The ecology of Bacillus thuringiensis on the Phylloplane: colonization from soil, plasmid transfer, and interaction with larvae of Pieris brassicae

Soil-derived bacteria endow Camellia weevil with more ability to resist plant chemical defense

BACKGROUND

Herbivorous insects acquire their gut microbiota from diverse sources, and these microorganisms play significant roles in insect hosts' tolerance to plant secondary defensive compounds. Camellia weevil (Curculio chinensis) (CW) is an obligate seed parasite of Camellia oleifera plants. Our previous study linked the CW's gut microbiome to the tolerance of the tea saponin (TS) in C. oleifera seeds. However, the source of these gut microbiomes, the key bacteria involved in TS tolerance, and the degradation functions of these bacteria remain unresolved.

RESULTS

Our study indicated that CW gut microbiome was more affected by the microbiome from soil than that from fruits. The soil-derived Acinetobacter served as the core bacterial genus, and Acinetobacter sp. was putatively regarded responsible for the saponin-degradation in CW guts. Subsequent experiments using fluorescently labeled cultures verified that the isolate Acinetobacter sp. AS23 can migrate into CW larval guts, and ultimately endow its host with the ability to degrade saponin, thereby allowing CW to subsist as a pest within plant fruits resisting to higher concentration of defensive chemical.

CONCLUSIONS

The systematic studies of the sources of gut microorganisms, the screening of taxa involved in plant secondary metabolite degradation, and the investigation of bacteria responsible for CW toxicity mitigation provide clarified evidence that the intestinal microorganisms can mediate the tolerance of herbivorous insects against plant toxins. Video Abstract.

Determination, distribution, and environmental fate of Bacillus thuringiensis spores in various honeybee matrices after field application as plant protection product

The increasing use of Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt)-based plant protection products (PPPs) has recently raised some concerns regarding their environmental accumulation and possible chronic exposure of non-target species, including pollinators, to higher than expected doses. The exposure level of such microbial PPPs in bee's matrices under field conditions has not yet been described. Therefore, the current study aims at evaluating the realistic exposure level and comparing the distributions and persistence of Bt spores under field conditions. A field trial with spray application in oilseed rape (Brassica napus) as a representative bee-attractive crop was conducted. During the experimental period, different matrices, including honeybee-collected and -stored matrices as well as bee larvae and dead bees, were collected and analyzed using newly established methods. The concentration of Bt spores in the various matrices was quantified. The results show high levels of Bt spores in honey sac and pollen pellets with reduction over time but no reduction of Bt spores in the stored matrices within the colony, i.e., nectar and bee bread, over time. Our results show for the first time the exposure level of bees to Bt spores under realistic field conditions and are fundamentally important for assessing potential exposure and risks for pollinators.

Plant Polysaccharides Modulate Biofilm Formation and Insecticidal Activities of Bacillus thuringiensis Strains

After the biological pesticide Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) is applied to the field, it has to remain on the surface of plants to have the insecticidal activities against insect pests. Bt can form biofilms on the surface of vegetable leaves, which were rich in polysaccharides. However, the relationship between polysaccharides of the leaves and the biofilm formation as well as the insecticidal activities of Bt is still unknown. Herein, this study focused on the effects of plant polysaccharides pectin and xylan on biofilm formation and the insecticidal activities of Bt strains. By adding pectin, there were 88 Bt strains with strong biofilm formation, 69 strains with weak biofilm formation, and 13 strains without biofilm formation. When xylan was added, 13 Bt strains formed strong biofilms, 98 strains formed weak biofilms, and 59 strains did not form biofilms. This indicated that two plant polysaccharides, especially pectin, modulate the biofilm formation of Bt strains. The ability of pectin to induce biofilm formation was not related to Bt serotypes. Pectin promoted the biofilms formed by Bt cells in the logarithmic growth phase and lysis phase at the air–liquid interface, while it inhibited the biofilms formed by Bt cells in the sporangial phase at the air–liquid interface. The dosage of pectin was positively correlated with the yield of biofilms formed by Bt cells in the logarithmic growth phase or lysis phase at the solid–liquid interfaces. Pectin did not change the free-living growth and the cell motility of Bt strains. Pectin can improve the biocontrol activities of the spore–insecticidal crystal protein mixture of Bt and BtK commercial insecticides, as well as the biofilms formed by the logarithmic growth phase or lysis phase of Bt cells. Our findings confirmed that plant polysaccharides modulate biofilm formation and insecticidal activities of Bt strains and built a foundation for the construction of biofilm-type Bt biopesticides.

