Validation of the KDIGO acute kidney injury criteria in a pediatric critical care population

Renal resistive index by point of care ultrasound to predict sepsis associated acute kidney injury in critically ill children

BACKGROUND

Sepsis associated acute kidney injury (AKI) is linked with adverse outcomes in the PICU. Doppler-based renal resistive index (RRI) has shown promising results in adults for prediction of AKI. We aimed to explore the performance of RRI in children with sepsis.

METHODS

This prospective observational study (March - November 2022) included children aged 1-12 years with sepsis admitted to the PICU. RRI and urine neutrophil gelatinase associated lipocalin (NGAL) were measured within 12 h of admission. Children were followed up for 3 days. AKI (new and persistent) was defined as any child with KDIGO stage 2 or 3 AKI on day 3.

RESULTS

We enrolled 90 children but included 79 in final analysis. Two thirds (n = 53, 67%) had septic shock. Median (IQR) age was 6.2 years (4.1-9.2). RRI decreased with increasing age. Twenty-six (33%) children had AKI on day 3. Mean (SD) RRI was higher in the AKI group [0.72 (0.08) vs. 0.65 (0.07), p < 0.001].The area under ROC curve for RRI to detect AKI among the 1-4 year old group was 0.75 (95% CI:0.51, 0.98; p = 0.05) and among the 5-12 year old group was 0.76 (0.62, 0.89; p = 0.001). An RRI 0.71 predicted AKI with 100% sensitivity and 46.2% specificity among the 1-4-year-old group and RRI 0.69 predicted it with 70% sensitivity and 77.5% specificity in the 5-12-year-old group. RRI and eGFR at admission were independent predictors of AKI on multivariable analysis. Urine NGAL 94.8 ng/ml predicted AKI with 76.9% sensitivity and 77.4% specificity and AUROC was 0.74 (0.62, 0.86) among the 1-12-year-old group.

CONCLUSIONS

RRI values varied with age. RRI showed good diagnostic accuracy to detect new/persistent AKI on day 3 in children with sepsis; however, it was less precise as an independent predictor.

Meropenem Disposition in Neonatal and Pediatric Extracorporeal Membrane Oxygenation and Continuous Renal Replacement Therapy

This study aimed to characterize the impact of extracorporeal membrane oxygenation (ECMO) on the pharmacokinetics (PK) of meropenem in neonates and children and to provide recommendations for meropenem dosing in this specific population of patients. Therapeutic drug monitoring (152 meropenem plasma concentrations) data from 45 patients (38 received ECMO) with a body weight (BW) of 7.88 (3.62-11.97) kg (median (interquartile range)) and postnatal age of 3 (0-465) days were collected. The population PK analysis was performed using NONMEM V7.3.0. Monte Carlo simulations were performed to assess the probability of target achievement (PTA) for 40% of time the free drug remained above the minimum inhibitory concentration (fT > MIC) and 100% fT > MIC. BW was found to be a significant covariate for the volume of distribution (Vd) and clearance (CL). Additionally, continuous renal replacement therapy (CRRT) was associated with a two-fold increase in Vd. In the final model, the CL and Vd for a typical patient with a median BW of 7.88 kg that was off CRRT were 1.09 L/h (RSE = 8%) and 3.98 L (14%), respectively. ECMO did not affect meropenem PK, while superimposed CRRT significantly increased Vd. We concluded that current dosing regimens provide acceptably high PTA for MIC ≤ 4 mg/L for 40% fT > MIC, but individual dose adjustments are needed for 100% fT > MIC.

Use of urine neutrophil gelatinase-associated lipocalin for nephrotoxic medication acute kidney injury screening in neonates

BACKGROUND

Daily serum creatinine monitoring protocols for acute kidney injury (AKI) are invasive and may lead to surveillance resistance. We aimed to understand if use of urine neutrophil gelatinase-associated lipocalin (uNGAL) could increase high-risk nephrotoxic medication (NTMx) associated AKI screening adherence in neonates.

METHODS

Statistical process control methods prior to and post implementation were trended. The primary outcome, screening adherence, was defined as either daily serum creatinine or uNGAL assessment through 2 days post high-risk NTMx exposure.

RESULTS

1291 monitoring days from the pre-implementation era (4/2020-6/2021) were compared to1377 monitoring days from the post-era (6/2021-10/2022). AKI screening adherence increased (81 to 92%) following implementation of optional uNGAL screening. Urine NGAL accounted for 35% of screening obtained. Use of uNGAL resulted in a 40% reduction in blood sampling for serum creatinine.

CONCLUSIONS

Incorporation of uNGAL as a complementary screening tool to serum creatinine demonstrated sustained increased AKI surveillance in our Baby NINJA monitoring program.

Impact of the first 24 h of continuous kidney replacement therapy on hemodynamics, ventilation, and analgo-sedation in critically ill children

BACKGROUND

In a group of children admitted to the paediatric intensive care unit (PICU) receiving continuous kidney replacement therapy (CKRT), we aim to evaluate the data about their hemodynamic, ventilation and analgo-sedation profile in the first 24 h of treatment and possible associations with mortality.

METHODS

Retrospective cohort study of children admitted to the PICU of the University Hospital of Padova undergoing CKRT between January 2011 and March 2021. Data was collected at baseline (T0), after 1 h (T1) and 24 h (T24) of CKRT treatment. The differences in outcome measures were compared between these time points, and between survivors and non-survivors.

RESULTS

Sixty-nine patients received CKRT, of whom 38 (55%) died during the PICU stay. Overall, the vasoactive inotropic score and the adrenaline dose increased at T1 compared to T0 (p = 0.012 and p = 0.022, respectively). Compared to T0, at T24 patients showed an improvement in the following ventilatory parameters: Oxygenation Index (p = 0.005), Oxygenation Saturation Index (p = 0.013) PaO2/FiO2 ratio (p = 0.005), SpO2/FiO2 ratio (p = 0.002) and Mean Airway Pressure (p = 0.016). These improvements remained significant in survivors (p = 0.01, p = 0.027, p = 0.01 and p = 0.015, respectively) but not in non-survivors. No changes in analgo-sedative drugs have been described.

CONCLUSIONS

CKRT showed a significant impact on hemodynamics and ventilation in the first 24 h of treatment. We observed a significant rise in the inotropic/vasoactive support required after 1 h of treatment in the overall population, and an improvement in the ventilation parameters at 24 h only in survivors.

A retrospective analysis of acute kidney injury in children with post-COVID-19 multisystem inflammatory syndrome: insights into promising outcomes

BACKGROUND

Acute kidney injury (AKI) in patients with multisystem inflammatory syndrome (MIS), COVID-19 related infection has been increasingly recognized with a paucity of data on AKI incidence, related mortality, and the requirement of renal replacement therapy in children with MIS (MIS-C).

METHODS

This is a retrospective study evaluating the prevalence, severity, management and outcomes of AKI in a cohort of Egyptian children with MIS-children (MIS-C) post-COVID infection. Patients were included if they met the criteria for MIS-C based on CDC guidelines. All patients were evaluated for AKI diagnosis and staging according to the Kidney Disease Improving Global Outcomes (KDIGO) criteria.

RESULTS

Between March 2021 and June 2023, a total of 655 confirmed COVID-19 cases were admitted and then followed up in our hospital, of whom 138 (21%) were diagnosed with MIS-C. Fifty-one patients developed AKI associated with MIS-C post-COVID infection, 42 of whom were included in the analysis. Thirty-one patients had AKI in a formerly healthy kidney, of whom 51% (16 patients) were classified as KDIGO stage 3, 5 patients needed hemodialysis and 13 needed mechanical ventilation. Higher WBCs count, and serum ferritin on admission were associated with more severe AKI (KDIGO stage 3) (p = 0.04), while multivariate analysis showed high serum ferritin to be independent predictor of more severe AKI (p = 0.02). Two patients (2/31) died during hospital admission, while no residual renal impairment was reported at the time of discharge of patients with previously normal kidney functions.

CONCLUSION

More than one-third of patients with MIS-C develop AKI. Avoidance of nephrotoxic drugs, early recognition, and prompt management of AKI, including well-timed commencement of dialysis in MIS-C cases, is associated with favorable outcomes.

Incidence and Risk Factors of Acute Kidney Injury in Pediatric Liver Transplant Patients: A Retrospective Study

Background

Acute kidney injury (AKI) significantly contributes to the mortality and morbidity rates among pediatric liver transplant (LT) recipients.

Objective

Our study aimed to assess the potential factors contributing to AKI in pediatric LT patients and to analyze the impact of AKI on postoperative mortality and hospitalization duration.

Materials and methods

About 235 pediatric LT patients under the age of 18 between the years 2015 and 2021 were evaluated retrospectively. The relationship between preoperative and intraoperative variables of the patients and AKI developed when the early postoperatıve period was assessed.

Results

A correlation was found between the patients' preoperative age, albumin levels, and AKI. AKI was found to be associated with the duration of surgery and intraoperative blood transfusion.

Conclusion

Our findings revealed that the severity of AKI in pediatric LT patients is linked to extended surgical durations and increased blood transfusions resulting from hemodynamically compromised blood loss. Furthermore, independent risk factors for AKI were identified as prolonged warm ischemia and the overall duration of the operation.

How to cite this article

Demiroz D, Colak YZ, Ozdes OO, Ucar M, Ali Erdogan M, Toprak HI, et al. Incidence and Risk Factors of Acute Kidney İnjury in Pediatric Liver Transplant Patients: A Retrospective Study. Indian J Crit Care Med 2024;28(1):75-79.

Higher portal venous pulsatility is associated with worse clinical outcomes following congenital heart surgery: a single-centre prospective cohort study

PURPOSE

Increased portal venous flow pulsatility is associated with major complications after adult cardiac surgery. Nevertheless, no data are available for pediatric patients with congenital heart disease. We hypothesized that Doppler parameters including portal flow pulsatility could be associated with postoperative outcomes in children undergoing various cardiac surgeries.

