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Sharma K, Chib S, Gupta A, Singh R, Chalotra R. Interplay between α-synuclein and parkin genes: Insights of Parkinson's disease. Mol Biol Rep 2024; 51:586. [PMID: 38683365 DOI: 10.1007/s11033-024-09520-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/25/2024] [Accepted: 04/03/2024] [Indexed: 05/01/2024]
Abstract
Parkinson's disease (PD) is a complex and debilitating neurodegenerative disorder characterized by the progressive loss of dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra. The pathogenesis of PD is intimately linked to the roles of two key molecular players, α-synuclein (α-syn) and Parkin. Understanding the intricate interplay between α-syn and Parkin is essential for unravelling the molecular underpinnings of PD. Their roles in synaptic function and protein quality control underscore their significance in neuronal health. Dysregulation of these processes, as seen in PD, highlights the potential for targeted therapeutic strategies aimed at restoring normal protein homeostasis and mitigating neurodegeneration. Investigating the connections between α-syn, Parkin, and various pathological mechanisms provides insights into the complex web of factors contributing to PD pathogenesis and offers hope for the development of more effective treatments for this devastating neurological disorder. The present compilation provides an overview of their structures, regional and cellular locations, associations, physiological functions, and pathological roles in the context of PD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kajal Sharma
- Department of Pharmacology, Central University of Punjab, Bathinda, 151401, India
| | - Shivani Chib
- Department of Pharmacology, Central University of Punjab, Bathinda, 151401, India
| | - Aniket Gupta
- Department of Pharmacology, Central University of Punjab, Bathinda, 151401, India
| | - Randhir Singh
- Department of Pharmacology, Central University of Punjab, Bathinda, 151401, India.
| | - Rishabh Chalotra
- Department of Pharmacology, Central University of Punjab, Bathinda, 151401, India
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2
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Tassinari V, La Rosa P, Guida E, Colopi A, Caratelli S, De Paolis F, Gallo A, Cenciarelli C, Sconocchia G, Dolci S, Cesarini V. Contribution of A-to-I RNA editing, M6A RNA Methylation, and Alternative Splicing to physiological brain aging and neurodegenerative diseases. Mech Ageing Dev 2023; 212:111807. [PMID: 37023929 DOI: 10.1016/j.mad.2023.111807] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/14/2023] [Revised: 03/31/2023] [Accepted: 04/03/2023] [Indexed: 04/08/2023]
Abstract
Aging is a physiological and progressive phenomenon in all organisms' life cycle, characterized by the accumulation of degenerative processes triggered by several alterations within molecular pathways. These changes compromise cell fate, resulting in the loss of functions in tissues throughout the body, including the brain. Physiological brain aging has been linked to structural and functional alterations, as well as to an increased risk of neurodegenerative diseases. Post-transcriptional RNA modifications modulate mRNA coding properties, stability, translatability, expanding the coding capacity of the genome, and are involved in all cellular processes. Among mRNA post-transcriptional modifications, the A-to-I RNA editing, m6A RNA Methylation and Alternative Splicing play a critical role in all the phases of a neuronal cell life cycle and alterations in their mechanisms of action significantly contribute to aging and neurodegeneration. Here we review our current understanding of the contribution of A-to-I RNA editing, m6A RNA Methylation, and Alternative Splicing to physiological brain aging process and neurodegenerative diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Valentina Tassinari
- Department of Molecular Medicine, Sapienza University of Rome, Rome, Italy; Department of Experimental Medicine, University of Rome Tor Vergata, Rome, Italy.
| | - Piergiorgio La Rosa
- Division of Neuroscience, Department of Psychology, Sapienza University of Rome, Rome, Italy; European Center for Brain Research, IRCCS Fondazione Santa Lucia, Rome, Italy
| | - Eugenia Guida
- Department of Biomedicine and Prevention, University of Rome Tor Vergata, Rome, Italy
| | - Ambra Colopi
- Department of Biomedicine and Prevention, University of Rome Tor Vergata, Rome, Italy
| | - Sara Caratelli
- Department of Biomedicine, Institute of Translational Pharmacology (IFT), National Research Council (CNR), Rome, Italy
| | - Francesca De Paolis
- Department of Biomedicine, Institute of Translational Pharmacology (IFT), National Research Council (CNR), Rome, Italy
| | - Angela Gallo
- RNA Editing Lab., Oncohaematology Department, Cellular and Gene Therapy Unit, Bambino Gesù Children's Hospital, IRCCS, Rome, Italy
| | - Carlo Cenciarelli
- Department of Biomedicine, Institute of Translational Pharmacology (IFT), National Research Council (CNR), Rome, Italy
| | - Giuseppe Sconocchia
- Department of Biomedicine, Institute of Translational Pharmacology (IFT), National Research Council (CNR), Rome, Italy
| | - Susanna Dolci
- Department of Biomedicine and Prevention, University of Rome Tor Vergata, Rome, Italy
| | - Valeriana Cesarini
- Department of Biomedicine, Institute of Translational Pharmacology (IFT), National Research Council (CNR), Rome, Italy.
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3
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Yoshino H, Li Y, Nishioka K, Daida K, Hayashida A, Ishiguro Y, Yamada D, Izawa N, Nishi K, Nishikawa N, Oyama G, Hatano T, Nakamura S, Yoritaka A, Motoi Y, Funayama M, Hattori N, the investigators of Japan Parkinson disease genetic study. Genotype-phenotype correlation of Parkinson's disease with PRKN variants. Neurobiol Aging 2022; 114:117-128. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neurobiolaging.2021.12.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/30/2021] [Revised: 12/26/2021] [Accepted: 12/31/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
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Song Y, Huang C, Sin J, Germano JDF, Taylor DJR, Thakur R, Gottlieb RA, Mentzer RM, Andres AM. Attenuation of Adverse Postinfarction Left Ventricular Remodeling with Empagliflozin Enhances Mitochondria-Linked Cellular Energetics and Mitochondrial Biogenesis. Int J Mol Sci 2021; 23:437. [PMID: 35008865 PMCID: PMC8745294 DOI: 10.3390/ijms23010437] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/04/2021] [Revised: 12/28/2021] [Accepted: 12/28/2021] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Sodium-glucose cotransporter 2 (SGLT2) inhibitors such as empagliflozin are known to reduce the risk of hospitalizations related to heart failure irrespective of diabetic state. Meanwhile, adverse cardiac remodeling remains the leading cause of heart failure and death in the USA. Thus, understanding the mechanisms that are responsible for the beneficial effects of SGLT2 inhibitors is of the utmost relevance and importance. Our previous work illustrated a connection between adverse cardiac remodeling and the regulation of mitochondrial turnover and cellular energetics using a short-acting glucagon-like peptide-1 receptor agonist (GLP1Ra). Here, we sought to determine if the mechanism of the SGLT2 inhibitor empagliflozin (EMPA) in ameliorating adverse remodeling was similar and/or to identify what differences exist, if any. To this end, we administered permanent coronary artery ligation to induce adverse remodeling in wild-type and Parkin knockout mice and examined the progression of adverse cardiac remodeling with or without EMPA treatment over time. Like GLP1Ra, we found that EMPA affords a robust attenuation of PCAL-induced adverse remodeling. Interestingly, unlike the GLP1Ra, EMPA does not require Parkin to improve/maintain mitochondria-related cellular energetics and afford its benefits against developing adverse remodeling. These findings suggests that further investigation of EMPA is warranted as a potential path for developing therapy against adverse cardiac remodeling for patients that may have Parkin and/or mitophagy-related deficiencies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yang Song
- Cedars-Sinai Medical Center, Los Angeles, CA 90048, USA; (Y.S.); (C.H.); (J.S.); (J.d.F.G.); (D.J.R.T.); (R.T.); (R.A.G.); (R.M.M.J.)
| | - Chengqun Huang
- Cedars-Sinai Medical Center, Los Angeles, CA 90048, USA; (Y.S.); (C.H.); (J.S.); (J.d.F.G.); (D.J.R.T.); (R.T.); (R.A.G.); (R.M.M.J.)
| | - Jon Sin
- Cedars-Sinai Medical Center, Los Angeles, CA 90048, USA; (Y.S.); (C.H.); (J.S.); (J.d.F.G.); (D.J.R.T.); (R.T.); (R.A.G.); (R.M.M.J.)
- University of Alabama, Birmingham, AL 35294, USA
| | - Juliana de F. Germano
- Cedars-Sinai Medical Center, Los Angeles, CA 90048, USA; (Y.S.); (C.H.); (J.S.); (J.d.F.G.); (D.J.R.T.); (R.T.); (R.A.G.); (R.M.M.J.)
| | - David J. R. Taylor
- Cedars-Sinai Medical Center, Los Angeles, CA 90048, USA; (Y.S.); (C.H.); (J.S.); (J.d.F.G.); (D.J.R.T.); (R.T.); (R.A.G.); (R.M.M.J.)
| | - Reetu Thakur
- Cedars-Sinai Medical Center, Los Angeles, CA 90048, USA; (Y.S.); (C.H.); (J.S.); (J.d.F.G.); (D.J.R.T.); (R.T.); (R.A.G.); (R.M.M.J.)
| | - Roberta A. Gottlieb
- Cedars-Sinai Medical Center, Los Angeles, CA 90048, USA; (Y.S.); (C.H.); (J.S.); (J.d.F.G.); (D.J.R.T.); (R.T.); (R.A.G.); (R.M.M.J.)
| | - Robert M. Mentzer
- Cedars-Sinai Medical Center, Los Angeles, CA 90048, USA; (Y.S.); (C.H.); (J.S.); (J.d.F.G.); (D.J.R.T.); (R.T.); (R.A.G.); (R.M.M.J.)
| | - Allen M. Andres
- Cedars-Sinai Medical Center, Los Angeles, CA 90048, USA; (Y.S.); (C.H.); (J.S.); (J.d.F.G.); (D.J.R.T.); (R.T.); (R.A.G.); (R.M.M.J.)