Dissecting the Environmental Consequences of Bacillus thuringiensis Application for Natural Ecosystems

Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt), a natural pathogen of different invertebrates, primarily insects, is widely used as a biological control agent. While Bt-based preparations are claimed to be safe for non-target organisms due to the immense host specificity of the bacterium, the growing evidence witnesses the distant consequences of their application for natural communities. For instance, upon introduction to soil habitats, Bt strains can affect indigenous microorganisms, such as bacteria and fungi, and further establish complex relationships with local plants, ranging from a mostly beneficial demeanor, to pathogenesis-like plant colonization. By exerting a direct effect on target insects, Bt can indirectly affect other organisms in the food chain. Furthermore, they can also exert an off-target activity on various soil and terrestrial invertebrates, and the frequent acquisition of virulence factors unrelated to major insecticidal toxins can extend the Bt host range to vertebrates, including humans. Even in the absence of direct detrimental effects, the exposure to Bt treatment may affect non-target organisms by reducing prey base and its nutritional value, resulting in delayed alleviation of their viability. The immense phenotypic plasticity of Bt strains, coupled with the complexity of ecological relationships they can engage in, indicates that further assessment of future Bt-based pesticides' safety should consider multiple levels of ecosystem organization and extend to a wide variety of their inhabitants.

Bacillus thuringiensis Bioinsecticides Induce Developmental Defects in Non-Target Drosophila melanogaster Larvae

Bioinsecticides made from the bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) are the bestselling bioinsecticide worldwide. Among Bt bioinsecticides, those based on the strain Bt subsp. kurstaki (Btk) are widely used in farming to specifically control pest lepidopteran larvae. Although there is much evidence of the lack of acute lethality of Btk products for non-target animals, only scarce data are available on their potential non-lethal developmental adverse effects. Using a concentration that could be reached in the field upon sprayings, we show that Btk products impair growth and developmental time of the non-target dipteran Drosophila melanogaster. We demonstrate that these effects are mediated by the synergy between Btk bacteria and Btk insecticidal toxins. We further show that Btk bioinsecticides trigger intestinal cell death and alter protein digestion without modifying the food intake and feeding behavior of the larvae. Interestingly, these harmful effects can be mitigated by a protein-rich diet or by adding the probiotic bacterium Lactobacillus plantarum into the food. Finally, we unravel two new cellular mechanisms allowing the larval midgut to maintain its integrity upon Btk aggression: First the flattening of surviving enterocytes and second, the generation of new immature cells arising from the adult midgut precursor cells. Together, these mechanisms participate to quickly fill in the holes left by the dying enterocytes.

Differential side-effects of Bacillus thuringiensis bioinsecticide on non-target Drosophila flies

Bioinsecticides based on Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) spores and toxins are increasingly popular alternative solutions to control insect pests, with potential impact of their accumulation in the environment on non-target organisms. Here, we tested the effects of chronic exposure to commercial Bt formulations (Bt var. kurstaki and israelensis) on eight non-target Drosophila species present in Bt-treated areas, including D. melanogaster (four strains). Doses up to those recommended for field application (~ 106 Colony Forming Unit (CFU)/g fly medium) did not impact fly development, while no fly emerged at ≥ 1000-fold this dose. Doses between 10- to 100-fold the recommended one increased developmental time and decreased adult emergence rates in a dose-dependent manner, with species-and strain-specific effect amplitudes. Focusing on D. melanogaster, development alterations were due to instar-dependent larval mortality, and the longevity and offspring number of adult flies exposed to bioinsecticide throughout their development were moderately influenced. Our data also suggest a synergy between the formulation compounds (spores, cleaved toxins, additives) might induce the bioinsecticide effects on larval development. Although recommended doses had no impact on non-target Drosophila species, misuse or local environmental accumulation of Bt bioinsecticides could have side-effects on fly populations with potential implications for their associated communities.

The Gram-Positive Bacterium Leuconostoc pseudomesenteroides Shows Insecticidal Activity against Drosophilid and Aphid Pests

Insect pests reduce global crop yields by up to 20%, but the most effective control measures are currently based on environmentally hazardous chemical pesticides. An alternative, ecologically beneficial pest-management strategy involves the use of microbial pathogens (or active compounds and extracts derived from them) that naturally target selected insect pests. A novel strain of the bacterium Leuconostoc pseudomesenteroides showed promising activity in our preliminary tests. Here, we investigated its effects in more detail, focusing on drosophilid and aphid pests by testing the survival of two species representing the family Drosophilidae (Drosophila suzukii and D. melanogaster) and one representing the family Aphididae (Acyrthosiphon pisum). We used oral and septic infection models to administer living bacteria or cell-free extracts to adult flies and aphid nymphs. We found that infection with living bacteria significantly reduced the survival of our insect models, whereas the administration of cell-free extracts had a significant effect only in aphids. These results confirm that L. pseudomesenteroides has potential as a new biocontrol agent for sustainable pest management.

