly scalable synthetic approaches, characterization and modeling tools, and robust control and understanding of assembly pathways-that must be overcome for sequence-defined polymers to attain their potential and achieve ubiquity.

Visualization of Bubble Nucleation and Growth Confined in 2D Flakes

The nucleation and growth of bubbles within a solid matrix is a ubiquitous phenomenon that affects many natural and synthetic processes. However, such a bubbling process is almost "invisible" to common characterization methods because it has an intrinsically multiphased nature and occurs on very short time/length scales. Using in situ transmission electron microscopy to explore the decomposition of a solid precursor that emits gaseous byproducts, the direct observation of a complete nanoscale bubbling process confined in ultrathin 2D flakes is presented here. This result suggests a three-step pathway for bubble formation in the confined environment: void formation via spinodal decomposition, bubble nucleation from the spherization of voids, and bubble growth by coalescence. Furthermore, the systematic kinetics analysis based on COMSOL simulations shows that bubble growth is actually achieved by developing metastable or unstable necks between neighboring bubbles before coalescing into one. This thorough understanding of the bubbling mechanism in a confined geometry has implications for refining modern nucleation theories and controlling bubble-related processes in the fabrication of advanced materials (i.e., topological porous materials).

Application of 2D IR Bioimaging: Hyperspectral Images of Formalin-Fixed Pancreatic Tissues and Observation of Slow Protein Degradation

We used two-dimensional IR bioimaging to study the structural heterogeneity of formalin-fixed mouse pancreas. Images were generated from the hyperspectral data sets by plotting quantities associated with the amide I vibrational mode, which is created by the backbone carbonyl stretch. Images that measure the fundamental vibrational frequencies, cross peaks, and anharmonic shifts are presented. Histograms are generated for each quantity, providing averaged values and distributions around the mean that serve as metrics for protein structures. Images were generated from tissue that had been stored in a formalin fixation for 3, 8, and 48 weeks. Over this period, all three metrics show that that the β-sheet content of the samples increased, consistent with protein aggregation. Our results indicate that formalin fixation does not entirely arrest the degradation of a protein structure in pancreas tissue.

Deciphering ion transport and ATPase coupling in the intersubunit tunnel of KdpFABC

KdpFABC, a high-affinity K⁺ pump, combines the ion channel KdpA and the P-type ATPase KdpB to secure survival at K⁺ limitation. Here, we apply a combination of cryo-EM, biochemical assays, and MD simulations to illuminate the mechanisms underlying transport and the coupling to ATP hydrolysis. We show that ions are transported via an intersubunit tunnel through KdpA and KdpB. At the subunit interface, the tunnel is constricted by a phenylalanine, which, by polarized cation-π stacking, controls K⁺ entry into the canonical substrate binding site (CBS) of KdpB. Within the CBS, ATPase coupling is mediated by the charge distribution between an aspartate and a lysine. Interestingly, individual elements of the ion translocation mechanism of KdpFABC identified here are conserved among a wide variety of P-type ATPases from different families. This leads us to the hypothesis that KdpB might represent an early descendant of a common ancestor of cation pumps.

A Universal Approach to Analyzing Transmission Electron Microscopy with ImageJ

Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) is widely used as an imaging modality to provide high-resolution details of subcellular components within cells and tissues. Mitochondria and endoplasmic reticulum (ER) are organelles of particular interest to those investigating metabolic disorders. A straightforward method for quantifying and characterizing particular aspects of these organelles would be a useful tool. In this protocol, we outline how to accurately assess the morphology of these important subcellular structures using open source software ImageJ, originally developed by the National Institutes of Health (NIH). Specifically, we detail how to obtain mitochondrial length, width, area, and circularity, in addition to assessing cristae morphology and measuring mito/endoplasmic reticulum (ER) interactions. These procedures provide useful tools for quantifying and characterizing key features of sub-cellular morphology, leading to accurate and reproducible measurements and visualizations of mitochondria and ER.

A Close Look at Molecular Self-Assembly with the Transmission Electron Microscope

Molecular self-assembly is pervasive in the formation of living and synthetic materials. Knowledge gained from research into the principles of molecular self-assembly drives innovation in the biological, chemical, and materials sciences. Self-assembly processes span a wide range of temporal and spatial domains and are often unintuitive and complex. Studying such complex processes requires an arsenal of analytical and computational tools. Within this arsenal, the transmission electron microscope stands out for its unique ability to visualize and quantify self-assembly structures and processes. This review describes the contribution that the transmission electron microscope has made to the field of molecular self-assembly. An emphasis is placed on which TEM methods are applicable to different structures and processes and how TEM can be used in combination with other experimental or computational methods. Finally, we provide an outlook on the current challenges to, and opportunities for, increasing the impact that the transmission electron microscope can have on molecular self-assembly.

