Expression of the glucose oxidase gene from Aspergillus niger in Hansenula polymorpha and its use as a reporter gene to isolate regulatory mutations

An efficient CRISPR/Cas9 genome editing system based on a multiple sgRNA processing platform in Trichoderma reesei for strain improvement and enzyme production

BACKGROUND

The CRISPR/Cas9 technology is being employed as a convenient tool for genetic engineering of the industrially important filamentous fungus Trichoderma reesei. However, multiplex gene editing is still constrained by the sgRNA processing capability, hindering strain improvement of T. reesei for the production of lignocellulose-degrading enzymes and recombinant proteins.

RESULTS

Here, a CRISPR/Cas9 system based on a multiple sgRNA processing platform was established for genome editing in T. reesei. The platform contains the arrayed tRNA-sgRNA architecture directed by a 5S rRNA promoter to generate multiple sgRNAs from a single transcript by the endogenous tRNA processing system. With this system, two sgRNAs targeting cre1 (encoding the carbon catabolite repressor 1) were designed and the precise deletion of cre1 was obtained, demonstrating the efficiency of sgRNAs processing in the tRNA-sgRNA architecture. Moreover, overexpression of xyr1-A824V (encoding a key activator for cellulase/xylanase expression) at the ace1 (encoding a repressor for cellulase/xylanase expression) locus was achieved by designing two sgRNAs targeting ace1 in the system, resulting in the significantly enhanced production of cellulase (up to 1- and 18-fold on the Avicel and glucose, respectively) and xylanase (up to 11- and 41-fold on the Avicel and glucose, respectively). Furthermore, heterologous expression of the glucose oxidase gene from Aspergillus niger ATCC 9029 at the cbh1 locus with the simultaneous deletion of cbh1 and cbh2 (two cellobiohydrolase coding genes) by designing four sgRNAs targeting cbh1 and cbh2 in the system was acquired, and the glucose oxidase produced by T. reesei reached 43.77 U/mL. Besides, it was found the ER-associated protein degradation (ERAD) level was decreased in the glucose oxidase-producing strain, which was likely due to the reduction of secretion pressure by deletion of the major endogenous cellulase-encoding genes.

CONCLUSIONS

The tRNA-gRNA array-based CRISPR-Cas9 editing system was successfully developed in T. reesei. This system would accelerate engineering of T. reesei for high-level production of enzymes including lignocellulose-degrading enzymes and other recombinant enzymes. Furthermore, it would expand the CRISPR toolbox for fungal genome editing and synthetic biology.

Insights into the Structures, Inhibitors, and Improvement Strategies of Glucose Oxidase

Glucose oxidase, which uses molecular oxygen as an electron acceptor to specifically catalyze the conversion of β-d-glucose to gluconic acid and hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂), has been considered an important enzyme in increasing environmental sustainability and food security. However, achieving the high yield, low price and high activity required for commercial viability remains challenging. In this review, we first present a brief introduction, looking at the sources, characteristics, catalytic process, and applications of glucose oxidase. Then, the predictive structures of glucose oxidase from two different sources are comparatively discussed. We summarize the inhibitors of glucose oxidase. Finally, we highlight how the production of glucose oxidase can be improved by optimizing the culture conditions and microbial metabolic engineering.

Review of glucose oxidase as a feed additive: production, engineering, applications, growth-promoting mechanisms, and outlook

The regulation and prohibition of antibiotics used as growth promoters (AGP) in the feed field are increasing because they cause antimicrobial resistance and drug residue issues and threaten community health. Recently, glucose oxidase (GOx) has attracted increasing interest in the feed industry as an alternative to antibiotics. GOx specifically catalyzes the production of gluconic acid (GA) and hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂) by consuming molecular oxygen, and plays an important role in relieving oxidative stress, preserving health, and promoting animal growth. To expand the application of GOx in the feed field, considerable efforts have been made to mine new genetic resources. Efforts have also been made to heterologously overexpress relevant genes to reduce production costs and to engineer proteins by modifying enzyme properties, both of which are bottleneck problems that limit industrial feed applications. Herein, the: different sources, diverse biochemical properties, distinct structural features, and various strategies of GOx engineering and heterologous overexpression are summarized. The mechanism through which GOx promotes growth in animal production, including the improvement of antioxidant capacity, maintenance of intestinal microbiota homeostasis, and enhancement of gut function, are also systematically addressed. Finally, a new perspective is provided for the future development of GOx applications in the feed field.

Expression of Aspergillus niger glucose oxidase in Pichia pastoris and its antimicrobial activity against Agrobacterium and Escherichia coli

The gene encoding glucose oxidase from Aspergillus niger ZM-8 was cloned and transferred to Pichia pastoris GS115, a transgenic strain P. pastoris GS115-His-GOD constructed. The growth curve of P. pastoris GS115-His-GOD was consistent with that of Pichia pastoris GS115-pPIC9K under non-induced culture conditions. Under methanol induction conditions, the growth of the GOD-transgenic strain was significantly lowered than P. pastoris GS115-pPIC9K with the induced-culture time increase, and the optical densities of GOD-transgenic strain reached one-third of that of the P. pastoris GS115-pPIC9K at 51 h. The activity of glucose oxidase in the cell-free supernatant, the supernatant of cell lysate, and the precipitation of cell lysate was 14.3 U/mL, 18.2 U/mL and 0.48 U/mL, respectively. The specific activity of glucose oxidase was 8.3 U/mg, 6.52 U/mg and 0.73 U/mg, respectively. The concentration of hydrogen peroxide formed by glucose oxidase from supernatant of the fermentation medium, the supernatant of the cell lysate, and the precipitation of cell lysate catalyzing 0.2 M glucose was 14.3 μg/mL, 18.2 μg/mL, 0.48 μg/mL, respectively. The combination of different concentrations of glucose oxidase and glucose could significantly inhibit the growth of Agrobacterium and Escherichia coli in logarithmic phase. The filter article containing supernatant of the fermentation medium, supernatant of the cell lysate, and precipitation of cell lysate had no inhibitory effect on Agrobacterium and E. coli. The minimum inhibitory concentration of hydrogen peroxide on the plate culture of Agrobacterium and E. coli was 5.6 × 10³ μg/mL and 6.0 × 10³ μg/mL, respectively.