Identification of entomopathogenic bacteria associated with the invasive pest Drosophila suzukii in infested areas of Germany

The invasive insect pest Drosophila suzukii causes extensive damage to soft-skinned fruit crops as they ripen. Current control methods involve the application of chemical pesticides, but this approach is ineffective and environmentally hazardous. To investigate the potential of bacterial pathogens carried by D. suzukii as biocontrol agents, we characterized bacteria associated with D. suzukii larvae in two parts of Hesse, Germany, by collecting infested fruits and culturing individual bacteria from moribund specimens for taxonomic classification by 16S rDNA sequencing. Among the bacteria we detected, some had a detrimental effect on the host whereas others were neutral or beneficial. When the detrimental and beneficial bacteria were presented simultaneously, we observed complex tripartite interactions that modulated the insect's innate immune response. Our study provides insight into the complex relationships within the microbiome and pathobiome of D. suzukii and may lead to the isolation of bacteria that can be used as biological control agents.

Three-way interaction among plants, bacteria, and coleopteran insects

MAIN CONCLUSION

Coleoptera, the largest and the most diverse Insecta order, is characterized by multiple adaptations to plant feeding. Insect-associated microorganisms can be important mediators and modulators of interactions between insects and plants. Interactions between plants and insects are highly complex and involve multiple factors. There are various defense mechanisms initiated by plants upon attack by herbivorous insects, including the development of morphological structures and the synthesis of toxic secondary metabolites and volatiles. In turn, herbivores have adapted to feeding on plants and further sophisticated adaptations to overcome plant responses may continue to evolve. Herbivorous insects may detoxify toxic phytocompounds, sequester poisonous plant factors, and alter their own overall gene expression pattern. Moreover, insects are associated with microbes, which not only considerably affect insects, but can also modify plant defense responses to the benefit of their host. Plants are also frequently associated with endophytes, which may act as bioinsecticides. Therefore, it is very important to consider the factors influencing the interaction between plants and insects. Herbivorous insects cause considerable damage to global crop production. Coleoptera is the largest and the most diverse order in the class Insecta. In this review, various aspects of the interactions among insects, microbes, and plants are described with a focus on coleopteran species, their bacterial symbionts, and their plant hosts to demonstrate that many factors contribute to the success of coleopteran herbivory.

Infection of Tribolium castaneum with Bacillus thuringiensis: quantification of bacterial replication within cadavers, transmission via cannibalism, and inhibition of spore germination

Reproduction within a host and transmission to the next host are crucial for the virulence and fitness of pathogens. Nevertheless, basic knowledge about such parameters is often missing from the literature, even for well-studied bacteria, such as Bacillus thuringiensis, an endospore-forming insect pathogen, which infects its hosts via the oral route. To characterize bacterial replication success, we made use of an experimental oral infection system for the red flour beetle Tribolium castaneum and developed a flow cytometric assay for the quantification of both spore ingestion by the individual beetle larvae and the resulting spore load after bacterial replication and resporulation within cadavers. On average, spore numbers increased 460-fold, showing that Bacillus thuringiensis grows and replicates successfully in insect cadavers. By inoculating cadaver-derived spores and spores from bacterial stock cultures into nutrient medium, we next investigated outgrowth characteristics of vegetative cells and found that cadaver-derived bacteria showed reduced growth compared to bacteria from the stock cultures. Interestingly, this reduced growth was a consequence of inhibited spore germination, probably originating from the host and resulting in reduced host mortality in subsequent infections by cadaver-derived spores. Nevertheless, we further showed that Bacillus thuringiensis transmission was possible via larval cannibalism when no other food was offered. These results contribute to our understanding of the ecology of Bacillus thuringiensis as an insect pathogen.

Plant-insect interactions under bacterial influence: ecological implications and underlying mechanisms

Plants and insects have been co-existing for more than 400 million years, leading to intimate and complex relationships. Throughout their own evolutionary history, plants and insects have also established intricate and very diverse relationships with microbial associates. Studies in recent years have revealed plant- or insect-associated microbes to be instrumental in plant-insect interactions, with important implications for plant defences and plant utilization by insects. Microbial communities associated with plants are rich in diversity, and their structure greatly differs between below- and above-ground levels. Microbial communities associated with insect herbivores generally present a lower diversity and can reside in different body parts of their hosts including bacteriocytes, haemolymph, gut, and salivary glands. Acquisition of microbial communities by vertical or horizontal transmission and possible genetic exchanges through lateral transfer could strongly impact on the host insect or plant fitness by conferring adaptations to new habitats. Recent developments in sequencing technologies and molecular tools have dramatically enhanced opportunities to characterize the microbial diversity associated with plants and insects and have unveiled some of the mechanisms by which symbionts modulate plant-insect interactions. Here, we focus on the diversity and ecological consequences of bacterial communities associated with plants and herbivorous insects. We also highlight the known mechanisms by which these microbes interfere with plant-insect interactions. Revealing such mechanisms in model systems under controlled environments but also in more natural ecological settings will help us to understand the evolution of complex multitrophic interactions in which plants, herbivorous insects, and micro-organisms are inserted.