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5
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Bastioli G, Regoni M, Cazzaniga F, De Luca CMG, Bistaffa E, Zanetti L, Moda F, Valtorta F, Sassone J. Animal Models of Autosomal Recessive Parkinsonism. Biomedicines 2021; 9:biomedicines9070812. [PMID: 34356877 PMCID: PMC8301401 DOI: 10.3390/biomedicines9070812] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/25/2021] [Revised: 07/05/2021] [Accepted: 07/06/2021] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Parkinson’s disease (PD) is the most common neurodegenerative movement disorder. The neuropathological hallmark of the disease is the loss of dopamine neurons of the substantia nigra pars compacta. The clinical manifestations of PD are bradykinesia, rigidity, resting tremors and postural instability. PD patients often display non-motor symptoms such as depression, anxiety, weakness, sleep disturbances and cognitive disorders. Although, in 90% of cases, PD has a sporadic onset of unknown etiology, highly penetrant rare genetic mutations in many genes have been linked with typical familial PD. Understanding the mechanisms behind the DA neuron death in these Mendelian forms may help to illuminate the pathogenesis of DA neuron degeneration in the more common forms of PD. A key step in the identification of the molecular pathways underlying DA neuron death, and in the development of therapeutic strategies, is the creation and characterization of animal models that faithfully recapitulate the human disease. In this review, we outline the current status of PD modeling using mouse, rat and non-mammalian models, focusing on animal models for autosomal recessive PD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Guendalina Bastioli
- Division of Neuroscience, San Raffaele Scientific Institute, 20132 Milan, Italy; (G.B.); (M.R.); (L.Z.); (F.V.)
- Faculty of Medicine and Surgery, Vita-Salute San Raffaele University, 20132 Milan, Italy
| | - Maria Regoni
- Division of Neuroscience, San Raffaele Scientific Institute, 20132 Milan, Italy; (G.B.); (M.R.); (L.Z.); (F.V.)
- Faculty of Medicine and Surgery, Vita-Salute San Raffaele University, 20132 Milan, Italy
| | - Federico Cazzaniga
- Division of Neurology 5 and Neuropathology, Fondazione IRCCS Istituto Neurologico Carlo Besta, 20133 Milan, Italy; (F.C.); (C.M.G.D.L.); (E.B.); (F.M.)
| | - Chiara Maria Giulia De Luca
- Division of Neurology 5 and Neuropathology, Fondazione IRCCS Istituto Neurologico Carlo Besta, 20133 Milan, Italy; (F.C.); (C.M.G.D.L.); (E.B.); (F.M.)
- Laboratory of Prion Biology, Department of Neuroscience, Scuola Internazionale Superiore di Studi Avanzati, 34136 Trieste, Italy
| | - Edoardo Bistaffa
- Division of Neurology 5 and Neuropathology, Fondazione IRCCS Istituto Neurologico Carlo Besta, 20133 Milan, Italy; (F.C.); (C.M.G.D.L.); (E.B.); (F.M.)
| | - Letizia Zanetti
- Division of Neuroscience, San Raffaele Scientific Institute, 20132 Milan, Italy; (G.B.); (M.R.); (L.Z.); (F.V.)
- Faculty of Medicine and Surgery, Vita-Salute San Raffaele University, 20132 Milan, Italy
| | - Fabio Moda
- Division of Neurology 5 and Neuropathology, Fondazione IRCCS Istituto Neurologico Carlo Besta, 20133 Milan, Italy; (F.C.); (C.M.G.D.L.); (E.B.); (F.M.)
| | - Flavia Valtorta
- Division of Neuroscience, San Raffaele Scientific Institute, 20132 Milan, Italy; (G.B.); (M.R.); (L.Z.); (F.V.)
- Faculty of Medicine and Surgery, Vita-Salute San Raffaele University, 20132 Milan, Italy
| | - Jenny Sassone
- Division of Neuroscience, San Raffaele Scientific Institute, 20132 Milan, Italy; (G.B.); (M.R.); (L.Z.); (F.V.)
- Faculty of Medicine and Surgery, Vita-Salute San Raffaele University, 20132 Milan, Italy
- Correspondence:
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Gao LP, Xiao K, Wu YZ, Chen DD, Yang XH, Shi Q, Dong XP. Enhanced Mitophagy Activity in Prion-Infected Cultured Cells and Prion-Infected Experimental Mice via a Pink1/Parkin-Dependent Mitophagy Pathway. ACS Chem Neurosci 2020; 11:814-829. [PMID: 32049477 DOI: 10.1021/acschemneuro.0c00039] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Mitophagy is an important process for removing damaged mitochondria in cells, the dysfunction of which has been directly linked to an increasing number of neurodegenerative disorders. However, the details of mitophagy in prion diseases still need to be deeply explored. In this study, we identified more autophagosomes and large swelling mitochondria structures in the prion-infected cultured cell line SMB-S15 by transmission electron microscopy, accompanying the molecular evidence of activated autophagic flux. Western blots illustrated that the levels of Pink1 and Parkin, particularly in the mitochondrial fraction, were increased in SMB-S15 cells, whereas the levels of mitochondrial membrane proteins TIMM44, TOMM20, and TIMM23 were decreased. The amount of whole polyubiquitinated proteins decreased, but that of phosphor-polyubiquitinated proteins increased in SMB-S15 cells. The level of MFN2 in SMB-S15 cells were down-regulated, but its polyubiquitinated form was up-regulated. Knockdown of the expressions of Pink1 and Parkin by the individual SiRNAs in SMB-S15 cells reduced autophagic activity but did not seem to influence the expressions of TOMM20 and TIMM23. Moreover, we also demonstrated that the brain levels of Pink1 and Parkin in the mice infected with scrapie strains 139A and ME7 were remarkably increased at the terminal stage of the disease by Western blot and immunohistochemical (IHC) assays. Immunofluorescent assays revealed that Pink1 signals widely colocalized with GAFP-, Iba1-, and NeuN-positive cells in the brains of scrapie-infected mice. IHC assays with serial sections of the brain tissues infected with agents 139A and ME7 showed more Pink1- and Parkin-positive cells located at the areas with more PrPSc deposit. These results suggest an activated mitophagy in prion-infected cells and prion-infected experimental mice, probably via an enhanced Pink-Parkin pathway.
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Affiliation(s)
- Li-Ping Gao
- State Key Laboratory for Infectious Disease Prevention and Control, Collaborative Innovation Center for Diagnosis and Treatment of Infectious Diseases (Zhejiang University), National Institute for Viral Disease Control and Prevention, Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Chang-Bai Road 155, Beijing 102206, China
| | - Kang Xiao
- State Key Laboratory for Infectious Disease Prevention and Control, Collaborative Innovation Center for Diagnosis and Treatment of Infectious Diseases (Zhejiang University), National Institute for Viral Disease Control and Prevention, Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Chang-Bai Road 155, Beijing 102206, China
| | - Yue-Zhang Wu
- State Key Laboratory for Infectious Disease Prevention and Control, Collaborative Innovation Center for Diagnosis and Treatment of Infectious Diseases (Zhejiang University), National Institute for Viral Disease Control and Prevention, Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Chang-Bai Road 155, Beijing 102206, China
| | - Dong-Dong Chen
- State Key Laboratory for Infectious Disease Prevention and Control, Collaborative Innovation Center for Diagnosis and Treatment of Infectious Diseases (Zhejiang University), National Institute for Viral Disease Control and Prevention, Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Chang-Bai Road 155, Beijing 102206, China
| | - Xue-Hua Yang
- State Key Laboratory for Infectious Disease Prevention and Control, Collaborative Innovation Center for Diagnosis and Treatment of Infectious Diseases (Zhejiang University), National Institute for Viral Disease Control and Prevention, Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Chang-Bai Road 155, Beijing 102206, China
| | - Qi Shi
- State Key Laboratory for Infectious Disease Prevention and Control, Collaborative Innovation Center for Diagnosis and Treatment of Infectious Diseases (Zhejiang University), National Institute for Viral Disease Control and Prevention, Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Chang-Bai Road 155, Beijing 102206, China
- China Academy of Chinese Medical Sciences,
Dongzhimeinei, South Road 16, Beijing 100700, China
| | - Xiao-Ping Dong
- State Key Laboratory for Infectious Disease Prevention and Control, Collaborative Innovation Center for Diagnosis and Treatment of Infectious Diseases (Zhejiang University), National Institute for Viral Disease Control and Prevention, Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Chang-Bai Road 155, Beijing 102206, China
- Center for Global Public Health, Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Chang-Bai Road 155, Beijing 102206, China
- Center for Biosafety Mega-Science, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan 430071, China
- China Academy of Chinese Medical Sciences,
Dongzhimeinei, South Road 16, Beijing 100700, China
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D'Amico AG, Maugeri G, Reitano R, Cavallaro S, D'Agata V. Proteomic Analysis of Parkin Isoforms Expression in Different Rat Brain Areas. Protein J 2017; 35:354-362. [PMID: 27601173 DOI: 10.1007/s10930-016-9679-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
PARK2 gene's mutations are related to the familial form of juvenile Parkinsonism, also known as the autosomic recessive juvenile Parkinsonism. This gene encodes for parkin, a 465-amino acid protein. To date, a large number of parkin isoforms, generated by an alternative splicing mechanism, have been described. Currently, Gene Bank lists 27 rat PARK2 transcripts, which matches to 20 exclusive parkin alternative splice variants. Despite the existence of these isoforms, most of the studies carried out so far, have been focused only on the originally cloned parkin. In this work we have analyzed the expression profile of parkin isoforms in some rat brain areas including prefrontal cortex, hippocampus, substantia nigra and cerebellum. To discriminate among these isoforms, we detected their localization through the use of two antibodies that are able to identify different domains of the parkin canonical sequence. Our analysis has revealed that at least fourteen parkin isoforms are expressed in rat brain with a various distribution in the regions analyzed. Our study might help to elucidate the pathophysiological role of these proteins in the central nervous system.