A Novel Rapid Fungal Promoter Analysis System Using the Phosphopantetheinyl Transferase Gene, npgA, in Aspergillus nidulans

To develop a convenient promoter analysis system for fungi, a null-pigment mutant (NPG) of Aspergillus nidulans was used with the 4'-phosphopantetheinyl transferase (PPTase) gene, npgA, which restores the normal pigmentation in A. nidulans, as a new reporter gene. The functional organization of serially deleted promoter regions of the A. nidulans trpC gene and the Cryphonectria parasitica crp gene in filamentous fungi was representatively investigated to establish a novel fungal promoter assay system that depends on color complementation of the NPG mutant with the PPTase npgA gene. Several promoter regions of the trpC and crp genes were fused to the npgA gene containing the 1,034-bp open reading frame and the 966-bp 3' downstream region from the TAA, and the constructed fusions were introduced into the NPG mutant in A. nidulans to evaluate color recovery due to the transcriptional activity of the sequence elements. Serial deletion of the trpC and crp promoter regions in this PPTase reporter assay system reaffirmed results in previous reports by using the fungal transformation step without a laborious verification process. This approach suggests a more rapid and convenient system than conventional analyses for fungal gene expression studies.

Expression, characterization and one step purification of heterologous glucose oxidase gene from Aspergillus niger ATCC 9029 in Pichia pastoris

Glucose Oxidase (GOD), is a common flavoprotein from Aspergillus niger ATCC 9029 with a broad application in biotechnology, food and medical industries. In this study, GOD gene was cloned into the expression vector, pPIC9 and screened by the alcohol oxidase promoter. The enzyme production increased at 28 °C. GOD activity induced by 1.0% methanol and the highest level of GOD production was the result of shaking rate at 225 rpm. The highest enzyme activity obtained at a pH value ranged from 5 to 7 at 50 °C. The enzyme was stable at a broad pH range and temperature.

In silico and in vivo analysis of signal peptides effect on recombinant glucose oxidase production in nonconventional yeast Yarrowia lipolytica

Signal peptide (SP) is an important factor and biobrick in the production and secretion of recombinant proteins. The aim of this study was in silico and in vivo analysis of SPs effect on the production of recombinant glucose oxidase (GOX) in Yarrowia lipolytica. Several in silico softwares, namely SignalP4, Signal-CF, Phobius, WolfPsort 0.2, SOLpro and ProtParam, were used to analyse the potential of 15 endogenous and exogenous SPs for the secretion of recombinant GOX in Y. lipolytica. According to in silico results, the SP of GOX was predicted as suitable in terms of high secretory potential and of protein solubility and stability which is chosen for in vivo analysis. The recombinant Y. lipolytica strain produced 280 U/L of extracellular GOX after 7 days in YPD medium. The results show that the SP of GOX can be applied to efficient production of extracellular heterologous proteins and metabolic engineering in Y. lipolytica.

Improvement Strategies, Cost Effective Production, and Potential Applications of Fungal Glucose Oxidase (GOD): Current Updates

Fungal glucose oxidase (GOD) is widely employed in the different sectors of food industries for use in baking products, dry egg powder, beverages, and gluconic acid production. GOD also has several other novel applications in chemical, pharmaceutical, textile, and other biotechnological industries. The electrochemical suitability of GOD catalyzed reactions has enabled its successful use in bioelectronic devices, particularly biofuel cells, and biosensors. Other crucial aspects of GOD such as improved feeding efficiency in response to GOD supplemental diet, roles in antimicrobial activities, and enhancing pathogen defense response, thereby providing induced resistance in plants have also been reported. Moreover, the medical science, another emerging branch where GOD was recently reported to induce several apoptosis characteristics as well as cellular senescence by downregulating Klotho gene expression. These widespread applications of GOD have led to increased demand for more extensive research to improve its production, characterization, and enhanced stability to enable long term usages. Currently, GOD is mainly produced and purified from Aspergillus niger and Penicillium species, but the yield is relatively low and the purification process is troublesome. It is practical to build an excellent GOD-producing strain. Therefore, the present review describes innovative methods of enhancing fungal GOD production by using genetic and non-genetic approaches in-depth along with purification techniques. The review also highlights current research progress in the cost effective production of GOD, including key advances, potential applications and limitations. Therefore, there is an extensive need to commercialize these processes by developing and optimizing novel strategies for cost effective GOD production.