Bacillus thuringiensis HD-1 Cry- : development of a safe, non-insecticidal simulant for Bacillus anthracis

AIMS

A representative simulant for spores of Bacillus anthracis is needed for field testing. Bacillus thuringiensis is gaining recognition as a suitable organism. A strain that does not form the insecticidal, parasporal crystals that are characteristic of this species is a more accurate physical representative of B. anthracis spores. We developed noninsecticidal derivatives of two isolates of B. thuringiensis HD-1.

METHODS AND RESULTS

Two plasmid-cured derivatives of B. thuringiensis HD-1, unable to make crystal toxins ('Cry(-) '), were isolated. These isolates and the existing Cry(-) strain, B. thuringiensis Al Hakam, were probed with PCR assays against the known insecticidal genes cry, vip and cyt. Their genomic DNA was sequenced to demonstrate a lack of insecticidal genes. This was confirmed by bioassays against a number of invertebrate species. Real-time PCR assays were developed to identify the B. thuringiensis HD-1 Cry(-) derivatives and an effective differential and selective medium was assessed.

CONCLUSIONS

All three Cry(-) isolates are devoid of known insecticidal determinants. The B. thuringiensis HD-1 Cry(-) derivatives can easily be recovered from soil and identified by PCR with some selectivity.

SIGNIFICANCE AND IMPACT OF THE STUDY

The B. thuringiensis HD-1 Cry(-) derivatives represent accurate, nongenetically manipulated simulants for B. anthracis with excellent human and environmental safety records.

Baceridin, a cyclic hexapeptide from an epiphytic bacillus strain, inhibits the proteasome

A new cyclic hexapeptide, baceridin (1), was isolated from the culture medium of a plant-associated Bacillus strain. The structure of 1 was elucidated by HR-HPLC-MS and 1D and 2D NMR experiments and confirmed by ESI MS/MS sequence analysis of the corresponding linear hexapeptide 2. The absolute configurations of the amino acid residues were determined after derivatization by GC-MS and Marfey's method. The cyclopeptide 1 consists partially of nonribosomal-derived D- and allo-D-configured amino acids. The order of the D- and L-leucine residues within the sequence cyclo(-L-Trp-D-Ala-D-allo-Ile-L-Val-D-Leu-L-Leu-) was assigned by total synthesis of the two possible stereoisomers. Baceridin (1) was tested for antimicrobial and cytotoxic activity and displayed moderate cytotoxicity (1-2 μg mL(-1)) as well as weak activity against Staphylococcus aureus. However, it was identified to be a proteasome inhibitor that inhibits cell cycle progression and induces apoptosis in tumor cells by a p53-independent pathway.

Mode of Action and Specificity of Bacillus thuringiensis Toxins in the Control of Caterpillars and Stink Bugs in Soybean Culture

The bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) produces delta-endotoxins that possess toxic properties and can be used as biopesticides, as well as a source of genes for the construction of transgenic plants resistant to insects. In Brazil, the introduction of Bt soybean with insecticidal properties to the velvetbean caterpillar, the main insect pest of soybean, has been seen a promising tool in the management of these agroecosystems. However, the increase in stink bug populations in this culture, in various regions of the country, which are not susceptible to the existing genetically modified plants, requires application of chemicals that damage the environment. Little is known about the actual toxicity of Bt to Hemiptera, since these insects present sucking mouthparts, which hamper toxicity assays with artificial diets containing toxins of this bacterium. In recent studies of cytotoxicity with the gut of different hemipterans, susceptibility in the mechanism of action of delta-endotoxins has been demonstrated, which can generate promising subsidies for the control of these insect pests in soybean. This paper aims to review the studies related to the selection, application and mode of action of Bt in the biological control of the major pest of soybean, Anticarsia gemmatalis, and an analysis of advances in research on the use of Bt for control hemipterans.

Bacillus thuringiensis Is an Environmental Pathogen and Host-Specificity Has Developed as an Adaptation to Human-Generated Ecological Niches

Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) has been used successfully as a biopesticide for more than 60 years. More recently, genes encoding their toxins have been used to transform plants and other organisms. Despite the large amount of research on this bacterium, its true ecology is still a matter of debate, with two major viewpoints dominating: while some understand Bt as an insect pathogen, others see it as a saprophytic bacteria from soil. In this context, Bt's pathogenicity to other taxa and the possibility that insects may not be the primary targets of Bt are also ideas that further complicate this scenario. The existence of conflicting research results, the difficulty in developing broader ecological and genetics studies, and the great genetic plasticity of this species has cluttered a definitive concept. In this review, we gathered information on the aspects of Bt ecology that are often ignored, in the attempt to clarify the lifestyle, mechanisms of transmission and target host range of this bacterial species. As a result, we propose an integrated view to account for Bt ecology. Although Bt is indeed a pathogenic bacterium that possesses a broad arsenal for virulence and defense mechanisms, as well as a wide range of target hosts, this seems to be an adaptation to specific ecological changes acting on a versatile and cosmopolitan environmental bacterium. Bt pathogenicity and host-specificity was favored evolutionarily by increased populations of certain insect species (or other host animals), whose availability for colonization were mostly caused by anthropogenic activities. These have generated the conditions for ecological imbalances that favored dominance of specific populations of insects, arachnids, nematodes, etc., in certain areas, with narrower genetic backgrounds. These conditions provided the selective pressure for development of new hosts for pathogenic interactions, and so, host specificity of certain strains.