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Affiliation(s)
- Agata Grazia D'Amico
- San Raffaele Open University of Rome, Rome, Italy.,Section of Human Anatomy and Histology, Department of Biomedical and Biotechnological Sciences, University of Catania, Via S.Sofia, 87, 95123, Catania, Italy
| | - Grazia Maugeri
- Section of Human Anatomy and Histology, Department of Biomedical and Biotechnological Sciences, University of Catania, Via S.Sofia, 87, 95123, Catania, Italy
| | - Rita Reitano
- Section of Human Anatomy and Histology, Department of Biomedical and Biotechnological Sciences, University of Catania, Via S.Sofia, 87, 95123, Catania, Italy
| | - Sebastiano Cavallaro
- Institute of Neurological Sciences, Italian National Research Council, Catania, Italy
| | - Velia D'Agata
- Section of Human Anatomy and Histology, Department of Biomedical and Biotechnological Sciences, University of Catania, Via S.Sofia, 87, 95123, Catania, Italy.
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Parkin and mitophagy in cancer. Oncogene 2016; 36:1315-1327. [PMID: 27593930 DOI: 10.1038/onc.2016.302] [Citation(s) in RCA: 192] [Impact Index Per Article: 24.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/16/2016] [Revised: 07/04/2016] [Accepted: 07/04/2016] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Mitophagy, the selective engulfment and clearance of mitochondria, is essential for the homeostasis of a healthy network of functioning mitochondria and prevents excessive production of cytotoxic reactive oxygen species from damaged mitochondria. The mitochondrially targeted PTEN-induced kinase-1 (PINK1) and the E3 ubiquitin ligase Parkin are well-established synergistic mediators of the mitophagy of dysfunctional mitochondria. This pathway relies on the ubiquitination of a number of mitochondrial outer membrane substrates and subsequent docking of autophagy receptor proteins to selectively clear mitochondria. There are also alternate Parkin-independent mitophagy pathways mediated by BCL2/adenovirus E1B 19 kDa protein-interacting protein 3 and Nip-3 like protein X as well as other effectors. There is increasing evidence that ablation of mitophagy accelerates a number of pathologies. Familial Parkinsonism is associated with loss-of-function mutations in PINK1 and Parkin. A growing number of studies have observed a correlation between impaired Parkin activity and enhanced cancer development, leading to the emerging concept that Parkin activity, or mitophagy in general, is a tumour suppression mechanism. This review examines the molecular mechanisms of mitophagy and highlights the potential links between Parkin and the hallmarks of cancer that may influence tumour development and progression.
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MAUGERI GRAZIA, D'AMICO AGATAGRAZIA, MAGRO GAETANO, SALVATORELLI LUCIA, BARBAGALLO GIUSEPPEM, SACCONE SALVATORE, DRAGO FILIPPO, CAVALLARO SEBASTIANO, D'AGATA VELIA. Expression profile of parkin isoforms in human gliomas. Int J Oncol 2015; 47:1282-92. [DOI: 10.3892/ijo.2015.3105] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/16/2015] [Accepted: 03/12/2015] [Indexed: 11/05/2022] Open
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10
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Splicing: is there an alternative contribution to Parkinson's disease? Neurogenetics 2015; 16:245-63. [PMID: 25980689 PMCID: PMC4573652 DOI: 10.1007/s10048-015-0449-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/08/2015] [Accepted: 05/04/2015] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Alternative splicing is a crucial mechanism of gene expression regulation that enormously increases the coding potential of our genome and represents an intermediate step between messenger RNA (mRNA) transcription and protein posttranslational modifications. Alternative splicing occupies a central position in the development and functions of the nervous system. Therefore, its deregulation frequently leads to several neurological human disorders. In the present review, we provide an updated overview on the impact of alternative splicing in Parkinson's disease (PD), the second most common neurodegenerative disorder worldwide. We will describe the alternative splicing of major PD-linked genes by collecting the current evidences about this intricate and not carefully explored aspect. Assessing the role of this mechanism on PD pathobiology may represent a central step toward an improved understanding of this complex disease.
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11
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Bai X, Kim TI, Lee JY, Dai F, Hong SJ. Identification and molecular characterization of Parkin in Clonorchis sinensis. THE KOREAN JOURNAL OF PARASITOLOGY 2015; 53:65-75. [PMID: 25748711 PMCID: PMC4384794 DOI: 10.3347/kjp.2015.53.1.65] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/28/2014] [Revised: 11/18/2014] [Accepted: 12/06/2014] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
Clonorchis sinensis habitating in the bile duct of mammals causes clonorchiasis endemic in East Asian countries. Parkin is a RING-between-RING protein and has E3-ubiquitin ligase activity catalyzing ubiquitination and degradation of substrate proteins. A cDNA clone of C. sinensis was predicted to encode a polypeptide homologous to parkin (CsParkin) including 5 domains (Ubl, RING0, RING1, IBR, and RING2). The cysteine and histidine residues binding to Zn(2+) were all conserved and participated in formation of tertiary structural RINGs. Conserved residues were also an E2-binding site in RING1 domain and a catalytic cysteine residue in the RING2 domain. Native CsParkin was determined to have an estimated molecular weight of 45.7 kDa from C. sinensis adults by immunoblotting. CsParkin revealed E3-ubiquitin ligase activity and higher expression in metacercariae than in adults. CsParkin was localized in the locomotive and male reproductive organs of C. sinensis adults, and extensively in metacercariae. Parkin has been found to participate in regulating mitochondrial function and energy metabolism in mammalian cells. From these results, it is suggested that CsParkin play roles in energy metabolism of the locomotive organs, and possibly in protein metabolism of the reproductive organs of C. sinensis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xuelian Bai
- Department of Medical Environmental Biology, Chung-Ang University College of Medicine, Seoul 156-756, Korea
| | - Tae Im Kim
- Department of Medical Environmental Biology, Chung-Ang University College of Medicine, Seoul 156-756, Korea
| | - Ji-Yun Lee
- Department of Medical Environmental Biology, Chung-Ang University College of Medicine, Seoul 156-756, Korea
| | - Fuhong Dai
- Department of Medical Environmental Biology, Chung-Ang University College of Medicine, Seoul 156-756, Korea
| | - Sung-Jong Hong
- Department of Medical Environmental Biology, Chung-Ang University College of Medicine, Seoul 156-756, Korea
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12
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D’Amico AG, Maugeri G, Magro G, Salvatorelli L, Drago F, D’Agata V. Expression pattern of parkin isoforms in lung adenocarcinomas. Tumour Biol 2015; 36:5133-41. [DOI: 10.1007/s13277-015-3166-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/17/2014] [Accepted: 01/26/2015] [Indexed: 10/24/2022] Open
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13
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14
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Domingos J, Coelho T, Taipa R, Basto JP, Melo-Pires M, Magalhães MJ. PARK2 presenting as a disabling peripheral axonal neuropathy. Neurol Sci 2014; 36:341-3. [PMID: 25060649 DOI: 10.1007/s10072-014-1898-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/23/2014] [Accepted: 07/16/2014] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Joana Domingos
- Department of Neurology, Centro Hospitalar do Porto, Hospital de Santo António, Largo Prof. Abel Salazar, 4099-001, Porto, Portugal,
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15
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Alternative splicing generates different parkin protein isoforms: evidences in human, rat, and mouse brain. BIOMED RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2014; 2014:690796. [PMID: 25136611 PMCID: PMC4124806 DOI: 10.1155/2014/690796] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/09/2014] [Accepted: 06/30/2014] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Parkinson protein 2, E3 ubiquitin protein ligase (PARK2) gene mutations are the most frequent causes of autosomal recessive early onset Parkinson's disease and juvenile Parkinson disease. Parkin deficiency has also been linked to other human pathologies, for example, sporadic Parkinson disease, Alzheimer disease, autism, and cancer. PARK2 primary transcript undergoes an extensive alternative splicing, which enhances transcriptomic diversification. To date several PARK2 splice variants have been identified; however, the expression and distribution of parkin isoforms have not been deeply investigated yet. Here, the currently known PARK2 gene transcripts and relative predicted encoded proteins in human, rat, and mouse are reviewed. By analyzing the literature, we highlight the existing data showing the presence of multiple parkin isoforms in the brain. Their expression emerges from conflicting results regarding the electrophoretic mobility of the protein, but it is also assumed from discrepant observations on the cellular and tissue distribution of parkin. Although the characterization of each predicted isoforms is complex, since they often diverge only for few amino acids, analysis of their expression patterns in the brain might account for the different pathogenetic effects linked to PARK2 gene mutations.