Identification and characterization of yeasts isolated from sedimentary rocks of Union Glacier at the Antarctica

The study of the yeasts that inhabit cold environments, such as Antarctica, is an active field of investigation oriented toward understanding their ecological roles in these ecosystems. In a great part, the interest in cold-adapted yeasts is due to several industrial and biotechnological applications that have been described for them. The aim of this work was to isolate and identify yeasts from sedimentary rock samples collected at the Union Glacier, Antarctica. Furthermore, the yeasts were physiologically characterized, including the production of metabolites of biotechnological interest. The yeasts isolated that were identified at the molecular level belonged to genera Collophora (1 isolate), Cryptococcus (2 isolates), Sporidiobolus (4 isolates), Sporobolomyces (1 isolate) and Torrubiella (2 isolates). The majority of yeasts were basidiomycetous and psychrotolerant. By cross-test assays for anti-yeast activity, it was determined that Collophora sp., Sporidiobolus salmonicolor, and Sporobolomyces roseus secreted a protein factor that kills Sporidiobolus metaroseus. The colored yeasts Sp. salmonicolor, Sp. metaroseus and Collophora sp. produced several carotenoid pigments that were identified as 2,3 dihydroxy-γ-carotene, -carotene, 4-ketotorulene, torulene β-cryptoxanthin and spirilloxanthin. Concerning analysis of mycosporines, these metabolites were only found in the yeasts Torrubiella sp. and Cryptococcus sp. T11-10-1. Furthermore, the yeasts were evaluated for the production of extracellular hydrolytic activities. Of the twelve activities analyzed, alkaline phosphatase, invertase, gelatinase, cellulase, amylase, and protease enzyme activities were detected. The yeasts Cryptococcus sp. T11-10-1 and Sporidiobolus metaroseus showed the highest number of different enzyme activities.

Production of glucose oxidase and catalase by Aspergillus niger free and immobilized in alginate-polyvinyl alcohol beads

The production of glucose oxidase (GOX) and catalase (CAT) by submerged fermentation of the free and immobilized xerophytic fungus Aspergillus niger under equal conditions was compared. To immobilize fungal spores, entrapment in PVA/alginate beads treated with NaNO3/CaCl2 was performed. The yield of immobilization in the beads with a diameter less than 1mm was equal to 100%. Fungus growth and substrate consumption were evaluated in both fermentation systems, demonstrating the lag-period presence in the case of the first cycle of immobilized fungus use. The enzyme production by immobilized fungus reuse was carried out. In these cases, greater enzymatic GOX activity was detected, while CAT activity decreased. SEM micrographs for the beads with immobilized fungus applied in the first and second fermentation cycles were obtained, presenting fungus spreading inside the sphere, spore presence and branching hyphae. Immobilization of A. niger on PVA/alginate beads is effective for GOX and CAT production at least on 2-3 repeated fermentative cycles. Thus, immobilization enables repeated use of microbial cells.

Construction of mutant glucose oxidases with increased dye-mediated dehydrogenase activity

Mutagenesis studies on glucose oxidases (GOxs) were conducted to construct GOxs with reduced oxidase activity and increased dehydrogenase activity. We focused on two representative GOxs, of which crystal structures have already been reported—Penicillium amagasakiense GOx (PDB ID; 1gpe) and Aspergillus niger GOx (PDB ID; 1cf3). We constructed oxygen-interacting structural models for GOxs, and predicted the residues responsible for oxidative half reaction with oxygen on the basis of the crystal structure of cholesterol oxidase as well as on the fact that both enzymes are members of the glucose/methanol/choline (GMC) oxidoreductase family. Rational amino acid substitution resulted in the construction of an engineered GOx with drastically decreased oxidase activity and increased dehydrogenase activity, which was higher than that of the wild-type enzyme. As a result, the dehydrogenase/oxidase ratio of the engineered enzyme was more than 11-fold greater than that of the wild-type enzyme. These results indicate that alteration of the dehydrogenase/oxidase activity ratio of GOxs is possible by introducing a mutation into the putative functional residues responsible for oxidative half reaction with oxygen of these enzymes, resulting in a further increased dehydrogenase activity. This is the first study reporting the alteration of GOx electron acceptor preference from oxygen to an artificial electron acceptor.

High-level expression of the Penicillium notatum glucose oxidase gene in Pichia pastoris using codon optimization

The glucose oxidase (GOD) gene from Penicillium notatum was expressed in Pichia pastoris. The 1,815 bp gene, god-w, encodes 604 amino acids. Recombinant GOD-w had optimal activity at 35-40°C and pH 6.2 and was stable, from pH 3 to 7 maintaining >75% maximum activity after incubation at 50°C for 1 h. GOD-w worked as well as commercial GODs to improve bread making. To achieve high-level expression of recombinant GOD in P. pastoris, 272 nucleotides involving 228 residues were mutated, consistent with the codon bias of P. pastoris. The optimized recombinant GOD-m yielded 615 U ml(-1) (2.5 g protein l(-1)) in a 3 l fermentor--410% higher than GOD-w (148 U ml(-1)), and thus is a low-cost alternative for the bread baking industry.

Glucose oxidase--an overview

Glucose oxidase (beta-D-glucose:oxygen 1-oxidoreductase; EC 1.1.2.3.4) catalyzes the oxidation of beta-D-glucose to gluconic acid, by utilizing molecular oxygen as an electron acceptor with simultaneous production of hydrogen peroxide. Microbial glucose oxidase is currently receiving much attention due to its wide applications in chemical, pharmaceutical, food, beverage, clinical chemistry, biotechnology and other industries. Novel applications of glucose oxidase in biosensors have increased the demand in recent years. Present review discusses the production, recovery, characterization, immobilization and applications of glucose oxidase. Production of glucose oxidase by fermentation is detailed, along with recombinant methods. Various purification techniques for higher recovery of glucose oxidase are described here. Issues of enzyme kinetics, stability studies and characterization are addressed. Immobilized preparations of glucose oxidase are also discussed. Applications of glucose oxidase in various industries and as analytical enzymes are having an increasing impact on bioprocessing.