Identification of genes required by Bacillus thuringiensis for survival in soil by transposon-directed insertion site sequencing

Transposon-directed insertion site sequencing was used to identify genes required by Bacillus thuringiensis to survive in non-axenic plant/soil microcosms. A total of 516 genetic loci fulfilled the criteria as conferring survival characteristics. Of these, 127 (24.6 %) were associated with uptake and transport systems; 227 loci (44.0 %) coded for enzymatic properties; 49 (9.5 %) were gene regulation or sensory loci; 40 (7.8 %) were structural proteins found in the cell envelope or had enzymatic activities related to it and 24 (4.7 %) were involved in the production of antibiotics or resistance to them. Eighty-three (16.1 %) encoded hypothetical proteins or those of unknown function. The ability to form spores was a key survival characteristic in the microcosms: bacteria, inoculated in either spore or vegetative form, were able to multiply and colonise the soil, whereas a sporulation-deficient mutant was not. The presence of grass seedlings was critical to colonisation. Bacteria labelled with green fluorescent protein were observed to adhere to plant roots. The sporulation-specific promoter of spo0A, the key regulator of sporulation, was strongly activated in the rhizosphere. In contrast, the vegetative-specific promoters of spo0A and PlcR, a pleiotropic regulator of genes with diverse activities, were only very weakly activated.

Bacillus thuringiensis colonises plant roots in a phylogeny-dependent manner

Although much is known about the pathology of Bacillus thuringiensis against invertebrates, current understanding of its natural ecology is limited. This study evaluated the biodiversity of B. thuringiensis in relation to its interaction with plants. Phylogenetic relationships between 44 reference and field-collected strains, determined using 16S rRNA and gyrB gene sequences, revealed a high degree of variability, similar to that found in databases. An Arabidopsis thaliana in vitro inoculation model was developed to screen the ability of B. thuringiensis to colonise roots. Significant colonisation differences up to 91-fold were observed between strains, and correlation between strain phylogeny and colonisation was found. The genetics and biochemistry of auxin production; presence of the gene encoding indole pyruvate decarboxylase; and the abilities of Bt strains to swarm, grow in rich/minimal media and affect root growth differed between the strains, but only auxin production correlated significantly with ability to colonise roots. Co-inoculation with Burkholderia phytofirmans PsJN or Pseudomonas fluorescens SBW25 produced no effect on B. thuringiensis colonisation levels, regardless of the co-inoculant. Similarly, root colonisation of A. thaliana mutants impaired in plant defences was not significantly higher compared with controls. This is the first systematic and phylogenetic evaluation of B. thuringiensis interaction with plants.

Effect of stacked insecticidal Cry proteins from maize pollen on nurse bees (Apis mellifera carnica) and their gut bacteria

Honey bee pollination is a key ecosystem service to nature and agriculture. However, biosafety research on genetically modified crops rarely considers effects on nurse bees from intact colonies, even though they receive and primarily process the largest amount of pollen. The objective of this study was to analyze the response of nurse bees and their gut bacteria to pollen from Bt maize expressing three different insecticidal Cry proteins (Cry1A.105, Cry2Ab2, and Cry3Bb1). Naturally Cry proteins are produced by bacteria (Bacillus thuringiensis). Colonies of Apis mellifera carnica were kept during anthesis in flight cages on field plots with the Bt maize, two different conventionally bred maize varieties, and without cages, 1-km outside of the experimental maize field to allow ad libitum foraging to mixed pollen sources. During their 10-days life span, the consumption of Bt maize pollen had no effect on their survival rate, body weight and rates of pollen digestion compared to the conventional maize varieties. As indicated by ELISA-quantification of Cry1A.105 and Cry3Bb1, more than 98% of the recombinant proteins were degraded. Bacterial population sizes in the gut were not affected by the genetic modification. Bt-maize, conventional varieties and mixed pollen sources selected for significantly different bacterial communities which were, however, composed of the same dominant members, including Proteobacteria in the midgut and Lactobacillus sp. and Bifidobacterium sp. in the hindgut. Surprisingly, Cry proteins from natural sources, most likely B. thuringiensis, were detected in bees with no exposure to Bt maize. The natural occurrence of Cry proteins and the lack of detectable effects on nurse bees and their gut bacteria give no indication for harmful effects of this Bt maize on nurse honey bees.