METHODS

We conducted a prospective observational cohort study in children undergoing congenital cardiac surgery. We obtained postoperative portal, splenic, and hepatic venous Doppler data and perioperative clinical data including major postoperative complications. Portal and splenic venous flow pulsatility were calculated. We evaluated the association between venous Doppler parameters and adverse outcomes. The primary objective was to determine whether postoperative portal flow pulsatility could indicate major complications following congenital heart surgery.

RESULTS

In this study, we enrolled 389 children, 74 of whom experienced major postoperative complications. The mean (standard deviation) portal pulsatility (44 [30]% vs 25 [14]%; 95% confidence interval [CI] for mean difference, 12 to 26; P < 0.001] and splenic pulsatility indices (41 [30]% vs 26 [16]%; 95% CI, 7 to 23; P < 0.001) were significantly higher in children with postoperative complications than in those without complications. The portal pulsatility index was able to help identify postoperative complications in biventricular patients and univentricular patients receiving bidirectional cavopulmonary shunt whereas it did not in other univentricular patients. An increased postoperative portal pulsatility index was significantly associated with major complications after pediatric cardiac surgery (odds ratio, 1.40; 95% CI, 1.29 to 1.91; P < 0.001).

CONCLUSIONS

Higher portal venous pulsatility is associated with major postoperative complications in children undergoing cardiac surgery. Nevertheless, more data are needed to conclude the efficacy of portal venous pulsatility in patients with univentricular physiology.

STUDY REGISTRATION

ClinicalTrials.gov (NCT03990779); registered 19 June 2019.

Epidemiology data on the cost and outcomes associated with pediatric acute kidney injury

BACKGROUND

Hospitalized children with acute kidney injury (AKI) have not been extensively studied for clinical outcomes including hospital stay, the need for mechanical ventilation, mortality rates, and healthcare utilization. We hypothesize significant financial costs and increased morbidity and mortality associated with pediatric AKI.

METHODS

This is a retrospective study of pediatric patients (age ≤18 years) included in the Kids' Inpatient Database (KID) between January 1, 2016, and December 31, 2021. The results of the data analysis were utilized for comparative testing between the AKI and non-AKI cohorts.

RESULTS

The study included 4842 children [with AKI (n = 2424) and without AKI (n = 2418)]. The odds of mortality (p = 0.004) and mechanical ventilation (p < 0.001) were observed to be significantly higher among those with AKI as compared to those without AKI. Additionally, the median (IQR) duration of stay in the hospital (p < 0.001) and total cost (p < 0.001) were significantly higher among those with AKI vs. those without AKI.

CONCLUSIONS

AKI in children was associated with higher odds of mortality, longer duration of hospital stay, increased requirement of mechanical ventilation, and increased hospital expenditure. The scientific community can utilize this information to better understand the outcomes associated with this disease process in this patient population.

IMPACT

This article has thoroughly evaluated epidemiologic data associated with pediatric acute kidney injury (AKI) in hospitalized patients This study assesses mortality, hospital expenditure, and other factors to strengthen single-center and few multi-center studies and provides novel data regarding insurance and cost associated with pediatric AKI With increased knowledge of current epidemiology and risk factors, the scientific community can better understand prevention and outcomes in hospitalized children with AKI.

A Population Pharmacokinetic Model of Pentobarbital for Children with Status Epilepticus and Severe Traumatic Brain Injury

BACKGROUND

Pentobarbital pharmacokinetics (PK) remain elusive and the therapeutic windows narrow. Administration is frequent in critically ill children with refractory status epilepticus (SE) and severe traumatic brain injury (sTBI).

OBJECTIVES

To investigate pentobarbital PK in SE and sTBI patients admitted to the paediatric intensive care unit (PICU) with population-based PK (PopPK) modelling and dosing simulations.

METHODS

Develop a PopPK model with non-linear mixed-effects modelling (NONMEM®) with retrospective data (n = 36; median age 1.3 years; median weight 10 kg; 178 blood samples) treated with continuous intravenous pentobarbital. An independent dataset was used for external validation (n = 9). Dosing simulations with the validated model evaluated dosing regimens.

RESULTS

A one-compartment PK model with allometrically scaled weight on clearance (CL; 0.75) and volume of distribution (Vd; 1) captured data well. Typical CL and Vd values were 3.59 L/70 kg/h and 142 L/70 kg, respectively. Elevated creatinine and C-reactive protein (CRP) levels significantly correlated to decreased CL, explaining 84% of inter-patient variability, and were incorporated in the final model. External validation using stratified visual predictive checks showed good results. Simulations demonstrated patients with elevated serum creatinine and CRP failed to achieve steady state yet progressed to toxic levels with current dosing regimens.

CONCLUSIONS

The one-compartment PK model of intravenous pentobarbital described data well whereby serum creatinine and CRP significantly correlated with pentobarbital CL. Dosing simulations formulated adjusted dosing advice in patients with elevated creatinine and/or CRP. Prospective PK studies with pharmacodynamic endpoints, are imperative to optimise pentobarbital dosing in terms of safety and clinical efficacy in critically ill children.

Contrast-Associated Acute Kidney Injury Requiring Continuous Renal Replacement Therapy in A Neonate with Aortic Stenosis-A Case Report

BACKGROUND

Acute kidney injury occurs commonly in the Neonatal Intensive Care Unit and is associated with increased mortality and morbidity. We report a case of a neonate with congenital heart disease who developed acute kidney injury after cardiac surgery, administration of iodinated contrast media for cardiac catheterization, and a combination of nephrotoxic drugs.

CASE REPORT

A term neonate without a prenatal diagnosis of congenital heart disease and with a good postnatal transition was transferred at 13 days of life to the MS Curie Emergency Hospital for Children, Newborn Intensive Care Unit, from a regional hospital where he was admitted at 10 days of life with severe general status, respiratory distress, cyanosis, and arterial hypotension. The cardiac ultrasound detected critical aortic valve stenosis, hypoplastic descending aorta, acute heart failure, and pulmonary hypertension. The patient was intubated and mechanically ventilated and received antibiotherapy (meropenem, vancomycin, and colistin), inotropic and vasoactive support (epinephrine, norepinephrine, dopamine, and milrinone), and diuretic support (furosemide, aminophylline, and ethacrynic acid). A balloon aortic valvuloplasty was performed several hours after admission, but after two days the patient required reintervention by open heart surgery due to relapsing severe aortic stenosis. He developed oligo-anuria, generalized edema, and altered renal function tests on the second postoperative and fourth day post-contrast media administration. Continuous renal replacement therapy was initiated for 75 h, leading to almost instant improvement in blood pressure, then diuresis and creatinine levels. The patient required long-term treatment for heart, respiratory, and liver failure. He was discharged at almost four months of age with normal renal function tests, blood pressure, and good urine output without diuretic support. The literature review indicates that contrast-associated acute kidney injury (CA-AKI) requiring continuous renal replacement therapy is rare.

CONCLUSIONS

Our current case proves that iodinated contrast media administration in a neonate with concomitant insults, such as cardiac surgery for a specific pathology, aortic stenosis, coarctation, arch stenosis, arterial hypotension, and administration of nephrotoxic drugs, may lead to severe kidney injury.

Excellent clinical outcomes of renal transplant from pediatric deceased donors with acute kidney injury

BACKGROUND

The use of kidneys from deceased donors with acute kidney injury (AKI) to expand the donor pool is an ongoing trend. Prior research on the utilization of AKI donor kidneys, especially from pediatric AKI donors, was limited and has been subject to small sample sizes. In this study, we aimed to evaluate the safety and effectiveness of early post-transplantation outcomes in pediatric deceased donors with AKI.

METHODS

This retrospective study compared the clinical results (including delayed graft function [DGF], acute rejection, patient and death-censored graft survival rates and renal function post-transplant) of kidney transplantation from deceased donors who were categorized as pediatric donors and adult donors with or without AKI, as defined by the Kidney Disease: Improving Global Outcomes (KIDGO) criteria, at our center between January 2018 and December 2020.

RESULTS

Of the 740 patients, 154 received kidneys from pediatric donors (with AKI group [n = 41]; without AKI group [n = 113]), and 586 received kidneys from adult donors (with AKI group [n = 218]; without AKI group [n = 368]). The baseline characteristics were similar in both cohorts. No significant difference was observed in 1-year patient survival, death-censored graft survival, or acute rejection between the AKI and non-AKI groups in both the pediatric and adult cohorts. However, compared with those transplanted with adult AKI kidneys, those transplanted with pediatric AKI kidneys showed a superior recovery of allograft function. In pediatric cohorts, no significant difference was found in serum creatinine/estimated glomerular filtration rate (SCr/eGFR) between the AKI and non-AKI groups, even in the first week post-transplant. In contrast, the post-transplant SCr/eGFR level of the AKI group recipients in adult cohorts did not recover to a level statistically similar to that of non-AKI recipients, even at 6-months post-transplant. Nonetheless, AKI kidney recipients were at an increased risk of DGF in both pediatric (34.1% vs. 16.8%) and adult (38.5% vs. 17.4%) cohorts.

CONCLUSIONS

Kidney transplantation from deceased donors with AKI has short-term clinical outcomes comparable to those of non-AKI kidney transplantation. Pediatric AKI kidneys have a superior recovery of allograft function. The transplant community should utilize this donor pool to minimize waiting-list-related mortalities.

Effect of continuous infusion of hypertonic saline solution on survival of patients with brain injury: a systematic review and meta-analysis

BACKGROUND

The objective was to determine the effects of continuous infusion of hypertonic saline solutions on outcomes of patients with brain injury.

METHODS

Preferred Reported Items for Systemic Reviews and Meta-Analysis guidelines were followed. We searched the MEDLINE and COCHRANE clinical trials register (through December 2021) and reference lists of articles. We included all clinical trials conducted in brain-injured patients hospitalized in intensive care units evaluating continuous infusion of hypertonic saline solution (osmolarity above 308 mOsm/L). Two reviewers extracted data that were checked by two others. The primary outcome was the in-hospital mortality rate. The main secondary outcomes were the rates of intracranial hypertension, an unfavorable neurological outcome at day 90, and adverse events.