SP1 as a novel scaffold building block for self-assembly nanofabrication of submicron enzymatic structures

In this study, SP1, a ring-shaped highly stable homododecamer protein complex was utilized for the self-assembly of multiple domains in a predefined manner. Glucose oxidase (GOx) was fused in-frame to SP1 and expressed in Escherichia coli. Complexes where GOx encircled SP1 dodecamer were observed, and moreover, the enzymatic monomers self-assembled into active multienzyme nanotube particles containing hundreds of GOx molecules per tube. This work demonstrates the value of SP1 as a self-assembly scaffold.

Glucose-induced production of recombinant proteins in Hansenulapolymorpha mutants deficient in catabolite repression

The most commonly used expression platform for production of recombinant proteins in the methylotrophic yeast Hansenula polymorpha relies on the strong and strictly regulated promoter from the gene encoding peroxisomal enzyme alcohol (or methanol) oxidase (P(MOX)). Expression from P(MOX) is induced by methanol and is partially derepressed in glycerol or xylose medium, whereas in the presence of hexoses, disaccharides or ethanol, it is repressed. The need for methanol for maximal induction of gene expression in large-scale fermentation is a significant drawback, as this compound is toxic, flammable, supports a slow growth rate and requires extensive aeration. We isolated H. polymorpha mutants deficient in glucose repression of P(MOX) due to an impaired HpGCR1 gene, and other yet unidentified secondary mutations. The mutants exhibited pronounced defects in P(MOX) regulation only by hexoses and xylose, but not by disaccharides or ethanol. With one of these mutant strains as hosts, we developed a modified two-carbon source mode expression platform that utilizes convenient sugar substrates for growth (sucrose) and induction of recombinant protein expression (glucose or xylose). We demonstrate efficient regulatable by sugar carbon sources expression of three recombinant proteins: a secreted glucose oxidase from the fungus Aspergillus niger, a secreted mini pro-insulin, and an intracellular hepatitis B virus surface antigen in these mutant hosts. The modified expression platform preserves the favorable regulatable nature of P(MOX) without methanol, making a convenient alternative to the traditional system.

Use of laccase as a novel, versatile reporter system in filamentous fungi

Laccases are copper-containing enzymes which oxidize phenolic substrates and transfer the electrons to oxygen. Many filamentous fungi contain several laccase-encoding genes, but their biological roles are mostly not well understood. The main interest in laccases in biotechnology is their potential to be used to detoxify phenolic substances. We report here on a novel application of laccases as a reporter system in fungi. We purified a laccase enzyme from the ligno-cellulolytic ascomycete Stachybotrys chartarum. It oxidized the artificial substrate 2,2'-azino-di-(3-ethylbenzthiazolinsulfonate) (ABTS). The corresponding gene was isolated and expressed in Aspergillus nidulans, Aspergillus niger, and Trichoderma reesei. Heterologously expressed laccase activity was monitored in colorimetric enzyme assays and on agar plates with ABTS as a substrate. The use of laccase as a reporter was shown in a genetic screen for the isolation of improved T. reesei cellulase production strains. In addition to the laccase from S. charatarum, we tested the application of three laccases from A. nidulans (LccB, LccC, and LccD) as reporters. Whereas LccC oxidized ABTS (Km = 0.3 mM), LccD did not react with ABTS but with DMA/ADBP (3,5-dimethylaniline/4-amino-2,6-dibromophenol). LccB reacted with DMA/ADBP and showed weak activity with ABTS. The different catalytic properties of LccC and LccD allow simultaneous use of these two laccases as reporters in one fungal strain.

Defect of vacuolar protein sorting stimulates proteolytic processing of human urokinase-type plasminogen activator in the yeast Hansenula polymorpha

Human urokinase-type plasminogen activator (uPA) is poorly secreted by yeast cells. Here, we have selected Hansenula polymorpha mutants with increased productivity of active extracellular uPA. Several of the obtained mutants also demonstrated a defect of sorting of carboxypeptidase Y to the vacuole and the mutant loci have been identified in six of them. All these mutations damaged genes involved in protein traffic between the Golgi apparatus and the vacuole, namely PEP3, VPS8, VPS10, VPS17, and VPS35. We have shown that inactivation of the VPS10 gene encoding the vacuolar protein sorting receptor does not increase uPA secretion but stimulates its proteolytic processing.

Cloning and characterization of the Hansenula polymorpha PEP4 gene encoding proteinase A

The Hansenula polymorpha PEP4 gene encoding proteinase A was cloned by Southern blot hybridization using the Saccharomyces cerevisiae PEP4 gene as probe and characterized by gene disruption and overexpression. Nucleotide sequence analysis revealed an open reading frame (ORF) of 1239 nucleotides corresponding to a polypeptide of 413 amino acids, sharing about 67.2% sequence similarity with that of S. cerevisiae proteinase A. That the cloned H. polymorpha PEP4 gene encodes proteinase A was supported by a gene disruption experiment, which showed that the H. polymorpha pep4 mutant strain showed significantly reduced level of carboxypeptidase Y activity when assayed with an artificial substrate. When the PEP4 gene is overproduced in pep4 mutant strain, mature proteinase A could be found in the growth medium. N-terminal amino acid sequencing of extracellular proteinase A revealed the presence of a putative propeptide of 55 amino acids ending with a dibasic peptide (Lys-Arg), probably processed by Kex2p-like endopeptidase of H. polymorpha. The nucleotide sequence of the H. polymorpha PEP4 gene has been submitted to GenBank under Accession No. U67173.