Long-term survival of Bacillus thuringiensis subsp. kurstaki in a field trial

Long-term survival of Bacillus thuringiensis subsp. kurstaki DMU67R has been investigated in a field trial. An experimental cabbage plot was sprayed with DMU67R in 1993 and was allowed to lie fallow since then. The investigation reported here was carried out from 2001 to 2007 in a single square meter within the plot using a systematic randomized sampling approach. The bacterium survived at relative low densities in these 13 years after spraying. Statistical analyses revealed that the overall density decreased approximately 40% during years 8 to 13 after the application; however, the trend was not uniform and contained periods of both increases and decreases in density of DMU67R, with decreases in density notably related to conditions of low water content in the soil. Long-term survival of DMU67R in this field plot seems to include germination and growth, possibly related to growth in insect hosts, and death or inactivation during dry periods, both phases occurring during May to October where the soil temperature exceeds 10 °C.

Promise for plant pest control: root-associated pseudomonads with insecticidal activities

Insects are an important and probably the most challenging pest to control in agriculture, in particular when they feed on belowground parts of plants. The application of synthetic pesticides is problematic owing to side effects on the environment, concerns for public health and the rapid development of resistance. Entomopathogenic bacteria, notably Bacillus thuringiensis and Photorhabdus/Xenorhabdus species, are promising alternatives to chemical insecticides, for they are able to efficiently kill insects and are considered to be environmentally sound and harmless to mammals. However, they have the handicap of showing limited environmental persistence or of depending on a nematode vector for insect infection. Intriguingly, certain strains of plant root-colonizing Pseudomonas bacteria display insect pathogenicity and thus could be formulated to extend the present range of bioinsecticides for protection of plants against root-feeding insects. These entomopathogenic pseudomonads belong to a group of plant-beneficial rhizobacteria that have the remarkable ability to suppress soil-borne plant pathogens, promote plant growth, and induce systemic plant defenses. Here we review for the first time the current knowledge about the occurrence and the molecular basis of insecticidal activity in pseudomonads with an emphasis on plant-beneficial and prominent pathogenic species. We discuss how this fascinating Pseudomonas trait may be exploited for novel root-based approaches to insect control in an integrated pest management framework.

Microbial ecology and association of Bacillus thuringiensis in chicken feces originating from feed

To explain the association of Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) with animal feces, an ecological analysis in chickens was conducted by introducing a cry(-) strain marked by production of green fluorescent protein (GFP). After feeding with the tagged Bt strains, the feces of the tested chickens were collected at different times, isolated, and the morphology of Bt was observed. It was shown that Bt strain HD-73GFP in spore form could be isolated from feces of chickens for a period of 13 d, and then it disappeared thereafter. Bt could be detected only up to day 4 (but not thereafter), when chickens were fed with vegetative cells of HD-73GFP. To confirm the source of newly isolated strains, the gfp gene was examined by polymerase chain reaction (PCR), which showed that all the isolated strains harbored the marker gene. Recent data from isolation and PCR had suggested that fecal Bt strains had originated from food. Chicken tissues were thus dissected to isolate Bt strains and to investigate whether Bt could be located in vivo. Bt was located within the duodenum in spore form. Compared to the morphology of the isolated strains at different growth times, the growth rates of all the tested Bt had little changes when passing through the digestive system to the feces. Dissection of the chickens confirmed that Bt was safe for the tested animal.

Production of protocatechuic acid in Bacillus Thuringiensis ATCC33679

Protocatechuic acid, or 3,4-dihydroxybenzoic acid, is produced by both soil and marine bacteria in the free form and as the iron binding component of the siderophore petrobactin. The soil bacterium, Bacillus thuringiensis kurstaki ATCC 33679, contains the asb operon, but does not produce petrobactin. Iron restriction resulted in diminished B. thuringiensis kurstaki ATCC 33679 growth and the production of catechol(s). The gene product responsible for protocatechuic acid (asbF) and its receptor (fatB) were expressed during stationary phase growth. Gene expression varied with growth temperature, with optimum levels occurring well below the Bacillus anthracis virulence temperature of 37 °C. Regulation of protocatechuic acid suggests a possible role for this compound during soil growth cycles.

Invertebrate pathogenicity and toxin-producing potential of strains of Bacillus thuringiensis endemic to Antarctica

Several strains of Bacillus thuringiensis were previously isolated from soil in Antarctica and appeared to have physiological adaptations to this cold, nutrient-poor environment. In spite of this they could produce abnormally large, parasporal crystals under laboratory conditions. Here, they have been further characterised for toxin genes and invertebrate pathogenicity. All of the strains were positive in PCR assays for the cry1Aa and cry2 genes. This was confirmed by sequence analysis and the parasporal crystals of all strains contained polypeptides of about 130kDa. This potential for lepidopteran toxicity was borne out in bioassays of purified δ-endotoxins against larvae of Pieris brassicae: the LD(50) values of B2408 (288μg) were comparable to that of the reference strain, HD-12 (201μg). There was no activity against the nematode Caenorhabditis elegans in spite of the fact that all strains appeared to possess the cry6 gene. PCR screening for genes encoding other nematode-toxic classes of toxins (Cry5, 4 and 21) was negative. B. thuringiensis has never previously been shown to be toxic to Collembola (springtails) but the purified δ-endotoxins of one of the Antarctic strains showed some activity against Folsomia candida and Seira domestica (224μg and 238μg, respectively). It seems unlikely that the level of toxicity demonstrated against springtails would support a pathogenic life-style in nature. All of the strains were positive for genes encoding Bacillus cereus-type enterotoxins. In the absence of higher insects and mammals the ecological value of retaining the toxic capability demonstrated here is uncertain.