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16
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La Cognata V, Iemmolo R, D'Agata V, Scuderi S, Drago F, Zappia M, Cavallaro S. Increasing the Coding Potential of Genomes Through Alternative Splicing: The Case of PARK2 Gene. Curr Genomics 2014; 15:203-16. [PMID: 24955028 PMCID: PMC4064560 DOI: 10.2174/1389202915666140426003342] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/01/2014] [Revised: 04/05/2014] [Accepted: 04/23/2014] [Indexed: 01/28/2023] Open
Abstract
The completion of the Human Genome Project aroused renewed interest in alternative splicing, an efficient and widespread mechanism that generates multiple protein isoforms from individual genes. Although our knowledge about alternative splicing is growing exponentially, its real impact on cellular life is still to be clarified. Connecting all splicing features (genes, splice transcripts, isoforms, and relative functions) may be useful to resolve this tangle. Herein, we will start from the case of a single gene, Parkinson protein 2, E3 ubiquitin protein ligase (PARK2), one of the largest in our genome. This gene is implicated in the pathogenesis of autosomal recessive juvenile Parkinsonism and it has been recently linked to cancer, leprosy, autism, type 2 diabetes mellitus and Alzheimer’s disease. PARK2 primary transcript undergoes an extensive alternative splicing, which enhances transcriptomic diversification and protein diversity in tissues and cells. This review will provide an update of all human PARK2 alternative splice transcripts and isoforms presently known, and correlate them to those in rat and mouse, two common animal models for studying human disease genes. Alternative splicing relies upon a complex process that could be easily altered by both cis and trans-acting mutations. Although the contribution of PARK2 splicing in human disease remains to be fully explored, some evidences show disruption of this versatile form of genetic regulation may have pathological consequences.
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Affiliation(s)
- Valentina La Cognata
- 1Functional Genomics Center, Institute of Neurological Sciences, Italian National Research Council, Via Paolo Gaifami 18, 95125, Catania, Italy
| | - Rosario Iemmolo
- 1Functional Genomics Center, Institute of Neurological Sciences, Italian National Research Council, Via Paolo Gaifami 18, 95125, Catania, Italy
| | - Velia D'Agata
- 2Department of Bio-Medical Sciences, Section of Anatomy and Histology, University of Catania, Italy
| | - Soraya Scuderi
- 2Department of Bio-Medical Sciences, Section of Anatomy and Histology, University of Catania, Italy
| | - Filippo Drago
- 3Department of Clinical and Molecular Biomedicine, Section of Pharmacology and Biochemistry, University of Catania, Italy
| | - Mario Zappia
- 4Department "G.F. Ingrassia", Section of Neuroscience, University of Catania, Italy
| | - Sebastiano Cavallaro
- 1Functional Genomics Center, Institute of Neurological Sciences, Italian National Research Council, Via Paolo Gaifami 18, 95125, Catania, Italy
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17
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Abstract
Parkinson's disease (PD) is one of the most common degenerative disorders of the central nervous system that produces motor and non-motor symptoms. The majority of cases are idiopathic and characterized by the presence of Lewy bodies containing fibrillar α-synuclein. Small ubiquitin-related modifier (SUMO) immunoreactivity was observed among others in cases with PD. Key disease-associated proteins are SUMO-modified, linking this posttranslational modification to neurodegeneration. SUMOylation and SUMO-mediated mechanisms have been intensively studied in recent years, revealing nuclear and extranuclear functions for SUMO in a variety of cellular processes, including the regulation of transcriptional activity, modulation of signal transduction pathways, and response to cellular stress. This points to a role for SUMO more than just an antagonist to ubiquitin and proteasomal degradation. The identification of risk and age-at-onset gene loci was a breakthrough in PD and promoted the understanding of molecular mechanisms in the pathology. PD has been increasingly linked with mitochondrial dysfunction and impaired mitochondrial quality control. Interestingly, SUMO is involved in many of these processes and up-regulated in response to cellular stress, further emphasizing the importance of SUMOylation in physiology and disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katrin Eckermann
- Department of Neurology, University Medical Center Goettingen, Waldweg 33, 37073, Goettingen, Germany,
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18
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Mullin S, Schapira A. α-Synuclein and mitochondrial dysfunction in Parkinson's disease. Mol Neurobiol 2013; 47:587-97. [PMID: 23361255 DOI: 10.1007/s12035-013-8394-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 107] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/09/2012] [Accepted: 01/02/2013] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
α-Synuclein (SNCA) is a substantive component of Lewy bodies, the pathological hallmark of Parkinson's disease (PD). The discovery and subsequent derivation of its role in PD has led to a suprising but fruitful convergence of the fields of biochemistry and molecular genetics. In particular, the manipulation of the cell lines of a number of forms of familial PD has implicated SNCA in distinct and diverse biochemical pathways related to its pathogenesis. This current and rapidly evolving concept indicates PD is a disease in which interacting pathways of oxidative stress, mitochondrial dysfunction and impaired regulation of protein turnover interact to cause dopaminergic cell dysfunction and death. SNCA has a central role in these processes and manipulation of its expression, degradation and aggregation appear to be promising neuroprotective therapeutic targets.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stephen Mullin
- Department of Clinical Neurosciences, UCL, Institute of Neurology, Royal Free Campus, Pond Street, London NW3 2QG, UK.
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19
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Cajee UF, Hull R, Ntwasa M. Modification by ubiquitin-like proteins: significance in apoptosis and autophagy pathways. Int J Mol Sci 2012; 13:11804-11831. [PMID: 23109884 PMCID: PMC3472776 DOI: 10.3390/ijms130911804] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/28/2012] [Revised: 09/11/2012] [Accepted: 09/13/2012] [Indexed: 01/31/2023] Open
Abstract
Ubiquitin-like proteins (Ubls) confer diverse functions on their target proteins. The modified proteins are involved in various biological processes, including DNA replication, signal transduction, cell cycle control, embryogenesis, cytoskeletal regulation, metabolism, stress response, homeostasis and mRNA processing. Modifiers such as SUMO, ATG12, ISG15, FAT10, URM1, and UFM have been shown to modify proteins thus conferring functions related to programmed cell death, autophagy and regulation of the immune system. Putative modifiers such as Domain With No Name (DWNN) have been identified in recent times but not fully characterized. In this review, we focus on cellular processes involving human Ubls and their targets. We review current progress in targeting these modifiers for drug design strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Umar-Faruq Cajee
- School of Molecular & Cell Biology, Gatehouse 512, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, 2050, South Africa; E-Mails: (U.-F.C.); (R.H.)
| | - Rodney Hull
- School of Molecular & Cell Biology, Gatehouse 512, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, 2050, South Africa; E-Mails: (U.-F.C.); (R.H.)
| | - Monde Ntwasa
- School of Molecular & Cell Biology, Gatehouse 512, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, 2050, South Africa; E-Mails: (U.-F.C.); (R.H.)
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20
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Janda E, Isidoro C, Carresi C, Mollace V. Defective autophagy in Parkinson's disease: role of oxidative stress. Mol Neurobiol 2012; 46:639-61. [PMID: 22899187 DOI: 10.1007/s12035-012-8318-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 101] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/05/2012] [Accepted: 07/30/2012] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Parkinson's disease (PD) is a paradigmatic example of neurodegenerative disorder with a critical role of oxidative stress in its etiopathogenesis. Genetic susceptibility factors of PD, such as mutations in Parkin, PTEN-induced kinase 1, and DJ-1 as well as the exposure to pesticides and heavy metals, both contribute to altered redox balance and degeneration of dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra. Dysregulation of autophagy, a lysosomal-driven process of self degradation of cellular organelles and protein aggregates, is also implicated in PD and PD-related mutations, and environmental toxins deregulate autophagy. However, experimental evidence suggests a complex and ambiguous role of autophagy in PD since either impaired or abnormally upregulated autophagic flux has been shown to cause neuronal loss. Finally, it is generally believed that oxidative stress is a strong proautophagic stimulus. However, some evidence coming from neurobiology as well as from other fields indicate an inhibitory role of reactive oxygen species and reactive nitrogen species on the autophagic machinery. This review examines the scientific evidence supporting different concepts on how autophagy is dysregulated in PD and attempts to reconcile apparently contradictory views on the role of oxidative stress in autophagy regulation. The complex relationship between autophagy and oxidative stress is also considered in the context of the ongoing search for a novel PD therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elzbieta Janda
- Department of Health Sciences, University Magna Graecia, Edificio Bioscienze, viale Europa, Campus Salvatore Venuta, Germaneto, 88100 Catanzaro, Italy.