RESULTS

We identified 23 clinical trials reporting the use of continuous infusion of hypertonic saline solution in brain-injured patients. The primary outcome was available in 10 studies (n = 1883 patients). The odds ratio (OR) for in-hospital death with the intervention was 0.68 (95% confidence interval (CI), 0.54-0.85, I² = 0%). In the subgroup of studies including only traumatic brain-injured patients (7 studies, n = 1521 patients), the OR for the primary outcome was 0.74 (95%CI 0.57-0.95) with the intervention. The OR for intracranial hypertension and unfavorable neurological outcome at day 90 were 0.66 (95%CI 0.49-0.88, I² = 42%, n = 787 patients) and 0.61 (95%CI 0.46-0.81, I² = 15%, n = 956 patients), respectively. Regarding safety, the OR of acute kidney injury and severe hypernatremia were 0.82 (95%CI 0.47-1.44, I² = 0%) and 3.38 (95%CI 2.16-5.27, I² = 24%).

CONCLUSIONS

Continuous hypertonic saline solution infusion reduced in-hospital mortality without increasing the risk of unfavorable neurological outcome at day 90 in brain-injured patients hospitalized in intensive care units. Given the inclusion of observational and heterogeneous studies, further randomized studies are needed before developing recommendations for implementation at the bedside.

SYSTEMATIC REVIEW REGISTRATION

PROSPERO CRD42021221367. Registered 13 May 2021.

Assessment of fluid balance after neonatal cardiac surgery: a description of intake/output vs. weight-based methods

BACKGROUND

Fluid overload associates with poor outcomes after neonatal cardiac surgery, but consensus does not exist for the most clinically relevant method of measuring fluid balance (FB). While weight change-based FB (FB-W) is standard in neonatal intensive care units, weighing infants after cardiac surgery may be challenging. We aimed to identify characteristics associated with obtaining weights and to understand how intake/output-based FB (FB-IO) and FB-W compare in the early postoperative period in this population.

METHODS

Observational retrospective study of 2235 neonates undergoing cardiac surgery from 22 hospitals comprising the NEonatal and Pediatric Heart and Renal Outcomes Network (NEPHRON) database.

RESULTS

Forty-five percent (n = 998) of patients were weighed on postoperative day (POD) 2, varying from 2 to 98% among centers. Odds of being weighed were lower for STAT categories 4 and 5 (OR 0.72; 95% CI 0.53-0.98), cardiopulmonary bypass (0.59; 0.42-0.83), delayed sternal closure (0.27; 0.19-0.38), prophylactic peritoneal dialysis use (0.58; 0.34-0.99), and mechanical ventilation on POD 2 (0.23; 0.16-0.33). Correlation between FB-IO and FB-W was weak for every POD 1-6 and within the entire cohort (correlation coefficient 0.15; 95% CI 0.12-0.17). FB-W measured higher than paired FB-IO (mean bias 12.5%; 95% CI 11.6-13.4%) with wide 95% limits of agreement (- 15.4-40.4%).

CONCLUSIONS

Weighing neonates early after cardiac surgery is uncommon, with significant practice variation among centers. Patients with increased severity of illness are less likely to be weighed. FB-W and FB-IO have weak correlation, and further study is needed to determine which cumulative FB metric most associates with adverse outcomes. A higher resolution version of the Graphical abstract is available as Supplementary information.

Oxygen delivery in pediatric cardiac surgery and its association with acute kidney injury using machine learning

OBJECTIVE

Acute kidney injury (AKI) after pediatric cardiac surgery with cardiopulmonary bypass (CPB) is a frequently reported complication. In this study we aimed to determine the oxygen delivery indexed to body surface area (Do2i) threshold associated with postoperative AKI in pediatric patients during CPB, and whether it remains clinically important in the context of other known independent risk factors.

METHODS

A single-institution, retrospective study, encompassing 396 pediatric patients, who underwent heart surgery between April 2019 and April 2021 was undertaken. Time spent below Do2i thresholds were compared to determine the critical value for all stages of AKI occurring within 48 hours of surgery. Do2i threshold was then included in a classification analysis with known risk factors including nephrotoxic drug usage, surgical complexity, intraoperative data, comorbidities and ventricular function data, and vasoactive inotrope requirement to determine Do2i predictive importance.

RESULTS

Logistic regression models showed cumulative time spent below a Do2i value of 350 mL/min/m2 was associated with AKI. Random forest models, incorporating established risk factors, showed Do2i threshold still maintained predictive importance. Patients who developed post-CPB AKI were younger, had longer CPB and ischemic times, and required higher inotrope support postsurgery.

CONCLUSIONS

The present data support previous findings that Do2i during CPB is an independent risk factor for AKI development in pediatric patients. Furthermore, the data support previous suggestions of a higher threshold value in children compared with that in adults and indicate that adjustments in Do2i management might reduce incidence of postoperative AKI in the pediatric cardiac surgery population.

Use of Renal Near-Infrared Spectroscopy and Urinary Neutrophil Gelatinase-Associated Lipocalin Monitoring as Indicators of Acute Kidney Injury in Pediatric Cardiac Surgery

Acute kidney injury (AKI) is a common complication following cardiac surgery under cardiopulmonary bypass (CPB) in children. A prospective study for examining urinary neutrophil gelatinase-associated lipocalin (NGAL) and renal near-infrared spectroscopy (NIRS) trends during AKI was conducted among pediatric patients undergoing cardiac surgery with CPB. Urinary NGAL showed a significant difference between intensive care unit admission (0 h) and 2 h post-admission (p < 0.001) and remained significant up to 4 h (p < 0.05). The renal NIRS in the AKI group showed a significant rate of decrease and lower values during the intraoperative period (p < 0.05). The cumulative median saturation of renal regional saturation of oxygen (rSO2) during CPB was 1637.5% min in the AKI group and 943.0% min in the non-AKI group. The median renal rSO2 scores at a reduction of 20% and 25% were significantly higher (p < 0.001) in the AKI group. Our results suggest that monitoring renal rSO2 scores and limiting their decline might be useful in preventing AKI. The combination of NGAL, renal rSO2, and renal rSO2 scores might be useful in the early diagnosis of AKI during pediatric cardiac surgery.

Anesthesia and pain management of pediatric cytoreductive surgery with hyperthermic intraperitoneal chemotherapy

BACKGROUND

Cytoreductive surgery with hyperthermic intraperitoneal chemotherapy has shown to improve survival in patients with extensive or refractory abdominal tumors of many different histologies. Postoperative pain control can be challenging as the surgical procedure is performed through a midline laparotomy incision from xiphoid to symphysis pubis, and patients are usually nothing by mouth for the first 8-10 postoperative days.

AIMS

We present the anesthetic management and postoperative pain control strategies for cytoreductive surgery with hyperthermic intraperitoneal chemotherapy using a multimodal, opioid-sparing, and total intravenous anesthetic technique with a tunneled thoracic epidural.

METHODS

A single institution retrospective review of anesthetic management, intraoperative fluid and blood administration, and postoperative pain control for pediatric patients undergoing cytoreductive surgery with hyperthermic intraperitoneal chemotherapy between July 2018 and December 2020 was conducted. We employed a novel anesthetic and analgesia protocol consisting of premedication with gabapentin followed by intraoperative infusions of propofol, dexmedetomidine, ketamine, and cisatracurium. A tunneled thoracic epidural catheter was placed for management of pain.

RESULTS

We reviewed and analyzed the first 25 patient records. The most common diagnosis was desmoplastic small round cell tumor (n = 12). Median age of patients was 14 years (range 21 months-22 years). All patients were extubated in the operating room and no patients required reintubation. There were no incidences of acute kidney injury. Epidural infusions were used for a median of 8 days (range 2-14 days). Median postoperative intravenous opioid use (morphine equivalent) through postoperative day 10 was 0.02 mg/kg/day (range 0-0.86 mg/kg/day) administered for a median of 2 days (range 0-17 days). Nine patients (36%) did not require any intravenous opioids in the postoperative period.

CONCLUSIONS

Utilizing a multimodal, opioid-sparing, total intravenous anesthetic technique in conjunction with a tunneled thoracic epidural catheter, we were able to avoid the need for postoperative mechanical ventilation and minimize both intraoperative and postoperative opioid requirements.

Impact of Delayed Time to Antibiotics in Medical and Surgical Necrotizing Enterocolitis

This study investigated whether delayed receipt of antibiotics in infants with necrotizing enterocolitis (NEC) is associated with disease severity. In this retrospective, single-center cohort study of infants diagnosed with NEC over 4 years, we compared the timing of antibiotic administration in infants (time order placed to time of receipt) in medical and surgical NEC. Cases were independently reviewed, then various clinical factors were compared. Of 46 suspected cases, 25 were confirmed by a panel of radiologists with good interrater reliability (ICC 0.657; p < 0.001). Delays in antibiotic receipt were 1.7× greater in surgical than medical NEC cases (p = 0.049). Every hour after order entry increased the adjusted odds of surgical NEC by 2.4 (1.08−5.23; p = 0.032). Delayed antibiotic receipt was more common in infants with surgical than medical NEC. Larger studies will be needed to investigate if optimizing antibiotic expediency could improve intestinal outcomes.