The occurrence of photorhabdus-like toxin complexes in Bacillus thuringiensis

Recently, genomic sequencing of a Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) isolate from our collection revealed the presence of an apparent operon encoding an insecticidal toxin complex (Tca) similar to that first described from the entomopathogen Photorhabdus luminescens. To determine whether these genes are widespread among Bt strains, we screened isolates from the collection for the presence of tccC, one of the genes needed for the expression of fully functional toxin complexes. Among 81 isolates chosen to represent commonly encountered biochemical phenotypes, 17 were found to possess a tccC. Phylogenetic analysis of the 81 isolates by multilocus sequence typing revealed that all the isolates possessing a tccC gene were restricted to two sequence types related to Bt varieties morrisoni, tenebrionis, israelensis and toumanoffi. Sequencing of the ∼17 kb tca operon from two isolates representing each of the two sequence types revealed >99% sequence identity. Optical mapping of DNA from Bt isolates representing each of the sequence types revealed nearly identical plasmids of ca. 333 and 338 kbp, respectively. Selected isolates were found to be toxic to gypsy moth larvae, but were not as effective as a commercial strain of Bt kurstaki. Some isolates were found to inhibit growth of Colorado potato beetle. Custom Taqman® relative quantitative real-time PCR assays for Tc-encoding Bt revealed both tcaA and tcaB genes were expressed within infected gypsy moth larvae.

Parasporins from a Caribbean Island: evidence for a globally dispersed Bacillus thuringiensis strain

Parasporins represent a new functional class of Cry (crystal protein) toxins produced by the bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt). Unlike Cry toxins that demonstrate activity mainly against some insect cells, parasporins are characterized as being non-hemolytic, yet capable of preferentially killing some human cancer cells. Globally, six different parasporin types, PS1-PS6, based on protein sequence homology, have been identified in only four countries (Japan, Vietnam, India, and Canada). Herein we report the results of a screening study of 160 Bt isolates collected from the Caribbean island of Trinidad. One isolate (strain 64-1-94) was shown to kill human cancer cells and to contain one ps6 and two ps1 parasporin genes. The two ps1 genes were located approximately 6 kb apart from each other, sharing a similar spatial arrangement, and high sequence homology, with two plasmid-located ps1 genes, ps1Aa6 and ps1Ad1, recently isolated from a Japanese strain. Evidence is also presented that a parasporin gene reported previously for a Canadian strain, ps1Aa2, is most likely derived from a recombination event between these same two genes found in the Trinidadian and Japanese strains. Notably, all three strains share a ps6 parasporin gene, presumably located on a separate plasmid. These data suggest that the global population of ps1 genes may be have originated from a single pair of parasporin genes. Given the large geographical distance between the collection sites, which are located on both continental land masses and islands at sea, ps1 genes are able to retain a remarkable level of homology not easily explained.

Environmental factors determining the epidemiology and population genetic structure of the Bacillus cereus group in the field

Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) and its insecticidal toxins are widely exploited in microbial biopesticides and genetically modified crops. Its population biology is, however, poorly understood. Important issues for the safe, sustainable exploitation of Bt include understanding how selection maintains expression of insecticidal toxins in nature, whether entomopathogenic Bt is ecologically distinct from related human pathogens in the Bacillus cereus group, and how the use of microbial pesticides alters natural bacterial populations. We addressed these questions with a MLST scheme applied to a field experiment in which we excluded/added insect hosts and microbial pesticides in a factorial design. The presence of insects increased the density of Bt/B. cereus in the soil and the proportion of strains expressing insecticidal toxins. We found a near-epidemic population structure dominated by a single entomopathogenic genotype (ST8) in sprayed and unsprayed enclosures. Biopesticidal ST8 proliferated in hosts after spraying but was also found naturally associated with leaves more than any other genotype. In an independent experiment several ST8 isolates proved better than a range of non-pathogenic STs at endophytic and epiphytic colonization of seedlings from soil. This is the first experimental demonstration of Bt behaving as a specialized insect pathogen in the field. These data provide a basis for understanding both Bt ecology and the influence of anthropogenic factors on Bt populations. This natural population of Bt showed habitat associations and a population structure that differed markedly from previous MLST studies of less ecologically coherent B. cereus sample collections. The host-specific adaptations of ST8, its close association with its toxin plasmid and its high prevalence within its clade are analogous to the biology of Bacillus anthracis. This prevalence also suggests that selection for resistance to the insecticidal toxins of ST8 will have been stronger than for other toxin classes.