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21
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Huang C, Andres AM, Ratliff EP, Hernandez G, Lee P, Gottlieb RA. Preconditioning involves selective mitophagy mediated by Parkin and p62/SQSTM1. PLoS One 2011; 6:e20975. [PMID: 21687634 PMCID: PMC3110820 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0020975] [Citation(s) in RCA: 252] [Impact Index Per Article: 19.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/11/2011] [Accepted: 05/16/2011] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Autophagy-dependent mitochondrial turnover in response to cellular stress is necessary for maintaining cellular homeostasis. However, the mechanisms that govern the selective targeting of damaged mitochondria are poorly understood. Parkin, an E3 ubiquitin ligase, has been shown to be essential for the selective clearance of damaged mitochondria. Parkin is expressed in the heart, yet its function has not been investigated in the context of cardioprotection. We previously reported that autophagy is required for cardioprotection by ischemic preconditioning (IPC). In the present study, we used simulated ischemia (sI) in vitro and IPC of hearts to investigate the role of Parkin in mediating cardioprotection ex vivo and in vivo. In HL-1 cells, sI induced Parkin translocation to mitochondria and mitochondrial elimination. IPC induced Parkin translocation to mitochondria in Langendorff-perfused rat hearts and in vivo in mice subjected to regional IPC. Mitochondrial depolarization with an uncoupling agent similarly induced Parkin translocation to mitochondria in cells and Langendorff-perfused rat hearts. Mitochondrial loss was blunted in Atg5-deficient cells, revealing the requirement for autophagy in mitochondrial elimination. Consistent with previous reports indicating a role for p62/SQSTM1 in mitophagy, we found that depletion of p62 attenuated mitophagy and exacerbated cell death in HL-1 cardiomyocytes subjected to sI. While wild type mice showed p62 translocation to mitochondria and an increase in ubiquitination, Parkin knockout mice exhibited attenuated IPC-induced p62 translocation to the mitochondria. Importantly, ablation of Parkin in mice abolished the cardioprotective effects of IPC. These results reveal for the first time the crucial role of Parkin and mitophagy in cardioprotection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chengqun Huang
- The BioScience Center, San Diego State University, San Diego, California, United States of America
| | - Allen M. Andres
- The BioScience Center, San Diego State University, San Diego, California, United States of America
| | - Eric P. Ratliff
- The BioScience Center, San Diego State University, San Diego, California, United States of America
| | - Genaro Hernandez
- The BioScience Center, San Diego State University, San Diego, California, United States of America
| | - Pamela Lee
- The BioScience Center, San Diego State University, San Diego, California, United States of America
| | - Roberta A. Gottlieb
- The BioScience Center, San Diego State University, San Diego, California, United States of America
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22
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Abstract
The ubiquitin/proteasome pathway is the major proteolytic quality control system in cells. In this review we discuss the impact of a deregulation of this pathway on neuronal function and its causal relationship to the intracellular deposition of ubiquitin protein conjugates in pathological inclusion bodies in all the major chronic neurodegenerative disorders, such as Alzheimer's, Parkinson's and Huntington's diseases as well as amyotrophic lateral sclerosis. We describe the intricate nature of the ubiquitin/proteasome pathway and discuss the paradox of protein aggregation, i.e. its potential toxic/protective effect in neurodegeneration. The relations between some of the dysfunctional components of the pathway and neurodegeneration are presented. We highlight possible ubiquitin/proteasome pathway-targeting therapeutic approaches, such as activating the proteasome, enhancing ubiquitination and promoting SUMOylation that might be important to slow/treat the progression of neurodegeneration. Finally, a model time line is presented for neurodegeneration starting at the initial injurious events up to protein aggregation and cell death, with potential time points for therapeutic intervention.
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23
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Meyer KJ, Davis LK, Schindler EI, Beck JS, Rudd DS, Grundstad AJ, Scheetz TE, Braun TA, Fingert JH, Alward WL, Kwon YH, Folk JC, Russell SR, Wassink TH, Stone EM, Sheffield VC. Genome-wide analysis of copy number variants in age-related macular degeneration. Hum Genet 2010; 129:91-100. [PMID: 20981449 DOI: 10.1007/s00439-010-0904-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/15/2010] [Accepted: 10/17/2010] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Abstract
Age-related macular degeneration (AMD) is a complex genetic disease, with many loci demonstrating appreciable attributable disease risk. Despite significant progress toward understanding the genetic and environmental etiology of AMD, identification of additional risk factors is necessary to fully appreciate and treat AMD pathology. In this study, we investigated copy number variants (CNVs) as potential AMD risk variants in a cohort of 400 AMD patients and 500 AMD-free controls ascertained at the University of Iowa. We used three publicly available copy number programs to analyze signal intensity data from Affymetrix GeneChip SNP Microarrays. CNVs were ranked based on prevalence in the disease cohort and absence from the control group; high interest CNVs were subsequently confirmed by qPCR. While we did not observe a single-locus "risk CNV" that could account for a major fraction of AMD, we identified several rare and overlapping CNVs containing or flanking compelling candidate genes such as NPHP1 and EFEMP1. These and other candidate genes highlighted by this study deserve further scrutiny as sources of genetic risk for AMD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kacie J Meyer
- Interdisciplinary Genetics Program, University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA 52242, USA
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24
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Ramsey CP, Giasson BI. Identification and characterization of a novel endogenous murine parkin mutation. J Neurochem 2010; 113:402-17. [PMID: 20089136 DOI: 10.1111/j.1471-4159.2010.06605.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Various mutations in the PARK2 gene which encodes the protein, parkin, are causal of a disease entity-termed autosomal recessive juvenile parkinsonism. Parkin can function as an E3 ubiquitin-protein ligase, mediating the ubiquitination of specific targeted proteins and resulting in proteasomal degradation. Parkin is thought to lead to parkinsonism as a consequence of a loss in its function. In this study, immunoblot analyses of brain extracts from Balb/c, C57BL/6, C3H, and 129S mouse strains demonstrated significant variations in immunoreactivity with anti-parkin monoclonal antibodies (PRK8, PRK28, and PRK109). This resulted partly from differences in the steady-state levels of parkin protein across mouse strains. There was also a complete loss of immunoreactivity for PRK8 and PRK28 antibodies in C3H mice due to was because of a homologous nucleotide mutation resulting in an E398Q amino acid substitution. In cultured cells, parkin harboring this mutation had a greater tendency to aggregate, exhibited reduced interaction with the E2 ubiquitin-conjugating enzymes, UbcH7 and UbcH8, and demonstrated loss-of-function in promoting the proteosomal degradation of a specific putative substrate, synphilin-1. In situ, C3H mice displayed age-dependent increased levels of brain cortical synphilin-1 compared with C57BL/6, suggesting that E398Q parkin in these mice is functionally impaired and that C3H mice may be a suitable model of parkin loss-of-function similar to patients with missense mutations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chenere P Ramsey
- Department of Pharmacology, University of Pennsylvania School of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA 19104-6084, USA
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25
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Veeriah S, Taylor BS, Meng S, Fang F, Yilmaz E, Vivanco I, Janakiraman M, Schultz N, Hanrahan AJ, Pao W, Ladanyi M, Sander C, Heguy A, Holland EC, Paty PB, Mischel PS, Liau L, Cloughesy TF, Mellinghoff IK, Solit DB, Chan TA. Somatic mutations of the Parkinson's disease-associated gene PARK2 in glioblastoma and other human malignancies. Nat Genet 2009; 42:77-82. [PMID: 19946270 DOI: 10.1038/ng.491] [Citation(s) in RCA: 297] [Impact Index Per Article: 19.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/21/2009] [Accepted: 10/23/2009] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Mutation of the gene PARK2, which encodes an E3 ubiquitin ligase, is the most common cause of early-onset Parkinson's disease. In a search for multisite tumor suppressors, we identified PARK2 as a frequently targeted gene on chromosome 6q25.2-q27 in cancer. Here we describe inactivating somatic mutations and frequent intragenic deletions of PARK2 in human malignancies. The PARK2 mutations in cancer occur in the same domains, and sometimes at the same residues, as the germline mutations causing familial Parkinson's disease. Cancer-specific mutations abrogate the growth-suppressive effects of the PARK2 protein. PARK2 mutations in cancer decrease PARK2's E3 ligase activity, compromising its ability to ubiquitinate cyclin E and resulting in mitotic instability. These data strongly point to PARK2 as a tumor suppressor on 6q25.2-q27. Thus, PARK2, a gene that causes neuronal dysfunction when mutated in the germline, may instead contribute to oncogenesis when altered in non-neuronal somatic cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Selvaraju Veeriah
- Human Oncology and Pathogenesis Program, Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center, New York, New York, USA
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26
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Stichel CC, Augustin M, Kühn K, Zhu XR, Engels P, Ullmer C, Lübbert H. Parkin expression in the adult mouse brain. Eur J Neurosci 2008. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1460-9568.2000.01314.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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27
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Rodríguez-Navarro JA, Gómez A, Rodal I, Perucho J, Martinez A, Furió V, Ampuero I, Casarejos MJ, Solano RM, de Yébenes JG, Mena MA. Parkin deletion causes cerebral and systemic amyloidosis in human mutated tau over-expressing mice. Hum Mol Genet 2008; 17:3128-43. [PMID: 18640988 DOI: 10.1093/hmg/ddn210] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Deposition of proteins leading to amyloid takes place in some neurodegenerative diseases such as Alzheimer's disease and Huntington's disease. Mutations of tau and parkin proteins produce neurofibrillary abnormalities without deposition of amyloid. Here we report that mature, parkin null, over-expressing human mutated tau (PK(-/-)/Tau(VLW)) mice have altered behaviour and dopamine neurotransmission, tau pathology in brain and amyloid deposition in brain and peripheral organs. PK(-/-)/Tau(VLW) mice have abnormal behaviour and severe drop out of dopamine neurons in the ventral midbrain, up to 70%, at 12 months and abundant phosphorylated tau positive neuritic plaques, neuro-fibrillary tangles, astrogliosis, microgliosis and plaques of murine beta-amyloid in the hippocampus. PK(-/-)/Tau(VLW) mice have organomegaly of the liver, spleen and kidneys. The electron microscopy of the liver confirmed the presence of a fibrillary protein deposits with amyloid characteristics. There is also accumulation of mouse tau in hepatocytes. These mice have lower levels of CHIP-HSP70, involved in the proteosomal degradation of tau, increased oxidative stress, measured as depletion of glutathione which, added to lack of parkin, could trigger tau accumulation and amyloidogenesis. This model is the first that demonstrates beta-amyloid deposits caused by over-expression of tau and without modification of the amyloid precursor protein, presenilins or secretases. PK(-/-)/Tau(VLW) mice provide a link between the two proteins more important for the pathogenesis of Alzheimer disease.