Acute kidney injury post-abdominal surgery in infants: implications for prevention and management

Acute kidney injury (AKI) is common in critically ill infants and is associated with long-term sequelae including hypertension and chronic kidney disease. The etiology of AKI in infants is multifactorial. There is robust literature highlighting the risk of AKI after cardiothoracic surgery in infants. However, risk factors and outcomes for AKI in infants after abdominal surgery remains limited. This article reviews the epidemiology and association of abdominal surgery with postoperative AKI and suggests methods for AKI management and prevention. Postoperative AKI may result from hemodynamic shifts, hypoxia, exposure to nephrotoxic medications, and inflammation. Infants in the intensive care unit after intraabdominal surgeries have a unique set of risk factors that predispose them to AKI development. Prematurity, sepsis, prolonged operation time, emergent nature of the procedure, and diagnosis of necrotizing enterocolitis increase risk of AKI after intrabdominal surgeries. Prevention, early diagnosis, and management of AKI post-abdominal surgery is imperative to clinical practice. Close monitoring of urine output, serum creatinine, and fluid status is necessary in infants after abdominal surgery. A recent study suggests elevated levels of a urinary biomarker, neutrophil gelatinase-associated lipocalin (NGAL), 24 h after an abdominal procedure may improve early prediction of AKI. Identification of risk factors, avoidance of nephrotoxic medications, careful fluid balance, early detection of AKI, and maintenance of hemodynamic stability is imperative to potentially prevent and/or mitigate AKI.

Comparison of diagnostic criteria for acute kidney injury in critically ill children: a multicenter cohort study

Background

Substantial interstudy heterogeneity exists in defining acute kidney injury (AKI) and baseline serum creatinine (SCr). This study assessed AKI incidence and its association with pediatric intensive care unit (PICU) mortality under different AKI and baseline SCr definitions to determine the preferable approach for diagnosing pediatric AKI.

Methods

In this multicenter prospective observational cohort study, AKI was defined and staged according to the Kidney Disease: Improving Global Outcome (KDIGO), modified KDIGO, and pediatric reference change value optimized for AKI (pROCK) definitions. The baseline SCr was calculated based on the Schwartz formula or estimated as the upper normative value (NormsMax), admission SCr (AdmSCr) and modified AdmSCr. The impacts of different AKI definitions and baseline SCr estimation methods on AKI incidence, severity distribution and AKI outcome were evaluated.

Results

Different AKI definitions and baseline SCr estimates led to differences in AKI incidence, from 6.8 to 25.7%; patients with AKI across all definitions had higher PICU mortality ranged from 19.0 to 35.4%. A higher AKI incidence (25.7%) but lower mortality (19.0%) was observed based on the Schwartz according to the KDIGO definition, which however was overcome by modified KDIGO (AKI incidence: 16.3%, PICU mortality: 26.1%). Furthermore, for the modified KDIGO, the consistencies of AKI stages between different baseline SCr estimation methods were all strong with the concordance rates > 90.0% and weighted kappa values > 0.8, and PICU mortality increased pursuant to staging based on the Schwartz. When the NormsMax was used, the KDIGO and modified KDIGO led to an identical AKI incidence (13.6%), but PICU mortality did not differ among AKI stages. For the pROCK, PICU mortality did not increase pursuant to staging and AKI stage 3 was not associated with mortality after adjustment for confounders.

Conclusions

The AKI incidence and staging vary depending on the definition and baseline SCr estimation method used. The modified KDIGO definition based on the Schwartz method leads AKI to be highly relevant to PICU mortality, suggesting that it may be the preferable approach for diagnosing AKI in critically ill children and provides promise for improving clinicians’ ability to diagnose pediatric AKI.

Use of Aminophylline to Reverse Acute Kidney Injury in Pediatric Critical Care Patients

OBJECTIVE

Acute kidney injury (AKI) is a complication encountered in 18% to 51% of pediatric critical care patients admitted for treatment of other primary diagnoses and is an independent risk factor for increased morbidity and mortality. Aminophylline has shown promise as a medication to treat AKI, but published studies have shown conflicting results. Our study seeks to assess the reversal of AKI following the administration of aminophylline in critically ill pediatric patients.

METHODS

We performed a single-institution retrospective chart review of pediatric inpatients who were diagnosed with AKI and subsequently treated with non-continuous dose aminophylline between January 2016 and December 2018. Data were collected beginning 2 days prior to the initial dose of aminophylline through completion of the 5-day aminophylline course.

RESULTS

Nineteen therapies among 17 patients were included in analysis. Twelve of the therapies resulted in resolution of AKI during the study period. We observed urine output increase of 19% (p = 0.0063) on the day following initiation of aminophylline therapy in the subset of patients whose AKI resolved. Trends toward decreased serum creatinine and lower inotropic support were also noted.

CONCLUSIONS

Based on these findings, aminophylline could be considered a potentially effective medication for use as rescue therapy in critically ill children with AKI. Limitations include small study population and retrospective nature. Further research in this area with a larger study population and a randomized control trial would allow for better characterization of the efficacy of aminophylline in reversal of AKI.

Pediatric Reference Change Value Optimized for Acute Kidney Injury: Multicenter Retrospective Study in China

OBJECTIVES

The standard definition of pediatric acute kidney injury (AKI) is evolving, especially for critically ill in the PICU. We sought to validate the application of the Pediatric Reference Change Value Optimized for Acute Kidney Injury in Children (pROCK) criteria in critically ill children.

DESIGN

Multicenter retrospective study.

SETTING

Six PICUs in mainland China.

PATIENTS

One thousand six hundred seventy-eight hospitalized children admitted to the PICU with at least two creatinine values within 7 days.

INTERVENTIONS

None.

MEASUREMENTS AND MAIN RESULTS

AKI was diagnosed and staged according to the Pediatric Risk, Injury, Failure, Loss, End-Stage Renal Disease (pRIFLE), the Kidney Disease Improving Global Outcomes (KDIGO), and the pROCK criteria. Multiple clinical parameters were assessed and analyzed along with 90-day follow-up outcomes. According to the definitions of pRIFLE, KDIGO, and pROCK, the prevalence of AKI in our cohort of 1,678 cases was 52.8% (886), 39.0% (655), and 19.0% (318), respectively. The presence of AKI, as defined by pROCK, was associated with increased number of injured organs, occurrence of sepsis, use of mechanical ventilation, use of continuous renal replace therapy ( p < 0.05), higher Pediatric Risk of Mortality III score, and higher Pediatric Logistic Organ Dysfunction-2 score ( p < 0.001). The survival curve of 90-day outcomes showed that pROCK was associated with shorter survival time (LogRank p < 0.001), and pROCK definition was associated with better separation of the different stages of AKI from non-AKI ( p < 0.001).

CONCLUSIONS

In this retrospective analysis of AKI criteria in PICU admissions in China, pROCK is better correlated with severity and outcome of AKI. Hence, the pROCK criteria for AKI may have better utility in critically ill children.

Acute Kidney Injury Predictors and Outcomes after Cardiac Surgery in Children with Congenital Heart Disease: An Observational Cohort Study

Acute Kidney Injury (AKI) commonly complicates cardiac surgery in children with congenital heart disease (CHD). In this study we assessed incidence, risk factors, and outcomes of postoperative AKI, while testing the hypothesis that, depending on the underlying diagnosis, there would be significant differences in AKI incidence among different diagnostic groups. We conducted an observational cohort study of children with CHD undergoing cardiac surgery in a single tertiary center between January 2019 and August 2021 (n = 362). Kidney Disease Improving Global Outcome (KDIGO) criteria were used to determine the incidence of postoperative AKI. Diagnosis was incorporated into multivariate models using an anatomic-based CHD classification system. Overall survival was estimated using Kaplan−Meier curves. Log-rank test and adjusted Cox proportional hazard modelling were used to test for differences in survival distributions and determine AKI effect on survival function, respectively. AKI occurred in 70 (19.3%), with 21.4% in-hospital mortality for AKI group. Younger age, lower weight, longer cardiopulmonary bypass time, preoperative mechanical ventilation and diagnostic category were associated with postoperative AKI. Resolution rate was 92.7% prior to hospital discharge for survivors. AKI was associated with longer duration of mechanical ventilation, ICU and hospital length of stay. AKI patients had significantly higher probability of all-cause mortality postoperatively when compared to the non-AKI group (log-rank test, p < 0.001). Adjusted hazard ratio for AKI versus non-AKI group was 11.08 (95% CI 2.45−50.01; p = 0.002). Diagnostic category was associated with cardiac surgery-related AKI in children with CHD, a finding supporting the development of lesion specific models for risk stratification. Postoperative AKI had detrimental impact on clinical outcomes and was associated with decreased survival to hospital discharge.

Consensus on the management of complications of cirrhosis of the liver in pediatrics

The Asociación Mexicana de Hepatología A.C. carried out the Consensus on the Management of Complications of Cirrhosis of the Liver in Pediatrics to provide physicians with useful information for treating said complications. A group of pediatric gastroenterologists and experts in nutrition, nephrology, and infectious diseases participated and reviewed the medical literature. The Delphi method was applied to obtain the level of agreement on the statements that were formulated. The statements were sent to the participants to be analyzed and voted upon, after which they were discussed in virtual sessions, and the final versions were produced. The aim of the consensus results was to issue indications for the management of pediatric patients with liver cirrhosis, to prevent or control complications.

Evaluation of blood pressure trajectories and outcome in critically ill children with initial hypertension on admission to Paediatric Intensive Care

OBJECTIVE

Hypertension on paediatric intensive care (PICU) is associated with adverse outcomes. Management is complex; hypertension often represents a physiological adaptive response and exposure to hypertension could lead to altered pressure-flow autoregulation. International treatment consensus is to avoid rapid blood pressure (BP) reduction. Our aim was to examine if the rate and magnitude of BP reduction in hypertensive patients was correlated with harm.

PATIENTS AND METHODS

We performed a single centre, retrospective, observational study in a quaternary PICU analysing the first 24 h post admission high resolution BP profiles of children with admission BP above the 95^th centile. Individual BP profiles were analysed regarding both time spent and magnitude below a threshold; 75% of the admission BP in the first 24 h. Outcomes were organ support-free days at day 28, change in serum creatinine and PICU mortality.

MAIN FINDINGS

Of 3069 admissions in a 36-month period (2016-2018), 21.7% had initial hypertension on admission to PICU. A total of 3,259,111 BP measurements (99.4% invasive) were available. Pre-existing hypertension was documented in 4.9% of patients. Both time spent and magnitude below threshold BP was poorly correlated with duration of required organ support and risk of death after adjusting for PIM score, pre-existing hypertension and raised intracranial pressure. We did find an association with a rise in serum creatinine on both uni- and multivariable analysis.