Cloning and characterization of gluconolactone oxidase of Penicillium cyaneo-fulvum ATCC 10431 and evaluation of its use for production of D-erythorbic acid in recombinant Pichia pastoris

A D-erythorbic acid-forming soluble flavoprotein, gluconolactone oxidase (GLO), was purified from Penicillium cyaneo-fulvum strain ATCC 10431 and partially sequenced. Peptide sequences were used to isolate a cDNA clone encoding the enzyme. The cloned gene exhibits high levels of similarity with the genes encoding other known eukaryotic lactone oxidases and also with the genes encoding some putative prokaryotic lactone oxidases. Analysis of the coding sequence of the GLO gene indicated the presence of a typical secretion signal sequence at the N terminus of GLO. No other targeting or anchoring signals were found, suggesting that GLO is the first known lactone oxidase that is secreted rather than targeted to the membranes of the endoplasmic reticulum or mitochondria. Experimental evidence, including the N-terminal sequence of mature GLO and data on glycosylation and localization of the enzyme in native and recombinant hosts, supports this analysis. The GLO gene was expressed in Pichia pastoris, and recombinant GLO was produced by using the strong methanol-induced AOX1 promoter. In order to evaluate the suitability of purified GLO for production of D-erythorbic acid, we immobilized it on N-hydroxysuccinimide-activated Sepharose and found that the immobilized GLO retained full activity during immobilization but was rather unstable under reaction conditions. Our results show that both soluble and immobilized forms of GLO can, in principle, be used for production of D-erythorbic acid from D-glucono-delta-lactone or (in combination with glucose oxidase and catalase) from glucose. We also demonstrated the feasibility of glucose-D-erythorbic acid fermentation with recombinant strains coexpressing GLO and glucose oxidase genes, and we analyzed problems associated with construction of efficient D-erythorbic acid-producing hosts.

Expression of the Aspergillus niger glucose oxidase gene in Saccharomyces cerevisiae and its potential applications in wine production

There is a growing consumer demand for wines containing lower levels of alcohol and chemical preservatives. The objectives of this study were to express the Aspergillus niger gene encoding a glucose oxidase (GOX; beta- d-glucose:oxygen oxidoreductase, EC 1.1.3.4) in Saccharomyces cerevisiae and to evaluate the transformants for lower alcohol production and inhibition of wine spoilage organisms, such as acetic acid bacteria and lactic acid bacteria, during fermentation. The A. niger structural glucose oxidase (gox) gene was cloned into an integration vector (YIp5) containing the yeast mating pheromone alpha-factor secretion signal (MFalpha1(S)) and the phosphoglycerate-kinase-1 gene promoter (PGK1(P)) and terminator (PGK1(T)). The PGK1(P)- MFalpha1(S)- gox- PGK1(T) cassette (designated GOX1) was introduced into a laboratory strain (Sigma1278) of S. cerevisiae. Yeast transformants were analysed for the production of biologically active glucose oxidase on selective agar plates and in liquid assays. The results indicated that the recombinant glucose oxidase was active and was produced beginning early in the exponential growth phase, leading to a stable level in the stationary phase. The yeast transformants also displayed antimicrobial activity in a plate assay against lactic acid bacteria and acetic acid bacteria. This might be explained by the fact that a final product of the GOX enzymatic reaction is hydrogen peroxide, a known antimicrobial agent. Microvinification with the laboratory yeast transformants resulted in wines containing 1.8-2.0% less alcohol. This was probably due to the production of d-glucono-delta-lactone and gluconic acid from glucose by GOX. These results pave the way for the development of wine yeast starter culture strains for the production of wine with reduced levels of chemical preservatives and alcohol.

A cell surface display system using novel GPI-anchored proteins in Hansenula polymorpha

A cell surface display system was developed in yeast Hansenula polymorpha. The four genes HpSED1, HpGAS1, HpTIP1and HpCWP1, encoding glycosylphosphatidyl-inositol (GPI)-anchored cell surface proteins from H. polymorpha, were cloned, characterized and evaluated for their efficacies as cell surface display motifs of reporter proteins. Sequence analysis of these genes revealed that each encodes a typical GPI-anchored protein that is structurally similar to a counterpart gene in S. cerevisiae. The genes showed a high content of serine-threonine (alanine) and harboured a putative secretion signal in the N-terminus and the GPI-attachment signal in the C-terminus. The surface anchoring efficiency of these putative cell surface proteins was tested by fusion to the C-terminal of carboxymethylcellulase (CMCase) from Bacillus subtilis. In all cases, high CMCase activities were detected in intact cell fraction, indicating anchoring of CMCase to the cell surface. HpCwp1p, HpGas1p and the 40 C-terminal amino acids of HpTip1p from H. polymorpha exhibited a comparatively high CMCase surface anchoring efficiency. When these proteins were used as anchoring motifs for surface display of the glucose oxidase (GOD) from Aspergillus niger, most enzyme activity was detected at the cell surface. Fluorescence activated cell sorter (FACS) analysis of cells displaying GOD on the cell surface demonstrated that GOD was well exposed on the cell surface. HpCwp1p showed the highest anchoring efficiency among others.