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28
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D'Agata V, Tiralongo A, Castorina A, Leggio GM, Micale V, Carnazza ML, Drago F. Parkin expression profile in dopamine d3 receptor knock-out mice brains. Neurochem Res 2008; 34:327-32. [PMID: 18612813 DOI: 10.1007/s11064-008-9781-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/10/2008] [Accepted: 06/10/2008] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Patients affected by autosomic recessive juvenile parkinsonism (ARJP) exhibit parkin gene mutations with brain decrease in dopamine D2/D3 binding sites. To date, there are no data indicating whether the reduction in dopamine D3 receptors (DRD3) may be associated with the expression of specific parkin variants. In the present study we investigated parkin expression profile in DRD3 knock-out mice brains. RT-PCR analysis was performed to assess qualitative changes in parkin isoforms' distribution pattern and in exons' expression both in wild type controls and dopamine D3 receptor's knock-out mice. Real-time PCR was performed to quantify single exons mRNA. Results demonstrated that exons 1, 2, 4, 6, 7, 8, were more expressed in wild type compared to dopamine D3 receptor KO mice brains while some other (3, 9, 10) were lower expressed. The expression levels of exons 5, 11 and 12 did not change in both animal groups. Our analysis was confirmed by western blot, which showed that parkin protein levels were influenced by the absence of DRD3.
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Affiliation(s)
- Velia D'Agata
- Department of Anatomy, Diagnostic Pathology, Legal Medicine, Hygiene and Public Health, University of Catania Medical School, Via S. Sofia, 87, 95123, Catania, Italy.
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29
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Tomoo K, Mukai Y, In Y, Miyagawa H, Kitamura K, Yamano A, Shindo H, Ishida T. Crystal structure and molecular dynamics simulation of ubiquitin-like domain of murine parkin. BIOCHIMICA ET BIOPHYSICA ACTA-PROTEINS AND PROTEOMICS 2008; 1784:1059-67. [PMID: 18485927 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbapap.2008.04.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/22/2007] [Revised: 03/22/2008] [Accepted: 04/08/2008] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Parkin is the gene product identified as the major cause of autosomal recessive juvenile Parkinsonism (AR-JP). Parkin, a ubiquitin ligase E3, contains a unique ubiquitin-like domain in its N-terminus designated Uld which is assumed to be a interaction domain with the Rpn 10 subunit of 26S proteasome. To elucidate the structural and functional role of Uld in parkin at the atomic level, the X-ray crystal structure of murine Uld was determined and a molecular dynamics simulation of wild Uld and its five mutants (K27N, R33Q, R42P, K48A and V56E) identified from AR-JP patients was performed. Murine Uld consists of two alpha helices [Ile23-Arg33 (alpha1) and Val56-Gln57 (alpha2)] and five beta strands [Met1-Phe7 (beta1), Tyr11-Asp18 (beta2), Leu41-Phe45 (beta3), Lys48-Pro51 (beta4) and Ser65-Arg72 (beta5)] and its overall structure is essentially the same as that of human ubiquitin with a 1.22 A rmsd for the backbone atoms of residues 1-76; however, the sequential identity and similarity between both molecules are 32% and 63%, respectively. This close resemblance is due to the core structure built by same hydrogen bond formations between and within the backbone chains of alpha1 and beta1/2/5 secondary structure elements and by nearly the same hydrophobic interactions formed between the nonpolar amino acids of their secondary structures. The side chain NetaH of Lys27 on the alpha1 helix was crucial to the stabilization of the spatial orientations of beta3 and beta4 strands, possible binding region with Rpn 10 subunit, through three hydrogen bonds. The MD simulations showed the K27N and R33Q mutations increase the structural fluctuation of these beta strands including the alpha1 helix. Reversely, the V56E mutant restricted the spatial flexibility at the periphery of the short alpha2 helix by the interactions between the polar atoms of Glu56 and Ser19 residues. However, a large fluctuation of beta4 strand with respect to beta5 strand was induced in the R42P mutant, because of the impossibility of forming paired hydrogen bonds of Pro for Arg42 in wild Uld. The X-ray structure showed that the side chains of Asp39, Gln40 and Arg42 at the N-terminal periphery of beta3 strand protrude from the molecular surface of Uld and participate in hydrogen bonds with the polar residues of neighboring Ulds. Thus, the MD simulation suggests that the mutation substitution of Pro for Arg42 not only causes the large fluctuation of beta3 strand in the Uld but also leads to the loss of the ability of Uld to trap the Rpn 10 subunit. In contrast, the MD simulation of K48A mutant showed little influence on the beta3-beta4 loop structure, but a large fluctuation of Lys48 side chain, suggesting the importance of flexibility of this side chain for the interaction with the Rpn 10 subunit. The present results would be important in elucidating the impaired proteasomal binding mechanism of parkin in AR-JP.
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Affiliation(s)
- Koji Tomoo
- Department of Physical Chemistry, Osaka University of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Takatsuki, Osaka 569-1094, Japan.
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30
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Abstract
An overview of the large and functionally diverse RBR protein family that mediates protein-protein interactions of various kinds in development and disease. Summary Proteins of the ring between ring fingers (RBR)-domain family are characterized by three groups of specifically clustered (typically eight) cysteine and histidine residues. Whereas the amino-terminal ring domain (N-RING) binds two zinc ions and folds into a classical cross-brace ring finger, the carboxy-terminal ring domain (C-RING) involves only one zinc ion. The three-dimensional structure of the central ring domain, the IBR domain, is still unsolved. About 400 genes coding for RBR proteins have been identified in the genomes of uni- and multicellular eukaryotes and some of their viruses, but the family has not been found in archaea or bacteria. The RBR proteins are classified into 15 major subfamilies (besides some orphan cases) by the phylogenetic relationships of the RBR segments and the conservation of their sequence architecture. The RBR domain mediates protein-protein interactions and a subset of RBR proteins has been shown to function as E3 ubiquitin ligases. RBR proteins have attracted interest because of their involvement in diseases such as parkinsonism, dementia with Lewy bodies, and Alzheimer's disease, and in susceptibility to some intracellular bacterial pathogens. Here, we present an overview of the RBR-domain containing proteins and their subcellular localization, additional domains, function, specificity, and regulation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Birgit Eisenhaber
- Research Institute of Molecular Pathology (IMP), Dr Bohr-Gasse, A-1030 Vienna, Austria
| | - Nina Chumak
- Institute of Applied Genetics and Cell Biology, Department of Plant Science and Plant Biotechnology, University of Natural Resources and Applied Life Sciences, Muthgasse, A-1190 Vienna, Austria
| | - Frank Eisenhaber
- Research Institute of Molecular Pathology (IMP), Dr Bohr-Gasse, A-1030 Vienna, Austria
| | - Marie-Theres Hauser
- Institute of Applied Genetics and Cell Biology, Department of Plant Science and Plant Biotechnology, University of Natural Resources and Applied Life Sciences, Muthgasse, A-1190 Vienna, Austria
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Del Sorbo F, Elia AE, De Joanna G, Romito LM, Garavaglia B, Albanese A. Normal cardiovascular reflex testing in patients withparkin disease. Mov Disord 2007; 22:528-32. [PMID: 17230469 DOI: 10.1002/mds.21307] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022] Open
Abstract
The objective of this study was to investigate cardiovascular autonomic function in patients with parkin disease. Ten patients with a genetically confirmed diagnosis were compared to 11 healthy controls. Symptoms related to autonomic dysfunction were collected by structured interviews. Cardiovascular autonomic reflex function was evaluated using a standard battery of eight tests. Autonomic tests included the study of sympathetic function through the analysis of blood pressure responses to head-up tilt, standing, isometric hand grip, cold pressor, mental arithmetic, Valsalva maneuver (Valsalva overshoot), and the study of parasympathetic function through the analysis of heart rate responses to deep breathing, hyperventilation, and Valsalva ratio. Seven out of 10 patients reported symptoms involving different aspects of autonomic function, while 5 out of 11 controls reported symptoms related exclusively to orthostatic dizziness and constipation. Symptoms related to bladder dysfunction were the most frequent autonomic abnormality occurring in six patients, followed by orthostatic dizziness and dry mouth (in four patients each). Constipation occurred in three patients, sialorrhea in two, and erectile dysfunction, dry eye, and warm intolerance in one each. Cardiovascular reflex testing revealed no difference between patients and controls in quantitative assessment of both sympathetic and parasympathetic functions, except for diastolic blood pressure after isometric hand grip that did not increase normally in parkin patients compared to controls (P = 0.007). These data show that cardiovascular dysautonomia is not associated to the parkin phenotype, whereas urinary complaints are more frequently reported by parkin patients than by controls. Urinary dysautonomia warrants further investigation in patients with parkin disease.