CONCLUSIONS

The risk of harm due to early and significant reduction of raised blood pressure in critically ill children appears to be limited.

Characteristics and predictors of outcomes of critically Ill children with SARS-CoV-2 infection - the PICU experience

OBJECTIVE

To describe the clinical characteristics, laboratory parameters, treatment, and predictors of an unfavorable outcome of critically ill children with SARS-CoV-2 infection.

METHOD

This was a prospective observational study performed in a pediatric intensive care unit (PICU) of a tertiary care COVID referral hospital among critically ill children in the age group 1 month - 12 years admitted due to SARS-CoV-2 infection from June to December 2020. Demographic, clinical profile, pSOFA and PRISM III scores, laboratory parameters, treatment, and outcomes of the patients were recorded. Children who had a prolonged PICU stay (>14 days) or died were compared with those who were discharged from PICU within 14 days to assess predictors of unfavorable outcomes.

RESULTS

PICU admission rate among hospitalized SARS-CoV-2 infected children was 22.1% (92/416). Infants comprised the majority of the ICU population. Invasive mechanical ventilation and inotropic support were required for 28.3% and 37% of patients, respectively. Remdesivir, IVIg, and steroids were administered to 15.2%, 26.1%, and 54.3% of the subjects, respectively. The mortality rate was 7.6 %. MIS-C patients were older, less comorbid, and required less ventilator support but more inotrope support than acute severe COVID-19 patients. Predictors of unfavorable outcomes were age < 1 year, fever duration > 5 days, respiratory distress, shock, comorbidity, elevated CRP (> 50 mg/L), procalcitonin (> 6 ng/L), D-dimer (> 6 µg/L) and arterial lactate (> 2 mmol/L).

CONCLUSION

Critically ill children with unfavorable outcomes were predominantly infants, comorbid, prolonged fever, respiratory distress, shock and elevated inflammatory markers, D-dimer and lactate. These factors may be useful for watchful monitoring and early intervention.

Clinical Characteristics of Children With SARS-CoV-2 Infection During the Third Wave of the Pandemic: Single Center Experience

Background

To determine the clinical presentation and outcome of children infected with severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) during the third wave of the pandemic in India.

Method

A review of hospital records was done at a tertiary care hospital, for children seen between 1 and 25 January, 2022.

Result

Out of total 112 SARS-CoV-2 positive patients, 17 were hospitalized and 95 were treated in the outpatient department. Among non-hospitalized children, fever was the commonest feature (72, 75.7%), followed by sneezing, and loss of appetite. The median (IQR) duration of symptoms was 2.5 (1.5) days. Among hospitalized children, 10 had co-morbidities and one-third required intensive care unit admission. MIS-C was diagnosed in four patients. Out of 4 mechanically ventilated patients, two had coronavirus disease (COVID) pneumonia. The mean (SD) length of hospital stay was 7.5 (2.5) days. One child with leukemia died during management.

Conclusion

During the third wave of the pandemic, most children had symptomatic illnesses, but recovery was fast among non-hospitalized children.

Hypomagnesemia-Induced Seizures Post Severe Acute Kidney Injury

Acute kidney injury (AKI) is a common complication in children admitted to pediatric intensive care units. It is known to be associated with increased morbidity and mortality. Here, we report prolonged, transient, increased renal magnesium (Mg) wasting after severe acute kidney injury presenting with a generalized tonic-clonic seizure.

Comparing the pRIFLE, AKIN, KDIGO, and modified KDIGO criteria in neonates after cardiac surgery

BACKGROUND

While several standardized criteria for acute kidney injury (AKI) have been studied, there is no consensus on which criteria to use in neonates after cardiac surgery. The goal of this research was to compare the AKI incidence and outcomes according to the pediatric Risk, Injury, Failure and Loss, and End-Stage (pRIFLE), AKI Network (AKIN), Kidney Disease Improving Global Outcomes (KDIGO), and modified KDIGO (mKDIGO) criteria in neonates following congenital cardiac surgery.

METHODS

A clinical database of all neonates undergoing congenital cardiac surgery admitted to the Cantonese cardiac center from 2014 to 2020 was retrospectively analyzed. AKI was based on the pRIFLE, AKIN, KDIGO, and mKDIGO classification. The predictive abilities for postoperative outcomes were compared by receiver operating curves, and multivariate logistic regression analysis was used to assess the association of AKI definitions with postoperative outcomes.

RESULTS

In the study population of 522 patients, 177, 110, 131, and 114 neonates had AKI according to the pRIFLE, AKIN, KDIGO, and mKDIGO criteria, respectively. After multivariate analysis, all definitions were found to be significant predictors of increased mortality. The AUCs for mortality were substantially different with pRIFLE (AUC, 0.795), AKIN (AUC, 0.724), KDIGO (AUC, 0.819), and mKDIGO (AUC, 0.831) (P < 0.01) across the entire population, whereas the mKDIGO system was more accurate than the pRIFLE, AKIN, and KDIGO systems.

CONCLUSIONS

The incidence of AKI varied across all definitions. However, the mKDIGO system was more accurate in predicting in-hospital mortality than the pRIFLE, AKIN, and KDIGO systems in neonates after heart surgery.

Diagnostic accuracy of renal angina index alone or in combination with biomarkers for predicting acute kidney injury in children

Early recognition of patients at risk for severe acute kidney injury (AKI) by renal angina index (RAI) may help in the early institution of preventive measures. Objective was to evaluate performance of RAI alone or in combination with biomarkers in predicting severe AKI (KDIGO stage 2 and 3 or equivalent) and receipt of kidney replacement therapy (KRT) in critically ill children. We searched PubMed, EMBASE, Web of Sciences, and CENTRAL for studies published till May 2021. Search terms included acute kidney injury, pediatrics, adolescent, renal angina index, and biomarker. Proceedings of relevant conferences and references of included studies were also scrutinized. Two reviewers independently assessed the study eligibility. Cohort and cross-sectional studies evaluating the diagnostic performance of RAI in predicting AKI or receipt of KRT in children were included. Eligible participants were the children less than 18 years with RAI assessment on day 0 ofadmission. We followed PRISMA-DTA guidelines and used the QUADAS-2 tool for quality assessment. A bivariate model for meta-analysis was used to calculate the summary estimates of diagnostic parameters. Major outcomes were the diagnostic accuracy of RAI (≥ 8) alone or with biomarkers in predicting severe AKI and KRT receipt. Diagnostic accuracy was reported using summary sensitivity, specificity, and area under the curve (AUC). Overall, 22 studies (24 reports, 14,001 participants) were included. RAI ≥ 8 on day 0 has summary sensitivity, specificity, and AUC of 0.86 (95% CI, 0.77-0.92), 0.77 (0.68-0.83), and 0.88 (0.85-0.91) respectively for prediction of severe AKI on day 3. In comparison, a combination of RAI and urinary neutrophil gelatinase-associated lipocalin (NGAL) showed summary sensitivity, specificity, and AUC of 0.76 (0.62-0.85), 0.89 (0.74-0.96), and 0.87 (0.84-0.90) respectively for predicting severe AKI. The sensitivity, specificity, and AUC of RAI for predicting receipt of KRT were 0.82 (0.71-0.90), 0.74 (0.66-0.81), and 0.85 (0.81-0.88) respectively. In meta-regression, only the study setting (sepsis vs. heterogenous) was associated with heterogeneity. We observed substantial heterogeneity among eligible studies. Five studies had concerns in patient selection, and seven studies also had applicability concerns in patient selection for this review. Moderate certainty evidence showed that RAI ≥ 8 has good predicting ability in recognizing children at risk of severe AKI and receipt of KRT. The combination of urinary NGAL and RAI further improves the predicting ability (low-certainty evidence). Further studies are required on the context-driven assessment of novel biomarkers in the early prediction of AKI in RAI-positive children. Systematic review registration number: CRD4202122268. A higher resolution version of the Graphical abstract is available as Supplementary information.

The lower threshold of hypothermic oxygen delivery to prevent neonatal acute kidney injury

BACKGROUND

Oxygen delivery during cardiopulmonary bypass (CPB) is closely related to postoperative acute kidney injury (AKI). The value of critical indexed oxygen delivery (DO₂i) is a key indicator to reflect oxygen supply in cardiovascular surgery. However, the target DO₂i value for neonates undergoing hypothermic CPB remains unclear.

METHODS

One hundred and twenty-six consecutive newborns (≤28 days) undergoing arterial switch operations were retrospectively divided into two groups according to AKI occurrence. Baseline characteristics, intraoperative variables, and clinical outcomes were collected. Multivariate logistic regression analysis and receiver-operating characteristic curve were performed to investigate the association between DO₂i and AKI.

RESULTS

Neonates in the no-AKI group (n = 67) had significantly higher nadir bypass flow and DO₂i during the hypothermic phase compared with the AKI group (n = 59). AKI group had remarkably higher incidences of hepatic dysfunction and peritoneal dialysis requirement compared with newborns without AKI. Mixed venous oxygen saturation (SvO₂) was comparable between the two groups. Base excess (BE)(P = 0.011) value during the hypothermic phase of the AKI group was higher than the no-AKI group. Multivariate analysis showed that hypothermic DO₂i was negatively associated with AKI. The cut-off value of hypothermic DO₂i was 269 mL min^-1 m^-2.

CONCLUSIONS

The importance of hypothermic DO₂i should be highlighted, even when SvO₂ was satisfactory. A lower threshold of DO₂i > 269 mL min^-1 m^-2 may help protect neonates from the risk of postoperative AKI.

IMPACT

The key message of our article is that the lower threshold of DO₂i > 269 mL min^-1 m^-2 may help protect neonates from the risk of AKI after on-pump hypothermic cardiovascular surgery. The critical DO₂i value for neonates undergoing hypothermic CPB remains unclear, and our study may add new evidence for this matter based on the 6-year experience of our center. In this study, the lowest critical value of DO₂i in neonatal hypothermic CPB is determined for the first time, which provides a reference for intra-CPB management strategy to improve the postoperative outcomes of newborns.