Cloning and characterization of the Hansenula polymorpha homologue of the Saccharomyces cerevisiae MNN9 gene

A gene homologous to Saccharomyces cerevisiae MNN9 has been cloned and characterized in the methylotrophic yeast Hansenula polymorpha. This gene was cloned from a H. polymorpha genomic DNA library using the S. cerevisiae MNN9 gene as a probe. The H. polymorpha MNN9 homologue (HpMNN9) contained a 1062 bp open reading frame encoding a predicted protein of 354 amino acids. The deduced amino acid sequence showed 58% and 51% identity, respectively, with the S. cerevisiae and Candida albicans Mnn9 proteins. Disruption of HpMNN9 leads to phenotypic effects suggestive of cell wall defects, including detergent sensitivity and hygromycin B sensitivity. The hygromycin B sensitivity of S. cerevisiae mnn9 null mutant was complemented in the presence of the HpMNN9 gene. The DNA sequence of the H. polymorpha homologue has been submitted to GenBank with the Accession No. AF264786.

Constitutive expression of recombinant proteins in the methylotrophic yeast Hansenula polymorpha using the PMA1 promoter

The methylotrophic yeast H. polymorpha is a popular system for the expression of recombinant proteins using the strong and regulatable methanol oxidase (MOX) promoter. Here we show that the constitutive PMA1 promoter can programme the expression of two heterologous proteins, glucose oxidase and human serum albumin. A constitutive promoter provides a useful additional facility to the H. polymorpha expression system because it allows a simplified fermentation regime, avoids the use of methanol, which is both toxic and an explosive hazard, and allows more flexibility for ectopic gene expression during the course of academic studies. A fragment previously isolated in a promoter screen, using glucose oxidase (GOD) as a reporter gene, was shown to consist of the promoter region and the first 659 bp of the H. polymorpha PMA1 gene, encoding the plasma membrane H(+)-ATPase. When the PMA1 promoter was optimally aligned with the GOD coding region, it produced 185 mg/l glucose oxidase in high cell density fed batch fermentations, whereas in previous experiments using the MOX promoter, a yield of 500 mg/l was recovered. The PMA1 promoter was also used to express recombinant human serum albumin (rHA) in H. polymorpha. In high cell density fermentations the PMA1 promoter produced 460 mg/l rHA, whereas 280 mg/l rHA was obtained using the MOX promoter. Taken together, these experiments show that the HpPMA1 programmes the constitutive expression of recombinant proteins and provides a yield comparable to that from the MOX promoter.

Expression of glucose oxidase by using recombinant yeast

The glucose oxidase gene (GO) of Aspergillus niger was cloned into the yeast shuttle vector YEp352 with combinations of various promoters and terminators, and then used to transform Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Expressed GO was successfully secreted into culture medium due to the presence of the intrinsic signal peptide of GO. Four different promoters fused to GO were tested: bidirectional galactose dehydrogenase 1 and 10 (GAL1, GAL10) promoters, glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase (GPD) promoter and an yeast hybrid ADH2-GPD promoter consisting of alcohol dehydrogenase II (ADH2) and GPD promoter. The intrinsic terminator of GO as well as the GAL7 terminator were also compared for better production of GO. Deletion of most of the terminating region from GO yielded only a slight amount of GO while the presence of either terminator greatly increased GO production. The GAL10 promoter produced the least amount of GO, GAL1 and GPD promoters were moderate, and the ADH2-GPD hybrid promoter was the best among all tested. However, the hybrid promoter was tightly regulated by the presence of an excess amount of either glucose or ethanol, and it appeared that 2% glucose and 1. 5% ethanol supplement was the best concentration for GO production. It was possible to produce 260 IU ml(-1) of GO, an equivalent of 5 g l(-1), under the presence of 2% glucose and 1.5% ethanol. UV mutagenesis of a recombinant S. cerevisiae was also applied and it further increased the yield of GO to 460 IU ml(-1) under the presence of 2% glucose and 1.5% ethanol without any changes in cell growth. Corn steep liquor which is commonly used in bioindustry is a good alternative substrate for high priced glucose for the hybrid promoter and suggests a cost effective means for commercial mass production of GO using recombinant yeast.

The methylotrophic yeast Hansenula polymorpha: a versatile cell factory

The development of heterologous overexpression systems for soluble proteins has greatly advanced the study of the structure/function relationships of these proteins and their biotechnological and pharmaceutical applications. In this paper we present an overview on several aspects of the use of the methylotrophic yeast Hansenula polymorpha as a host for heterologous gene expression. H. polymorpha has been successfully exploited as a cell factory for the large-scale production of such components. Stable, engineered strains can be obtained by site-directed integration of expression cassettes into the genome, for which various constitutive and inducible promoters are available to control the expression of the foreign genes. New developments have now opened the way to additional applications of H. polymorpha, which are unprecedented for other organisms. Most importantly, it may be the organism of choice for reliable, large-scale production of heterologous membrane proteins, using inducible intracellular membranes and targeting sequences to specifically insert these proteins stably into these membranes. Furthermore, the use of H. polymorpha offers the possibility to accumulate the produced components into specific compartments, namely peroxisomes. These organelles are massively induced during growth of the organism on methanol and may occupy up to 80% of the cell volume. Accumulation inside peroxisomes prevents undesired modifications (e.g. proteolytic processing or glycosylation) and is also in particular advantageous when proteins are produced which are toxic or harmful for the host.

An expression system matures: a highly efficient and cost-effective process for phytase production by recombinant strains of Hansenula polymorpha

An efficient process was developed for the low-cost production of phytases using Hansenula polymorpha. Glucose or glucose syrups, previously reported as repressive substrates, were used as main carbon sources during fermentation. Glucose was even the most productive substrate for high-level production of phytases. Compared with the process using glycerol, the standard carbon source used for this process until now, the use of glucose led to a reduction of more than 80% in the raw materials costs. In addition, exceptionally high concentrations of active enzyme (up to 13.5 g/L) were obtained in the medium, with phytase representing over 97% of the total accumulated protein. These levels greatly exceed those reported so far for any yeast-based expression system. Very efficient downstream processing procedures were developed with product recovery yields over 90%. Both the fermentation and downstream processing were successfully tested in pilot scale up to 2000 L. As a result, H. polymorpha can be used as a highly competitive system for low-cost phytase production.