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Bjerre D, Madsen LB, Bendixen C, Larsen K. Porcine Parkin: Molecular cloning of PARK2 cDNA, expression analysis, and identification of a splicing variant. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 2006; 347:803-13. [PMID: 16844087 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbrc.2006.06.167] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/22/2006] [Accepted: 06/28/2006] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
Abstract
Parkin, encoded by the PARK2 gene, is an E3 ligase which functions as an integral component of the cytoplasmic ubiquitin/proteasomal protein degradation pathway. Mutations in the PARK2 gene, resulting in the loss of parkin function, leads to autosomal recessive juvenile Parkinsonism (AR-JP). This work reports the cloning and characterization of the porcine (Sus scrofa) PARK2 cDNA (SsPARK2) and splicing variants hereof. The PARK2 cDNA was amplified by the reverse transcriptase polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) using oligonucleotide primers derived from in silico sequences. The porcine PARK2 cDNA codes for a protein of 461 amino acids which shows a high similarity to orangutan (91%), human (86%), and to rat (82%) parkin. A splicing variant of the porcine PARK2 with a complete deletion of exon 9 was also identified. Expression analysis by quantitative real-time RT-PCR revealed presence of PARK2 transcript in all examined organs and tissues. Differential expression was observed, with very high levels of PARK2 mRNA in cerebellum, heart, and kidney. In addition, expression analysis showed that porcine PARK2 transcripts could be detected early in embryo development in different brain regions. The porcine PARK2 orthologue was mapped to chromosome 1p24-25. Single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) analysis revealed seven SNPs in the porcine PARK2 gene, one missense and one silent mutation in exon 7 and five SNPs in intron 7.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ditte Bjerre
- Department of Genetics and Biotechnology, Danish Institute of Agricultural Sciences, Tjele, Denmark
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Kikkert M, Hassink G, Wiertz E. The role of the ubiquitination machinery in dislocation and degradation of endoplasmic reticulum proteins. Curr Top Microbiol Immunol 2006; 300:57-93. [PMID: 16573237 DOI: 10.1007/3-540-28007-3_4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
Ubiquitination is essential for the dislocation and degradation of proteins from the endoplasmic reticulum (ER). How exactly this is regulated is unknown at present. This review provides an overview of ubiquitin-conjugating enzymes (E2s) and ubiquitin ligases (E3s) with a role in the degradation of ER proteins. Their structure and functions are described, as well as their mutual interactions. Substrate specificity and functional redundancy of E3 ligases are discussed, and other components of the ER degradation machinery that may associate with the ubiquitination system are reviewed.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Kikkert
- Department of Medical Microbiology, Leiden University Medical Center (LUMC), Albinusdreef 2, 2333 ZA Leiden, The Netherlands.
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Yoshimoto N, Tatematsu K, Koyanagi T, Okajima T, Tanizawa K, Kuroda S. Cytoplasmic tethering of a RING protein RBCK1 by its splice variant lacking the RING domain. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 2005; 335:550-7. [PMID: 16083853 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbrc.2005.07.104] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/08/2005] [Accepted: 07/18/2005] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
RBCC protein interacting with PKC 1 (RBCK1) is a transcription factor belonging to the RING-IBR protein family and has been shown to shuttle between the nucleus and cytoplasm, possessing both the nuclear export and localization signals within its amino acid sequence. RBCK2, lacking the C-terminal half of RBCK1 including the RING-IBR domain, has also been identified as an alternative splice variant of RBCK1. RBCK2 shows no transcriptional activity and instead it represses the transcriptional activity of RBCK1. Here, we show that RBCK2 is present usually in the cytoplasm containing two Leu-rich regions that presumably serve as a nuclear export signal (NES). Moreover, an NES-disrupted RBCK1 that is mostly localized within the nucleus is translocated to the cytoplasm when coexpressed with RBCK2, suggesting that RBCK2 serves as a cytoplasmic tethering protein for RBCK1. We propose a novel and general function of RING-lacking splice variants of RING proteins to control the intracellular localization and functions of the parental RING proteins by forming a hetero-oligomeric complex.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nobuo Yoshimoto
- Department of Structural Molecular Biology, Institute of Scientific and Industrial Research, Osaka University, 8-1 Mihogaoka, Ibaraki, Osaka 567-0047, Japan
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35
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Tan EK, Shen H, Tan JMM, Lim KL, Fook-Chong S, Hu WP, Paterson MC, Chandran VR, Yew K, Tan C, Yuen Y, Pavanni R, Wong MC, Puvan K, Zhao Y. Differential expression of splice variant and wild-type parkin in sporadic Parkinson's disease. Neurogenetics 2005; 6:179-84. [PMID: 16086186 DOI: 10.1007/s10048-005-0001-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/23/2005] [Accepted: 06/01/2005] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Altered splicing of parkin under cellular stress could lead to changes in gene expression and altered protein activity. The causative role of parkin in sporadic Parkinson's disease (PD) is unknown. OBJECTIVES We described a parkin splice variant (SV) in the substantia nigra and leukocytes of sporadic PD patients. Using a case control methodology, we investigated the exon 4 SV (E4SV) and wild-type parkin expression in the leukocytes of sporadic PD patients and healthy individuals. METHODS/RESULTS We identified a parkin E4SV in the substantia nigra and leukocytes of sporadic PD patients and controls by reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction (PCR). The exon 4 (122 bp) deletion resulted in a reading frame shift over the junction of exons 3-5 and a stop codon (tga) 17 bp downstream from exon 3. The translated truncated protein was associated with a total loss of the two-RING finger functional domain. Utilizing TaqMan real-time PCR with probes located across the junction of exons 3-4 or 3-5, we demonstrated an over-expression of E4SV/wild-type parkin ratio in the leukocytes of sporadic PD patients compared to age-, gender-, and race-matched controls (p<0.0005). A multivariate regression analysis demonstrated that the ratio of E4SV/wild-type parkin expression increased with age in PD patients, but this was not observed in the controls (p<0.0005). CONCLUSION The relative expression of E4SV/wild type parkin was increased in sporadic PD compared to healthy controls. Based on our observations, further functional studies to determine the pathophysiologic role of E4SV in sporadic PD patients will be of importance.
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Affiliation(s)
- E K Tan
- Department of Neurology, Singapore General Hospital, Outram Road, Singapore, 169608, Singapore.
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36
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Romito LMA, Contarino MF, Ghezzi D, Franzini A, Garavaglia B, Albanese A. High frequency stimulation of the subthalamic nucleus is efficacious in Parkin disease. J Neurol 2005; 252:208-11. [PMID: 15729528 DOI: 10.1007/s00415-005-0638-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/22/2004] [Revised: 07/26/2004] [Accepted: 08/02/2004] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
High frequency stimulation (HFS) of the subthalamic nucleus (STN) is an efficacious symptomatic treatment for Parkinson's disease. We have analysed the genetic status of a series of consecutive parkinsonian patients implanted for STN HFS and compared the outcome of five carrying mutations in the parkin gene with that of the non-parkin group. All patients obtained sustained control of PD symptoms and achieved functional improvement; in the parkin group the UPDRS motor score improved by 56.4%, the levodopa equivalent daily dosage was reduced by 75.5%. Postoperative medications were reduced more in parkin than in non-parkin patients. We confirm that the current inclusion criteria for STN HFS do not exclude patients carrying mutations in the parkin gene; their clinical outcome is comparable to that of the non-parkin group.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luigi M A Romito
- Istituto Nazionale Neurologico Carlo Besta, Via G. Celoria, 11, 20133 Milano, Italy
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37
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Abbruzzese G, Pigullo S, Schenone A, Bellone E, Marchese R, Di Maria E, Benedetti L, Ciotti P, Nobbio L, Bonifati V, Ajmar F, Mandich P. Does parkin play a role in the peripheral nervous system? A family report. Mov Disord 2004; 19:978-81. [PMID: 15300670 DOI: 10.1002/mds.20113] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022] Open
Abstract
Two genes were identified for autosomal recessive forms of early onset Parkinson's disease: parkin and DJ-1. We describe 2 siblings with EOPD due to parkin mutations and peripheral neuropathy, which presented as neuropathy with liability to pressure palsies (HNPP) in the index case. RT-PCR experiments revealed that the parkin gene is expressed in sural nerves from both controls and patient with parkin-related disease. Our findings support the view that parkin may play a role in the peripheral nervous system.