Incidence, Risk Factors, and Outcomes of Acute Kidney Injury in Necrotizing Enterocolitis: A Prospective Single-Center Study

Necrotizing enterocolitis (NEC) is a significant cause of morbidity and mortality in the neonatal intensive care unit (NICU). Acute kidney injury (AKI) is considered to be one of the most well-established risk factors for mortality in neonates. The aim of this work was to study the incidence of AKI in neonates with NEC and to determine the associated conditions, risk factors, and outcomes. We carried out this prospective cross-sectional study on 104 neonates treated for NEC from September 2015 to September 2019. Diagnoses of AKI were made using the neonatal modified Kidney Disease: Improved Global Outcome criteria. AKI occurred in 63 neonates (61%), with 32 at Stage 1 (31%), 20 at Stage 2 (19%), and 11 at Stage 3 (11%), including three requiring dialysis. Vancomycin use and positive blood culture were risk factors for developing AKI in our NEC neonates (odds ratio: 2.47 and 2.41; P = 0.03 and 0.04, respectively). Neonates with AKI had a higher mortality rate (47.6% vs. 26.8 %, P = 0.03) and an increased length of stay (LOS) (69.8 days vs. 53.9 days, P <0.01) than the non-AKI group. Surgical intervention was required in 11 (10.5%) of our neonates. We concluded that AKI occurs in about 60% of neonates with NEC and is associated with higher mortality and LOS in the NICU. Therefore, it is very important to identify and manage all neonates who are at a high risk of developing AKI as quickly as possible.

Abnormal magnesium levels and their impact on death and acute kidney injury in critically ill children

BACKGROUND

The prevalence of magnesium imbalance in critically ill children is very high. However, its significance in the development of acute kidney injury (AKI) and mortality remains unknown.

METHODS

In this retrospective observational study from 2010 to 2018, the pediatric-specific intensive care database was analyzed. We included critically ill children aged > 3 months and those without chronic kidney disease. Patients were diagnosed with AKI, according to the Kidney Disease Improving Global Outcomes (KDIGO) study. We calculated the initial corrected magnesium levels (cMg) within 24 h and used a spline regression model to evaluate the cut-off values for cMg. We analyzed 28-day mortality and its association with AKI. The interaction between AKI and magnesium imbalance was evaluated.

RESULTS

The study included 3,669 children, of whom 105 died within 28 days, while 1,823 were diagnosed with AKI. The cut-off values for cMg were 0.72 and 0.94 mmol/L. Both hypermagnesemia and hypomagnesemia were associated with 28-day mortality (odds ratio [OR] = 2.99, 95% confidence interval [CI] = 1.89-4.71, p < 0.001; OR = 2.80, 95% CI = 1.60-4.89, p < 0.001). Hypermagnesemia was associated with AKI (OR = 1.52, 95% CI = 1.27-1.82, p < 0.001), while neither hypermagnesemia nor hypomagnesemia interacted with the AKI stage on the 28-day mortality.

CONCLUSIONS

Abnormal magnesium levels were associated with 28-day mortality in critically ill children. AKI and hypermagnesemia had a strong association. "A higher resolution version of the Graphical abstract is available as Supplementary information".

Balanced Versus Unbalanced Fluid in Critically Ill Children: Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

OBJECTIVES

The ideal crystalloid fluid bolus therapy for fluid resuscitation in children remains unclear, but pediatric data are limited. Administration of 0.9% saline has been associated with hyperchloremic metabolic acidosis and acute kidney injury. The primary objective of this systematic review was to compare the effect of balanced versus unbalanced fluid bolus therapy on the mean change in serum bicarbonate or pH within 24 hours in critically ill children.

DATA SOURCES

We searched MEDLINE including Epub Ahead of Print, In-Process & Other Non-Indexed Citations, Embase, CENTRAL Trials Registry of the Cochrane Collaboration, ClinicalTrials.gov, and World Health Organization International Clinical Trials Registry Platform.

STUDY SELECTION

Using the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Review and Meta-analysis Protocols guidelines, we retrieved all controlled trials and observational cohort studies comparing balanced and unbalanced resuscitative fluids in critically ill children. The primary outcome was the change in serum bicarbonate or blood pH. Secondary outcomes included the prevalence of hyperchloremia, acute kidney injury, renal replacement therapy, and mortality.

DATA EXTRACTION

Study screening, inclusion, data extraction, and risk of bias assessments were performed independently by two authors.

DATA SYNTHESIS

Among 481 references identified, 13 met inclusion criteria. In the meta-analysis of three randomized controlled trials with a population of 162 patients, we found a greater mean change in serum bicarbonate level (pooled estimate 1.60 mmol/L; 95% CI, 0.04-3.16; p = 0.04) and pH level (pooled mean difference 0.03; 95% CI, 0.00-0.06; p = 0.03) after 4-12 hours of rehydration with balanced versus unbalanced fluids. No differences were found in chloride serum level, acute kidney injury, renal replacement therapy, or mortality.

CONCLUSIONS

Our systematic review found some evidence of improvement in blood pH and bicarbonate values in critically ill children after 4-12 hours of fluid bolus therapy with balanced fluid compared with the unbalanced fluid. However, a randomized controlled trial is needed to establish whether these findings have an impact on clinical outcomes before recommendations can be generated.

Early and late acute kidney injury: temporal profile in the critically ill pediatric patient

Background

Increasing AKI diagnosis precision to refine the understanding of associated epidemiology and outcomes is a focus of recent critical care nephrology research. Timing of onset of acute kidney injury (AKI) during pediatric critical illness and impact on outcomes has not been fully explored.

Methods

This was a secondary analysis of the Assessment of Worldwide Acute Kidney Injury, Renal Angina and Epidemiology (AWARE) database. AKI was defined as per Kidney Disease: Improving Global Outcomes criteria. Early AKI was defined as diagnosed at ≤48 h after intensive care unit (ICU) admission, with any diagnosis >48 h denoted as late AKI. Transient AKI was defined as return to baseline serum creatinine ≤48 h of onset, and those without recovery fell into the persistent category. A second incidence of AKI ≥48 h after recovery was denoted as recurrent. Patients were subsequently sorted into distinct phenotypes as early-transient, late-transient, early-persistent, late-persistent and recurrent. Primary outcome was major adverse kidney events (MAKE) at 28 days (MAKE28) or at study exit, with secondary outcomes including AKI-free days, ICU length of stay and inpatient renal replacement therapy.

Results

A total of 1262 patients had AKI and were included. Overall mortality rate was 6.4% (n = 81), with 34.2% (n = 432) fulfilling at least one MAKE28 criteria. The majority of patients fell in the early-transient cohort (n = 704, 55.8%). The early-persistent phenotype had the highest odds of MAKE28 (odds ratio 7.84, 95% confidence interval 5.45–11.3), and the highest mortality rate (18.8%). Oncologic and nephrologic/urologic comorbidities at AKI diagnosis were associated with MAKE28.

Conclusion

Temporal nature and trajectory of AKI during a critical care course are significantly associated with patient outcomes, with several subtypes at higher risk for poorer outcomes. Stratification of pediatric critical care-associated AKI into distinct phenotypes is possible and may become an important prognostic tool.

Acute kidney injury in premature and low birth weight neonates: a systematic review and meta-analysis

BACKGROUND

Acute kidney injury (AKI) is common and it is associated with poor clinical outcomes in premature and low birth weight neonates. This systematic review and meta-analysis was performed to summarize the literature and evaluate the prevalence, risk factors, and mortality of premature and low birth weight neonates with AKI.

METHODS

A systematic search in PubMed, Embase, and the Cochrane Library was performed. Studies on the prevalence, risk factors, diagnosis, and outcomes of acute kidney injury in preterm neonates and neonates with low birth weight were included and analyzed.

RESULTS

Fifty articles of 10,744 patients were included in this study. The overall rate of AKI from the pooled results of all patients was 25% (95% CI 20-30%) with heterogeneity among studies (I² = 97%; P < 0.01). Patients with AKI had significantly higher rate of mortality than patients without AKI (odds ratio (OR) = 7.13; 95% CI 5.91-8.60; P < 0.01).

CONCLUSIONS

AKI was prevalent and was associated with high mortality rate among preterm and low birth weight neonates.

Urinary beta-2 microglobulin as an early predictive biomarker of acute kidney injury in neonates with perinatal asphyxia

To evaluate the role of urinary beta-2 microglobulin (B2mG) as an early predictive biomarker of acute kidney injury (AKI) in neonates with perinatal asphyxia. In this prospective cohort study, 80 term infants with perinatal asphyxia were included. The neonates were divided into AKI and no-AKI groups. Urinary B2mG levels were measured at 24 h of life. The diagnostic efficacy of the biomarker was determined using receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curves. Compared to infants without AKI, infants with AKI had higher levels of urinary B2mG (mean 6.8 versus 2.6 mg/L, p < 0.001). Area under the receiver operating characteristic curve (ROC curve) was 0.944. The balanced sensitivity/specificity trade-off was found at a cut-off value of 3.8 mg/L (81% sensitive and 81.6% specific).Conclusion Urinary B2mG can be useful to predict AKI early in term neonates with perinatal asphyxia. What is Known: • AKI is seen in 20-40% of neonates with asphyxia. • AKI affects the treatment plan and the prognosis of such neonates. What is New: • Urinary biomarkers are the easiest way to diagnose AKI in asphyxiated neonates. • Beta 2 microglobulin is the cheapest and readily available one such urinary biomarker with good sensitivity and specificity.

Neonatal AKI profile using KDIGO guidelines: A cohort study in tertiary care hospital ICU of Lahore, Pakistan

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVE

Acute kidney injury (AKI) was observed in sick neonates and was associated with poor outcomes. Our cohort represents the neonatal characteristics of those diagnosed with AKI using Kidney Disease: Improved Global Outcome (KDIGO) guidelines.