Chemical modulators of the innate immune response alter gypsy moth larval susceptibility to Bacillus thuringiensis

Background

The gut comprises an essential barrier that protects both invertebrate and vertebrate animals from invasion by microorganisms. Disruption of the balanced relationship between indigenous gut microbiota and their host can result in gut bacteria eliciting host responses similar to those caused by invasive pathogens. For example, ingestion of Bacillus thuringiensis by larvae of some species of susceptible Lepidoptera can result in normally benign enteric bacteria exerting pathogenic effects.

Results

We explored the potential role of the insect immune response in mortality caused by B. thuringiensis in conjunction with gut bacteria. Two lines of evidence support such a role. First, ingestion of B. thuringiensis by gypsy moth larvae led to the depletion of their hemocytes. Second, pharmacological agents that are known to modulate innate immune responses of invertebrates and vertebrates altered larval mortality induced by B. thuringiensis. Specifically, Gram-negative peptidoglycan pre-treated with lysozyme accelerated B. thuringiensis-induced killing of larvae previously made less susceptible due to treatment with antibiotics. Conversely, several inhibitors of the innate immune response (eicosanoid inhibitors and antioxidants) increased the host's survival time following ingestion of B. thuringiensis.

Conclusions

This study demonstrates that B. thuringiensis infection provokes changes in the cellular immune response of gypsy moth larvae. The effects of chemicals known to modulate the innate immune response of many invertebrates and vertebrates, including Lepidoptera, also indicate a role of this response in B. thuringiensis killing. Interactions among B. thuringiensis toxin, enteric bacteria, and aspects of the gypsy moth immune response may provide a novel model to decipher mechanisms of sepsis associated with bacteria of gut origin.

Contributions of gut bacteria to Bacillus thuringiensis-induced mortality vary across a range of Lepidoptera

Background

Gut microbiota contribute to the health of their hosts, and alterations in the composition of this microbiota can lead to disease. Previously, we demonstrated that indigenous gut bacteria were required for the insecticidal toxin of Bacillus thuringiensis to kill the gypsy moth, Lymantria dispar. B. thuringiensis and its associated insecticidal toxins are commonly used for the control of lepidopteran pests. A variety of factors associated with the insect host, B. thuringiensis strain, and environment affect the wide range of susceptibilities among Lepidoptera, but the interaction of gut bacteria with these factors is not understood. To assess the contribution of gut bacteria to B. thuringiensis susceptibility across a range of Lepidoptera we examined larval mortality of six species in the presence and absence of their indigenous gut bacteria. We then assessed the effect of feeding an enteric bacterium isolated from L. dispar on larval mortality following ingestion of B. thuringiensis toxin.

Results

Oral administration of antibiotics reduced larval mortality due to B. thuringiensis in five of six species tested. These included Vanessa cardui (L.), Manduca sexta (L.), Pieris rapae (L.) and Heliothis virescens (F.) treated with a formulation composed of B. thuringiensis cells and toxins (DiPel), and Lymantria dispar (L.) treated with a cell-free formulation of B. thuringiensis toxin (MVPII). Antibiotics eliminated populations of gut bacteria below detectable levels in each of the insects, with the exception of H. virescens, which did not have detectable gut bacteria prior to treatment. Oral administration of the Gram-negative Enterobacter sp. NAB3, an indigenous gut resident of L. dispar, restored larval mortality in all four of the species in which antibiotics both reduced susceptibility to B. thuringiensis and eliminated gut bacteria, but not in H. virescens. In contrast, ingestion of B. thuringiensis toxin (MVPII) following antibiotic treatment significantly increased mortality of Pectinophora gossypiella (Saunders), which was also the only species with detectable gut bacteria that lacked a Gram-negative component. Further, mortality of P. gossypiella larvae reared on diet amended with B. thuringiensis toxin and Enterobacter sp. NAB3 was generally faster than with B. thuringiensis toxin alone.

Conclusion

This study demonstrates that in some larval species, indigenous gut bacteria contribute to B. thuringiensis susceptibility. Moreover, the contribution of enteric bacteria to host mortality suggests that perturbations caused by toxin feeding induce otherwise benign gut bacteria to exert pathogenic effects. The interaction between B. thuringiensis and the gut microbiota of Lepidoptera may provide a useful model with which to identify the factors involved in such transitions.

Effect of Bacillus thuringiensis naturally colonising Brassica campestris var. chinensis leaves on neonate larvae of Pieris brassicae

The feeding of neonate larvae of Pieris brassicae (Order Lepidoptera) on leaves of brassica plants that had been colonised by Bacillus thuringiensis resulted in the death of 35% of the population within 72h. The bacteria multiplied in the cadavers, resulting in an increase of about 50-fold compared to the living insects. Surviving insects showed no ill effects during the time of the study. There was negligible multiplication of B. thuringiensis in the frass.