Peak force tapping atomic force microscopy for advancing cell and molecular biology

The advent of atomic force microscopy (AFM) provides an exciting tool to detect molecular and cellular behaviors under aqueous conditions. AFM is able to not only visualize the surface topography of the specimens, but also can quantify the mechanical properties of the specimens by force spectroscopy assay. Nevertheless, integrating AFM topographic imaging with force spectroscopy assay has long been limited due to the low spatiotemporal resolution. In recent years, the appearance of a new AFM imaging mode called peak force tapping (PFT) has shattered this limit. PFT allows AFM to simultaneously acquire the topography and mechanical properties of biological samples with unprecedented spatiotemporal resolution. The practical applications of PFT in the field of life sciences in the past decade have demonstrated the excellent capabilities of PFT in characterizing the fine structures and mechanics of living biological systems in their native states, offering novel possibilities to reveal the underlying mechanisms guiding physiological/pathological activities. In this paper, the recent progress in cell and molecular biology that has been made with the utilization of PFT is summarized, and future perspectives for further progression and biomedical applications of PFT are provided.

Understanding nanoparticle endocytosis to improve targeting strategies in nanomedicine

Nanoparticles (NPs) have attracted considerable attention in various fields, such as cosmetics, the food industry, material design, and nanomedicine. In particular, the fast-moving field of nanomedicine takes advantage of features of NPs for the detection and treatment of different types of cancer, fibrosis, inflammation, arthritis as well as neurodegenerative and gastrointestinal diseases. To this end, a detailed understanding of the NP uptake mechanisms by cells and intracellular localization is essential for safe and efficient therapeutic applications. In the first part of this review, we describe the several endocytic pathways involved in the internalization of NPs and we discuss the impact of the physicochemical properties of NPs on this process. In addition, the potential challenges of using various inhibitors, endocytic markers and genetic approaches to study endocytosis are addressed along with the principal (semi) quantification methods of NP uptake. The second part focuses on synthetic and bio-inspired substances, which can stimulate or decrease the cellular uptake of NPs. This approach could be interesting in nanomedicine where a high accumulation of drugs in the target cells is desirable and clearance by immune cells is to be avoided. This review contributes to an improved understanding of NP endocytic pathways and reveals potential substances, which can be used in nanomedicine to improve NP delivery.

From Photoinduced Supramolecular Polymerization to Responsive Organogels

Controlling supramolecular polymerization by external stimuli holds great potential toward the development of responsive soft materials and manipulating self-assembly at the nanoscale. Photochemical switching offers the prospect of regulating the structure and properties of systems in a noninvasive and reversible manner with spatial and temporal control. In addition, this approach will enhance our understanding of supramolecular polymerization mechanisms; however, the control of molecular assembly by light remains challenging. Here we present photoresponsive stiff-stilbene-based bis-urea monomers whose trans isomers readily form supramolecular polymers in a wide range of organic solvents, enabling fast light-triggered depolymerization-polymerization and reversible gel formation. Due to the stability of the cis isomers and the high photostationary states (PSS) of the cis-trans isomerization, precise control over supramolecular polymerization and in situ gelation could be achieved with short response times. A detailed study on the temperature-dependent and photoinduced supramolecular polymerization in organic solvents revealed a kinetically controlled nucleation-elongation mechanism. By application of a Volta phase plate to enhance the phase-contrast method in cryo-EM, unprecedented for nonaqueous solutions, uniform nanofibers were observed in organic solvents.

Unraveling the sugar code: the role of microbial extracellular glycans in plant-microbe interactions

To defend against microbial invaders but also to establish symbiotic programs, plants need to detect the presence of microbes through the perception of molecular signatures characteristic of a whole class of microbes. Among these molecular signatures, extracellular glycans represent a structurally complex and diverse group of biomolecules that has a pivotal role in the molecular dialog between plants and microbes. Secreted glycans and glycoconjugates such as symbiotic lipochitooligosaccharides or immunosuppressive cyclic β-glucans act as microbial messengers that prepare the ground for host colonization. On the other hand, microbial cell surface glycans are important indicators of microbial presence. They are conserved structures normally exposed and thus accessible for plant hydrolytic enzymes and cell surface receptor proteins. While the immunogenic potential of bacterial cell surface glycoconjugates such as lipopolysaccharides and peptidoglycan has been intensively studied in the past years, perception of cell surface glycans from filamentous microbes such as fungi or oomycetes is still largely unexplored. To date, only few studies have focused on the role of fungal-derived cell surface glycans other than chitin, highlighting a knowledge gap that needs to be addressed. The objective of this review is to give an overview on the biological functions and perception of microbial extracellular glycans, primarily focusing on their recognition and their contribution to plant-microbe interactions.