Production of recombinant human bile salt stimulated lipase and its variant in Pichia pastoris

hBSSL and its truncated variant hBSSL-C cDNA clones were expressed in Pichia pastoris using two different signal peptides, native signal peptide and invertase signal peptide, respectively, to facilitate secretion of the recombinant proteins into the culture medium. Both recombinant proteins were secreted into the culture medium to a level of 45-50 mg/liter in shake flask cultures. Native signal peptide of hBSSL was recognized in P. pastoris and was cleaved at the same site as in humans. The level of expression of the hBSSL gene was found to be dependent on the number of its copies integrated into the host chromosome. The multicopy transformant clone was found to be very stable. When grown and induced in a fermentor, the level of accumulation of the recombinant hBSSL in the culture medium improved from 50 mg/liter in shake flask cultures to 300 mg/liter. The recombinant hBSSL purified from the culture supernatant was found to be similar to the native hBSSL in its biochemical properties except for the lectin-binding profile.

A regulatory mutant of Hansenula polymorpha exhibiting methanol utilization metabolism and peroxisome proliferation in glucose

Mutant LGM-128 of Hansenula polymorpha harbors the recessive mutation glr2-1 which confers a complex pleiotropic phenotype, the major feature of which is the metabolically unnecessary induction of methanol utilization metabolism (C1 metabolism) during growth on glucose, whether or not methanol is in the medium. Therefore, in this mutant, peroxisomes are formed and proliferate upon cultivation in glucose-containing media. In these media, LGM-128 shows induction levels of C1 metabolism that are similar to those observed in methanol-containing media. This indicates that GLR2 controls the repression-derepression process stimulated by glucose and that the induction process triggered by methanol plays only a minor role in activating C1 metabolism. Cultivating LGM-128 in methanol and then transferring it to glucose media revealed that active degradative processes occur, leading to the disappearance of C1 metabolism. This observation suggests that, although stimulated by glucose, the two processes are controlled by elements which are, at least in part, distinct. Finally, glr2-1 does not affect ethanol repression, suggesting that in H. polymorpha the two repressing circuits are separated.

Application of yeasts in gene expression studies: a comparison of Saccharomyces cerevisiae, Hansenula polymorpha and Kluyveromyces lactis -- a review

From the onset of gene technology yeasts have been among the most commonly used host cells for the production of heterologous proteins. At the beginning of this new development the attention in molecular biology and biotechnology focused on the use of the best characterized species, Saccharomyces cerevisiae, leading to an increasing number of production systems for recombinant compounds. In recent years alternative yeasts became accessible for the techniques of modern molecular genetics and, thereby, for potential applications in biotechnology. In this respect Kluyveromyces lactis, and the methylotrophs Hansenula polymorpha and Pichia pastoris have been proven to offer significant advantages over the traditional baker's yeast for the production of certain proteins. In the following article, the present status of the various yeast systems is discussed.

A novel autonomously replicating sequence (ARS) for multiple integration in the yeast Hansenula polymorpha DL-1

Several autonomously replicating sequences of Hansenula polymorpha DL-1 (HARSs) with the characteristics of tandem integration were cloned by an enrichment procedure and analyzed for their functional elements to elucidate the mechanism of multiple integration in tandem repeats. All plasmids harboring newly cloned HARSs showed a high frequency of transformation and were maintained episomally before stabilization. After stabilization, the transforming DNA was stably integrated into the chromosome. HARS36 was selected for its high efficiency of transformation and tendency for integration. Several tandemly repeated copies of the transforming plasmid containing HARS36 (pCE36) integrated into the vicinity of the chromosomal end. Bal 31 digestion of the total DNA from the integrants followed by Southern blotting generated progressive shortening of the hybridization signal, indicating the telomeric localization of the transforming plasmids on the chromosome. The minimum region of HARS36 required for its HARS activity was analyzed by deletion analyses. Three important regions, A, B, and C, for episomal replication and integration were detected. Analysis of the DNA sequences of regions A and B required for the episomal replication revealed that region A contained several AT-rich sequences that showed sequence homology with the ARS core consensus sequence of Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Region B contained two directly repeated sequences which were predicted to form a bent DNA structure. Deletion of the AT-rich core in region A resulted in a complete loss of ARS activity, and deletion of the repeated sequences in region B greatly reduced the stability of the transforming plasmid and resulted in retarded cell growth. Region C was required for the facilitated chromosomal integration of transforming plasmids.

Expression of the major bean proteins from Theobroma cacao (cocoa) in the yeasts Hansenula polymorpha and Saccharomyces cerevisiae

The production in two yeast expression systems of recombinant forms of the major proteins from the cocoa bean is described. Three major protein species are found in the cocoa bean: an albumin of molecular mass 21 kDa (p21) and two insoluble vicilin-like proteins of molecular mass 31 kDa and 47 kDa (p31 and p47, respectively). The p31 and p47 species are known to be derived from a common 67-kDa precursor (p67) by post-translational processing that includes the deletion of a hydrophilic domain located immediately after an N-terminal signal sequence. All three proteins appear to be targeted to membrane-bound storage organelles by N-terminal signal sequences. The p21 and p67 coding sequences were expressed in Hansenula polymorpha using the powerful methanol oxidase (MOX) promoter and in Saccharomyces cerevisiae using the promoter of the pyruvate kinase (PYK) gene. The expression constructs contained the native plant signal sequence, or various yeast signals. The p21 protein was successfully expressed and secreted from both yeasts. The insoluble p67 protein proved more difficult. Species of the correct molecular mass were recovered internally and small amounts of a p47 species were secreted using a yeast leader sequence. However, proteolytic cleavage, probably due to Kex2p-like processing, led to the appearance of other protein species.