METHODOLOGY

A cohort study was conducted in the NICU of FMH from June 2019 to May 2021. Data were collected on a proforma. All continuous variables were not normally distributed and expressed as the median and interquartile range. Categorical variables were analyzed by proportional differences with the Pearson chi-square test or Fisher's exact tests. A multinomial logistic regression model was used to explore the independent risk factors for AKI. Time to the event (death) and the cohort's survival curves were plotted using the Cox proportional hazard model.

RESULTS

AKI occurred in 473 (37.6%) neonates. The risk factors of AKI were outborn birth [adjusted odds ratio (AOR): 3.987, 95% confidence interval (CI): 2.564-6.200, p: 0.000], birth asphyxia (AOR: 3.567, 95% CI: 2.093-6.080, p: 0.000), inotropic agent (AOR: 2.060, 95% CI: 1.436-2.957, p: 0.000), antenatal steroids (AOR: 1.721, 95% CI: 1.213-2.443, p: 0.002), central lines (AOR: 1.630, 95% CI: 1.155-2.298, p: 0.005) and intraventricular hemorrhage (IVH)/intracranial hemorrhage/disseminated intravascular coagulopathy (AOR: 1.580, 95% CI: 1.119-2.231, p: 0.009). AKI significantly increases the duration of stay and mortality rates by 16.5% vs. 3.9% in neonates with normal renal function (p < 0.001).

CONCLUSION

About one-third of critically sick neonates had AKI. Significant risk factors for AKI were outborn birth, asphyxia inotropic agents, necrotizing enterocolitis, antenatal steroids central lines, and IVH. AKI is associated with an increased length of stay and increased mortality.

Fluid Restriction Contributes to Poor Nutritional Adequacy in Patients With Congenital Heart Disease Receiving Renal Replacement Therapy

OBJECTIVES

Critically ill patients receiving renal replacement therapy (RRT) in the pediatric cardiac intensive care unit (CICU) are at high risk for inadequate nutrition delivery. The objective of this study is to evaluate barriers to adequate energy and protein delivery in critically ill patients with congenital heart disease receiving RRT.

METHODS

This is a single-center retrospective cohort study of patients receiving RRT in the CICU from 2011 to 2019. Energy and protein adequacy was recorded over the first 7 days of RRT. Adequacy was defined as delivery of >80% of the energy and protein targets during this time period. Patients who achieved adequacy were compared to those who did not. Multivariable logistic regression models were constructed to determine factors independently associated with energy and protein adequacy while receiving RRT.

RESULTS

Sixty patients were included for analysis. Fifty-five patients (92%) achieved energy adequacy and 37 patients (62%) achieved protein adequacy. A higher weight-for-age z-score (WAZ) on admission to the CICU was the only independent predictor of inadequate energy intake (odds ratio 0.07, 95% confidence interval 0.01-0.58, P = .014); median WAZ was -1.17 versus +1.24 for those with adequate versus inadequate energy intake, respectively. Fluid restriction to <80% of maintenance fluid at the time of RRT initiation was more likely in patients with higher WAZ. Fluid restriction was the only independent predictor of inadequate protein intake (odds ratio 0.13, 95% confidence interval 0.02-0.7, P = .018); 5% versus 30% were fluid restricted in those with adequate versus inadequate protein intake, respectively. Azotemia was not associated with inadequate protein intake. Initiation of RRT did not allow for liberalization of fluid intake over the time period evaluated.

CONCLUSIONS

Protein delivery was inadequate in 38% of children undergoing RRT in the CICU. Fluid restriction was associated with inadequate protein intake and higher WAZ was associated with inadequate energy intake.

Peritoneal dialysis in very low and extremely low birthweight infants: A pooled analysis

BACKGROUND

Peritoneal dialysis (PD) represents an important therapeutic option in neonatal acute kidney injury (AKI), although evidence regarding its effects in preterm neonates remains unclear. The present study aims to evaluate the feasibility of PD in very low birthweight (VLBW) and extremely low birthweight (ELBW) infants and clarify the association of catheter choice with clinical outcomes.

METHODS

Medline, Scopus, Web of Science, Clinicaltrials.gov and CENTRAL databases were systematically searched from inception to 15 January 2021. Studies reporting individual participant data of VLBW and ELBW infants treated with PD were selected.

RESULTS

Overall, 20 studies were included comprising 101 patients. Catheter-related complications were significantly more frequent among ELBW infants (odds ratio: 5.18, 95% confidence intervals (CI): 1.23-29.09). After inverse probability treatment weighting, compared to drainage catheters, death risk was significantly lower with the use of PD (hazard ratio: 0.42, 95% CI: 0.19-0.90) but not vascular catheters (hazard ratio: 0.58, 95% CI: 0.28-1.20). Similarly, kidney function loss was significantly lower only with the implementation of PD catheters (hazard ratio: 0.44, 95% CI: 0.21-0.94).

CONCLUSIONS

PD is a feasible kidney replacement therapy modality in VLBW and ELBW infants with AKI. The use of drainage catheters may be linked to significantly worse kidney recovery and overall survival rates, compared to PD catheters. Future cohorts should confirm the most appropriate catheter type and contribute to the standardisation of PD procedures.

Prognostic Implications of a Cumulative Renal Score Based on Both Serum Creatinine and Urine Output Criteria for Staging of Acute Kidney Injury: A Cohort Study

Purpose

Traditionally, the Kidney Disease: Improving Global Outcomes (KDIGO) stages acute kidney injury (AKI) into three stages based on the highest severity of increase in serum creatinine (SC) or urine output (UO) criteria. Clinically, however, the two criteria do not provide equivalent information. Thus, we aimed to develop a cumulative renal score (the sum of the highest KDIGO SC and UO severity stages) for staging of AKI, expanding the original three KDIGO stages to six stages. We hypothesized that the cumulative renal score would more accurately describe AKI severity and outcomes.

Patients and Methods

Critically ill adult patients were identified from the Multi-parameter Intelligent Monitoring in Intensive Care III Database. The primary outcome was hospital mortality. Logistic regression was used to explore the association between cumulative renal score and hospital mortality.

Results

A total of 17,404 critically ill adult patients were enrolled. Patients with higher cumulative renal scores had greater hospital mortality than patients with lower cumulative renal scores (score 0, 7.6%; score 1, 9.3%; score 2, 12.5%; score 3, 18.9%; score 4, 27.1%; score 5, 34.7%; score 6, 46.8%, p < 0.001). After adjustment for significant covariates, relative to cumulative renal score 0, cumulative renal scores 2–6 were associated with increased hospital mortality. Within the traditional KDIGO stage 2 AKI, when compared with cumulative renal score 2, cumulative renal score 4 had increased hospital mortality. Within the traditional KDIGO stage 3 AKI, when compared with cumulative renal score 3, cumulative renal score 6 had increased hospital mortality.

Conclusion

Our study demonstrates that the KDIGO SC and UO criteria have a cumulative effect on AKI severity staging. The cumulative renal score improves the traditional KDIGO AKI staging by applying the two sets of criteria sequentially and provides more insight into the relationship between AKI and outcomes.

Modifiable factors affecting renal preservation in type I glycogen storage disease after liver transplantation: a single-center propensity-match cohort study

BACKGROUND AND AIMS

Glycogen storage disease type I (GSD-I) is an autosomal recessive disorder of carbohydrate metabolism, resulting in limited production of glucose and excessive glycogen storage in the liver and kidneys. These patients are characterized by life-threatening hypoglycemia, metabolic derangements, hepatomegaly, chronic kidney disease, and failure to thrive. Liver transplantation (LT) has been performed for poor metabolic control and delayed growth. However, renal outcome was diverse in pediatric GSD patients after LT. The aim of this study was to investigate the long-term outcome of renal function in pediatric GSD-I patients after living donor LT (LDLT), and to identify modifiable variables that potentially permits LT to confer native renal preservation.

METHODS

The study included eight GSD-Ia and one GSD-Ib children with a median age of 9.0 (range 4.2-15.7) years at the time of LT. Using propensity score matching, 20 children with biliary atresia (BA) receiving LT were selected as the control group by matching for age, sex, pre-operative serum creatinine (SCr) and pediatric end-stage liver disease (PELD) score. Renal function was evaluated based on the SCr, estimated glomerular filtration rate (eGFR), microalbuminuria, and morphological changes in the kidneys. Comparability in long-term renal outcome in terms of anatomic and functional parameters will help to identify pre-LT factors of GSD-I that affect renal prognosis.

RESULTS

The clinical and biochemical characteristics of the GSD and BA groups were similar, including immunosuppressive regimens and duration of follow-up (median 15 years) after LT. Overall, renal function, including eGFR and microalbuminuria was comparable in the GSD-I and BA groups (median eGFR: 111 vs. 123 ml/min/1.73m2, P = 0.268; median urine microalbuminuria to creatinine ratio: 16.0 vs. 7.2 mg/g, P = 0.099, respectively) after LT. However, in the subgroups of the GSD cohort, patients starting cornstarch therapy at an older age (≥ 6-year-old) before transplantation demonstrated a worse renal outcome in terms of eGFR change over years (P < 0.001). In addition, the enlarged kidney in GSD-I returned to within normal range after LT.

CONCLUSIONS

Post-LT renal function was well-preserved in most GSD-I patients. Early initiation of cornstarch therapy before preschool age, followed by LT, achieved a good renal prognosis.

Renal angina index predicts fluid overload in critically ill children: an observational cohort study

Background

Fluid overload and acute kidney injury are common and associated with poor outcomes among critically ill children. The prodrome of renal angina stratifies patients by risk for severe acute kidney injury, but the predictive discrimination for fluid overload is unknown.

Methods

Post-hoc analysis of patients admitted to a tertiary care pediatric intensive care unit (PICU). The primary outcome was the performance of renal angina fulfillment on day of ICU admission to predict fluid overload ≥15% on Day 3.