Design of Non-Haemolytic Nanoemulsions for Intravenous Administration of Hydrophobic APIs

Among advanced formulation strategies, nanoemulsions are considered useful drug-delivery systems allowing to improve the solubility and the bioavailability of lipophilic drugs. To select safe excipients for nanoemulsion formulation and to discard any haemolytic potential, an in vitro miniaturized test was performed on human whole blood. From haemolysis results obtained on eighteen of the most commonly used excipients, a medium chain triglyceride, a surfactant, and a solubilizer were selected for formulation assays. Based on a design of experiments and a ternary diagram, the feasibility of nanoemulsions was determined. The composition was defined to produce monodisperse nanodroplets with a diameter of either 50 or 120 nm, and their physicochemical properties were optimized to be suitable for intravenous administration. These nanoemulsions, stable over 21 days in storage conditions, were shown to be able to encapsulate with high encapsulation efficiency and high drug loading, up to 16% (w/w), two water practically insoluble drug models: ibuprofen and fenofibrate. Both drugs may be released according to a modulable profile in sink conditions. Such nanoemulsions appear as a very promising and attractive strategy for the efficient early preclinical development of hydrophobic drugs.

Hybrid nanocapsules for in situ TEM imaging of gas evolution reactions in confined liquids

Liquid cell transmission electron microscopy (TEM) enables the direct observation of dynamic physical and chemical processes in liquids at the nanoscale. Quantitative investigations into reactions with fast kinetics and/or multiple reagents will benefit from further advances in liquid cell design that facilitate rapid in situ mixing and precise control over reagent volumes and concentrations. This work reports the development of inorganic-organic nanocapsules for high-resolution TEM imaging of nanoscale reactions in liquids with well-defined zeptoliter volumes. These hybrid nanocapsules, with 48 nm average diameter, consist of a thin layer of gold coating a lipid vesicle. As a model reaction, the nucleation, growth, and diffusion of nanobubbles generated by the radiolysis of water is investigated inside the nanocapsules. When the nanobubbles are sufficiently small (10-25 nm diameter), they are mobile in the nanocapsules, but their movement deviates from Brownian motion, which may result from geometric confinement by the nanocapsules. Gases and fluids can be transported between two nanocapsules when they fuse, demonstrating in situ mixing without using complex microfluidic schemes. The ability to synthesize nanocapsules with controlled sizes and to monitor dynamics simultaneously inside multiple nanocapsules provides opportunities to investigate nanoscale processes such as single nanoparticle synthesis in confined volumes and biological processes such as biomineralization and membrane dynamics.

Subcellular Localization of Copper-Cellular Bioimaging with Focus on Neurological Disorders

As an essential trace element, copper plays a pivotal role in physiological body functions. In fact, dysregulated copper homeostasis has been clearly linked to neurological disorders including Wilson and Alzheimer’s disease. Such neurodegenerative diseases are associated with progressive loss of neurons and thus impaired brain functions. However, the underlying mechanisms are not fully understood. Characterization of the element species and their subcellular localization is of great importance to uncover cellular mechanisms. Recent research activities focus on the question of how copper contributes to the pathological findings. Cellular bioimaging of copper is an essential key to accomplish this objective. Besides information on the spatial distribution and chemical properties of copper, other essential trace elements can be localized in parallel. Highly sensitive and high spatial resolution techniques such as LA-ICP-MS, TEM-EDS, S-XRF and NanoSIMS are required for elemental mapping on subcellular level. This review summarizes state-of-the-art techniques in the field of bioimaging. Their strengths and limitations will be discussed with particular focus on potential applications for the elucidation of copper-related diseases. Based on such investigations, further information on cellular processes and mechanisms can be derived under physiological and pathological conditions. Bioimaging studies might enable the clarification of the role of copper in the context of neurodegenerative diseases and provide an important basis to develop therapeutic strategies for reduction or even prevention of copper-related disorders and their pathological consequences.