Review: methylotrophic yeasts as factories for the production of foreign proteins

In this contribution we discuss the potential of methylotrophic yeasts as hosts for the high level production of valuable foreign proteins. Recent relevant achievements on the intracellular production or secretion of proteins are summarized. Special attention is paid to a specific advantage of the use of methylotrophic yeasts, namely the possibility of accumulating the foreign gene products inside peroxisomes. This approach may be of major advantage when the protein product is toxic for the host cell and, also, to protect these proteins from undesired side-effects such as proteolysis or aggregation.

A disruption-replacement approach for the targeted integration of foreign genes in Hansenula polymorpha

A system has been developed which allows the selection of integrative transformants with replacement of the Hansenula polymorpha methanol oxidase gene (MOX) with expression cassettes carrying heterologous gene under the control of the MOX promoter. The system is convenient for comparison of the expression levels of different constructs integrated into the same locus of the H. polymorpha genome. This system was used to compare the secretion levels of human urinary plasminogen activator, the secretion of which was directed by different signal sequences.

Physiological and technological aspects of large-scale heterologous-protein production with yeasts

Commercial production of heterologous proteins by yeasts has gained considerable interest. Expression systems have been developed for Saccharomyces cerevisiae and a number of other yeasts. Generally, much attention is paid to the molecular aspects of heterologous-gene expression. The success of this approach is indicated by the high expression levels that have been obtained in shake-flask cultures. For large-scale production however, possibilities and restrictions related to host-strain physiology and fermentation technology also have to be considered. In this review, these physiological and technological aspects have been evaluated with the aid of numerical simulations. Factors that affect the choice of a carbon substrate for large-scale production involve price, purity and solubility. Since oxygen demand and heat production (which are closely linked) limit the attainable growth rate in large-scale processes, the biomass yield on oxygen is also a key parameter. Large-scale processes impose restrictions on the expression system. Many promoter systems that work well in small-scale systems cannot be implemented in industrial environments. Furthermore, large-scale fed-batch fermentations involve a substantial number of generations. Therefore, even low expression-cassette instability has a profound effect on the overall productivity of the system. Multicopy-integration systems may provide highly stable expression systems for industrial processes. Large-scale fed-batch processes are typically performed at a low growth rate. Therefore, effects of a low growth rate on the physiology and product formation rates of yeasts are of key importance. Due to the low growth rates in the industrial process, a substantial part of the substrate carbon is expended to meet maintenance-energy requirements. Factors that reduce maintenance-energy requirements will therefore have a positive effect on product yield. The relationship between specific growth rate and specific product formation rate (kg product.[kg biomass]-1.h-1) is the main factor influencing production levels in large-scale production processes. Expression systems characterized by a high specific rate of product formation at low specific growth rates are highly favourable for large-scale heterologous-protein production.

Plasmid reorganization during integrative transformation in Hansenula polymorpha

During studies of integrative transformation in Hansenula polymorpha, it was found that transformants with plasmids possessing the LEU2 gene of H. polymorpha were frequently unstable and lost plasmids while growing on non-selective medium. These transformants possessed reorganized plasmids capable of replication in H. polymorpha. Two such plasmids were isolated and characterized. It was shown that they contain additional DNA segments which were not present in the original plasmid used for transformation. Southern hybridization analysis carried out with labeled DNA probes derived from these segments showed that they consisted of H. polymorpha DNA. The hybridization patterns indicated that corresponding sequences were homologous to several chromosomal regions. These chromosomal DNA segments apparently carried H. polymorpha autonomous replicating sequences (HARS), since plasmids bearing them could transform H. polymorpha with high efficiency and were maintained in transformants in an autonomous state. Sequence analysis of one such captured chromosomal fragment revealed several eight- to ten-base AT-rich blocks similar to the presumed HARS sequence defined by Roggenkamp et al. (1986). Analogous reorganization was also observed with respect to integrative plasmids carrying the TRP3 and HIS3 genes of H. polymorpha and the ADE2 gene of Saccharomyces cerevisiae as selectable markers.

Increase in copy number of an integrated vector during continuous culture of Hansenula polymorpha expressing functional human haemoglobin

Recombinant human haemoglobin A (rHbA) was produced by a leucine-requiring strain of Hansenula polymorpha which had been transformed with an integration vector containing the Saccharomyces cerevisiae LEU2 gene and cDNAs for the expression of alpha and beta globin each driven by the H. polymorpha MOX promoter. After 40 generations in a chemostat it was found that the integrated vector had become amplified in the host strain. In some cases this led to an increase in LEU2 gene dosage, but a loss of globin expression cassettes. In other cases the globin gene dosage also increased. These changes coincided with an increase in rHbA production in the culture, which was reversed when the dilution rate was increased. Isolates from a chemostat culture producing elevated levels of rHbA were grown in fed-batch fermentations, resulting in higher productivities than when inoculated with the parent strain. The rHbA produced was purified and characterized. Oxygen binding studies and electrospray mass spectrometry showed that the rHbA had been processed and assembled correctly, and behaved as a fully functional co-operative tetramer.