Results

77/139 children (55%) fulfilled renal angina (RA+). After adjusting for covariates, RA+ was associated with increased odds of fluid overload on Day 3 (adjusted odds ratio (aOR) 5.1, 95% CI 1.23–21.2, p = 0.025, versus RA-). RA- resulted in a 90% negative predictive value for fluid overload on Day 3. Median fluid overload was significantly higher in RA+ patients with severe acute kidney injury compared to RA+ patients without severe acute kidney injury (% fluid overload on Day 3: 8.8% vs. 0.73%, p = 0.002).

Conclusion

Among critically ill children, fulfillment of renal angina was associated with increased odds of fluid overload versus the absence of renal angina and a higher fluid overload among patients who developed acute kidney injury. Renal angina directed risk classification may identify patients at highest risk for fluid accumulation. Expanded study in larger populations is warranted.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12882-021-02540-6.

Association Between Acute Kidney Injury Duration and Outcomes in Critically Ill Children

OBJECTIVES

Acute kidney injury occurs frequently in children during critical illness and is associated with increased morbidity, mortality, and health resource utilization. We aimed to examine the association between acute kidney injury duration and these outcomes.

DESIGN

Retrospective cohort study.

SETTINGS

PICUs in Alberta, Canada.

PATIENTS

All children admitted to PICUs in Alberta, Canada between January 1, 2015, and December 31, 2015.

INTERVENTIONS

None.

MEASUREMENTS AND MAIN RESULTS

In total, 1,017 children were included, and 308 (30.3%) developed acute kidney injury during PICU stay. Acute kidney injury was categorized based on duration to transient (48 hr or less) or persistent (more than 48 hr). Transient acute kidney injury occurred in 240 children (77.9%), whereas 68 children (22.1%) had persistent acute kidney injury. Persistent acute kidney injury had a higher proportion of stage 2 and stage 3 acute kidney injury compared with transient acute kidney injury and was more likely to start within 24 hours from PICU admission. Persistent acute kidney injury occurred more frequently in those with higher illness severity and in those admitted with shock, sepsis, or with a history of transplant. Mortality varied significantly according to acute kidney injury status: 1.8% of children with no acute kidney injury, 5.4% with transient acute kidney injury, and 17.6% with persistent acute kidney injury died during hospital stay (p < 0.001). On multivariable analysis adjusting for illness and acute kidney injury severity, transient and persistent acute kidney injury were both associated with fewer ventilation-free days at 28 days (-1.28 d; 95% CI, -2.29 to -0.26 and -4.85 d; 95% CI, -6.82 to -2.88), vasoactive support-free days (-1.07 d; 95% CI, -2.00 to -0.15 and -4.24 d; 95% CI, -6.03 to -2.45), and hospital-free days (-1.93 d; 95% CI, -3.36 to -0.49 and -5.25 d; 95% CI, -8.03 to -2.47), respectively.

CONCLUSIONS

In critically ill children, persistent and transient acute kidney injury have different clinical characteristics and association with outcomes. Acute kidney injury, even when its duration is short, carries significant association with worse outcomes. This risk increases further if acute kidney injury persists longer independent of the degree of its severity.

Evaluation of neonatal acute kidney injury after critical congenital heart disease surgery

BACKGROUND

Acute kidney injury (AKI) is a common complication of congenital heart diseases (CHDs) after cardiac surgery. This study aimed to define the frequency and critical course, risk factors and short-term outcomes of AKI in postoperative CHD neonates.

METHODS

Postoperatively followed term CHD newborn infants were enrolled in the study. Infants with congenital anomalies of the urinary tract and other major congenital anomalies were excluded. Neonatal modified KDIGO criteria were used to assess AKI.

RESULTS

A total of 199 postoperatively followed newborn infants were included in the study. Acute kidney injury was detected in 71 (35.6%) patients. Of these patients, 24 (33.8%) were in stage 1, 14 (19.7%) in stage 2, and 33 (46.5%) in stage 3. Acute kidney injury occurred within the first week (median 1 day [IQR 1-2 days]) of cardiac surgery in 93% of the patients. The duration of invasive respiratory support and extracorporeal membrane oxygenation (ECMO) and mortality were significantly higher in stage 3 patients. Higher vasoactive-inotropic score (OR, 1.02; 95% CI, 1.0-1.04; p = 0.008) and receiving ECMO (OR, 7.9; 95% CI, 2.6-24.4; p = 0.001) were associated with risk for the development of AKI. The mortality rate was 52.1% in the AKI (+) patients, and having AKI (OR 7.1; 95% CI, 3.5-14.18) was significantly associated with mortality.

CONCLUSION

Acute kidney injury, a common early complication after critical neonatal CHD cardiac surgery, is associated with increased morbidity and mortality. Stage 3 AKI is associated with significantly higher mortality rates.

Consensus acute kidney injury criteria integration identifies children at risk for long-term kidney dysfunction after multiple organ dysfunction syndrome

BACKGROUND

The consensus definition of acute kidney injury (AKI) has evolved since developing the original multiple organ dysfunction syndrome (MODS) definitions. Whether or not risk for adverse short- and long-term outcomes can be identified using the refined AKI criteria in the setting of MODS has not been studied. We hypothesize that incorporation of Kidney Disease: Improving Global Outcome (KDIGO) AKI criteria into existing MODS definitions will have a higher association with major adverse kidney events at 30 days (MAKE30) and will increase the number of patients with MODS.

METHODS

Post hoc analysis of 410 children admitted to a tertiary care pediatric intensive care unit (PICU) was conducted. MODS was defined using two existing criteria (Goldstein and Proulx) during the first 7 days following ICU admission and then modified by replacement of the kidney injury criteria using the KDIGO AKI definitions (G' and P').

RESULTS

MAKE30 occurred in 65 of 410 (16%) children. After substituting KDIGO kidney injury criteria, identification of MAKE30 increased from 46 children (71%) to 53 (82%) and 29 children (45%) to 43 (66%) for the Goldstein and Proulx criteria, respectively. Additionally, identification of MODS increased from 194 (47%) by Goldstein to 224 (55%) by G' and 95 children (23%) by Proulx to 132 (32%) by P'.

CONCLUSIONS

Substituting KDIGO AKI criteria into existing MODS criteria increases the sensitivity for major adverse kidney events as well as the identification of MODS, improving the detection of children at risk for long-term adverse renal outcomes.

Diagnosis and incidence of acute kidney injury in a mixed paediatric intensive care unit: Retrospective analysis, 2005 and 2015

Acute kidney injury (AKI) is common in intensive care patients. While creatinine definitions for AKI have been validated, oliguria criteria are less well evaluated in children. Our study compared the validity and agreement of creatinine and oliguria criteria for diagnosing AKI in a large mixed medical, surgical and cardiac paediatric intensive care unit (PICU), and assessed the significance of their independent and combined effects on predicted mortality relative to paediatric index of mortality (PIM risk of death) on admission. Creatinine measurements during PICU admissions in 2005 and 2015 were obtained from the electronic medical record. Urine output was reviewed to identify periods of oliguria of more than eight hours. We used the PIM3 model for predicted risk of death. AKI based on creatinine rise occurred in 23.6% of the total 2203 admissions (10.0%, 8.2% and 5.6% for mild, moderate and severe categories, respectively). Oliguria occurred in 11.4% (8.4%, 1.8% and 1.2% for mild, moderate and severe categories, respectively) and overlapped only partially with creatinine criteria. Mortality relative to predicted mortality increased with increasing creatinine and oliguria severity, but was lower than predicted where oliguria occurred without creatinine rise. AKI by creatinine criteria and/or oliguria are common in the PICU, but criteria overlap only partially. Increasing severity of creatinine rise and oliguria confers increasing risk-adjusted mortality, especially for admissions with low PIM3 risk of death. The mortality of patients with AKI defined by oliguria alone is low. Defining AKI by oliguria alone has less clinical utility and may not represent true AKI.

Variation in Target Attainment of Beta-Lactam Antibiotic Dosing Between International Pediatric Formularies

As antimicrobial susceptibility of common bacterial pathogens decreases, ensuring optimal dosing may preserve the use of older antibiotics in order to limit the spread of resistance to newer agents. Beta-lactams represent the most widely prescribed antibiotic class, yet most were licensed prior to legislation changes mandating their study in children. As a result, significant heterogeneity persists in the pediatric doses used globally, along with quality of evidence used to inform dosing. This review summarizes dosing recommendations from the major pediatric reference sources and tries to answer the questions: Does beta-lactam dose heterogeneity matter? Does it impact pharmacodynamic target attainment? For three important severe clinical infections-pneumonia, sepsis, and meningitis-pharmacokinetic models were identified for common for beta-lactam antibiotics. Real-world demographics were derived from three multicenter point prevalence surveys. Simulation results were compared with minimum inhibitory concentration distributions to inform appropriateness of recommended doses in targeted and empiric treatment. While cephalosporin dosing regimens are largely adequate for target attainment, they also pose the most risk of neurotoxicity. Our review highlights aminopenicillin, piperacillin, and meropenem doses as potentially requiring review/optimization in order to preserve the use of these agents in future.

Pediatric acute kidney injury: new advances in the last decade

Pediatric acute kidney injury (AKI) is a frequently missed complication. AKI has a significant impact on both short- and long-term outcomes in children. Within the last decade, there have been major landmark developments in this field of critical care pediatric nephrology. The topic was searched by two independent researchers using Google Scholar and PubMed and related studies published in the last 10 years. The terms used for the search were 'pediatric acute kidney injury,' 'pediatric acute renal failure,' 'pediatric dialysis,' 'biomarkers,' 'nephrotoxins,' 'nephrotoxicity in children,' and 'pediatric critical care nephrology.' We found that AKI is common in critically ill neonates and children. Among the various definitions, the Kidney Disease: Improving Global Outcomes (KDIGO) definition is most commonly used. In addition, it is imperative to risk stratify sick children at admission in the hospital to predict AKI and worse outcomes as this aids in early management. There are now major landmark trials that describe the epidemiology, prevention, and management guidelines in this field and health care professionals need to be aware they should diagnose AKI early. Overall, this review highlights the landmark studies in the last decade and shows that early diagnosis and management of AKI in 'at risk' children can improve outcomes.