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Affiliation(s)
- Giovanni Abbruzzese
- Department of Neuroscience, Ophthalmology and Genetics, Section of Neurology, University of Genova, Italy
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38
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Abstract
Alternative splicing has an important role in expanding protein diversity. We have identified complementary DNA species from adult rat and fetal human brain encoding seven new splice variants of parkin, a gene mutated in autosomal recessive juvenile parkinsonism (ARJP). Alternative splicing affects almost all previously characterized exons, plus 3 new exons of 72, 156, and 180 nucleotides. This creates the potential to express hundreds of different isoforms. The encoded parkin isoforms have different amino acid composition, post-translational modifications, and, most important, molecular architectures. They diverge for the presence or absence of the ubiquitin-like domain, one or two C3HC4 ring fingers, the in-between ring fingers (IBR) domain, and a thiol proteases active site, which has not been previously characterized. Distinct expression patterns occur in primary cultures of neuronal and glial cells. Extensive splicing of parkin produces regional and structural diversity and may have important implications for the pathogenetic mechanisms underlying ARJP.
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Affiliation(s)
- Velia Dagata
- Institute of Neurological Sciences, Italian National Research Council, 95123 Catania, Italy
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39
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von Coelln R, Dawson VL, Dawson TM. Parkin-associated Parkinson's disease. Cell Tissue Res 2004; 318:175-84. [PMID: 15503153 DOI: 10.1007/s00441-004-0924-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 90] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/14/2004] [Accepted: 05/19/2004] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
Mutations in the PARK2 gene coding for parkin cause autosomal recessive juvenile parkinsonism (AR-JP), a familial form of Parkinson's disease (PD). Parkin functions as an E3 ubiquitin ligase, and loss of this ubiquitin ligase activity appears to be the mechanism underlying pathogenesis of AR-JP. Recently, the spectrum of genetic, clinical, and pathological findings on AR-JP has been significantly expanded. Moreover, a considerable number of parkin interactors and/or substrates have been identified and characterized, and animal models of parkin deficiency have been generated. In this review, we provide an overview of the most relevant findings and discuss their implications for the pathogenesis of AR-JP and sporadic PD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rainer von Coelln
- Institute for Cell Engineering, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, 733 N. Broadway, Suite 731, Baltimore, MD 21205, USA
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40
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Von Coelln R, Thomas B, Savitt JM, Lim KL, Sasaki M, Hess EJ, Dawson VL, Dawson TM. Loss of locus coeruleus neurons and reduced startle in parkin null mice. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2004; 101:10744-9. [PMID: 15249681 PMCID: PMC490005 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.0401297101] [Citation(s) in RCA: 248] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Parkinson's disease (PD) is the most common neurodegenerative movement disorder and is characterized pathologically by degeneration of catecholaminergic neurons of the substantia nigra pars compacta and locus coeruleus, among other regions. Autosomal-recessive juvenile Parkinsonism (ARJP) is caused by mutations in the PARK2 gene coding for parkin and constitutes the most common familial form of PD. The majority of ARJP-associated parkin mutations are thought to be loss of function-mutations; however, the pathogenesis of ARJP remains poorly understood. Here, we report the generation of parkin null mice by targeted deletion of parkin exon 7. These mice show a loss of catecholaminergic neurons in the locus coeruleus and an accompanying loss of norepinephrine in discrete regions of the central nervous system. Moreover, there is a dramatic reduction of the norepinephrine-dependent startle response. The nigrostriatal dopaminergic system does not show any impairment. This mouse model will help gain a better understanding of parkin function and the mechanisms underlying parkin-associated PD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rainer Von Coelln
- Institute for Cell Engineering, and Department of Neurology, The Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21287, USA
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41
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von Bohlen und Halbach O, Schober A, Krieglstein K. Genes, proteins, and neurotoxins involved in Parkinson’s disease. Prog Neurobiol 2004; 73:151-77. [PMID: 15236834 DOI: 10.1016/j.pneurobio.2004.05.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 114] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/01/2003] [Accepted: 05/11/2004] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Parkinson's disease (PD) is a common neurodegenerative disorder. The etiology of PD is likely due to combinations of environmental and genetic factors. In addition to the loss of neurons, including dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra pars compacta, a further morphologic hallmark of PD is the presence of Lewy bodies and Lewy neurites. The formation of these proteinaceous inclusions involves interaction of several proteins, including alpha-synuclein, synphilin-1, parkin and UCH-L1. Animal models allow to get insight into the mechanisms of several symptoms of PD, allow investigating new therapeutic strategies and, in addition, provide an indispensable tool for basic research. In animals PD does not arise spontaneously, thus, characteristic and specific functional changes have to be mimicked by application of neurotoxic agents or by genetic manipulations. In this review we will focus on genes and gene loci involved in PD, the functions of proteins involved in the formation of cytoplasmatic inclusions, their interactions, and their possible role in PD. In addition, we will review the current animal models of PD.
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Affiliation(s)
- O von Bohlen und Halbach
- Interdisciplinary Center for Neurosciences (IZN), University of Heidelberg, Im Neuenheimer Feld 307, D-69120 Heidelberg, Germany.
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42
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Kühn K, Zhu XR, Lübbert H, Stichel CC. Parkin expression in the developing mouse. BRAIN RESEARCH. DEVELOPMENTAL BRAIN RESEARCH 2004; 149:131-42. [PMID: 15063093 DOI: 10.1016/j.devbrainres.2004.02.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 02/18/2004] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
Parkin is an E3 ubiquitin ligase causally involved in the pathogenesis of autosomal recessive juvenile parkinsonism. In this paper, we analysed the formation of alternative splice products and the spatio-temporal expression pattern of parkin during pre- and postnatal mouse development. Using RT-PCR, Northern blot, in situ hybridization, Western blot analysis, and immunohistochemistry we found (i) alternative splice forms of parkin; (ii) an early and widespread expression of parkin mRNA and protein in the CNS and several organs, already at E10/12; (iii) a marked increase in expression level during midgestational development (E15-18) in the CNS, followed by a steady increase until adulthood; (iv) an ubiquitous distribution throughout CNS ontogeny. Our results show that parkin expression is correlated with cell maturation and suggests an important physiological role of parkin in neurons that is at no time limited to the dopaminergic system.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kati Kühn
- Department of Animal Physiology, ND5/132, Ruhr-University of Bochum, D-44780 Bochum, Germany
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43
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West AB, Kapatos G, O'Farrell C, Gonzalez-de-Chavez F, Chiu K, Farrer MJ, Maidment NT. N-myc regulates parkin expression. J Biol Chem 2004; 279:28896-902. [PMID: 15078880 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m400126200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Mutations in the parkin gene are common in early-onset and familial Parkinson's disease (PD), and the parkin protein interacts in the ubiquitin-proteasome system as an E3 ligase. However, the regulatory pathways that govern parkin expression are unknown. In this study, we showed that a phylogenetically conserved N-myc binding site in the bi-directional parkin promoter interacted with myc-family transcription factors in reporter assays, and N-myc bound to the parkin promoter in chromatin immunoprecipitation assays and repressed transcription activity. Parkin expression was inversely correlated with N-myc levels in the developing mouse and human brain, in human neuroblastoma cell lines with various levels of n-myc amplification, and in an inducible N-myc cell line. Although parkin and N-myc expression were dramatically altered upon retinoic acid-induced differentiation of a human neuroblastoma cell line, modulation of parkin expression did not significantly affect either rates of cellular proliferation or levels of cyclin E. Analysis of additional genes associated with familial PD revealed a shared basis of transcription regulation mediated by N-myc and the cell cycle. Our results, in combination with functional knowledge of the proteins encoded by these genes, suggest a common pathway linking together PD, the ubiquitin-proteasome system, and cell cycle control.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrew B West
- Morris K Udall Center for Parkinson's Disease Research, UCLA Neuropsychiatric Institute, Los Angeles, California 90024, USA.
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44
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Goldberg MS, Fleming SM, Palacino JJ, Cepeda C, Lam HA, Bhatnagar A, Meloni EG, Wu N, Ackerson LC, Klapstein GJ, Gajendiran M, Roth BL, Chesselet MF, Maidment NT, Levine MS, Shen J. Parkin-deficient mice exhibit nigrostriatal deficits but not loss of dopaminergic neurons. J Biol Chem 2003; 278:43628-35. [PMID: 12930822 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m308947200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 650] [Impact Index Per Article: 31.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Loss-of-function mutations in parkin are the major cause of early-onset familial Parkinson's disease. To investigate the pathogenic mechanism by which loss of parkin function causes Parkinson's disease, we generated a mouse model bearing a germline disruption in parkin. Parkin-/- mice are viable and exhibit grossly normal brain morphology. Quantitative in vivo microdialysis revealed an increase in extracellular dopamine concentration in the striatum of parkin-/- mice. Intracellular recordings of medium-sized striatal spiny neurons showed that greater currents are required to induce synaptic responses, suggesting a reduction in synaptic excitability in the absence of parkin. Furthermore, parkin-/- mice exhibit deficits in behavioral paradigms sensitive to dysfunction of the nigrostriatal pathway. The number of dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra of parkin-/- mice, however, is normal up to the age of 24 months, in contrast to the substantial loss of nigral neurons characteristic of Parkinson's disease. Steady-state levels of CDCrel-1, synphilin-1, and alpha-synuclein, which were identified previously as substrates of the E3 ubiquitin ligase activity of parkin, are unaltered in parkin-/- brains. Together these findings provide the first evidence for a novel role of parkin in dopamine regulation and nigrostriatal function, and a non-essential role of parkin in the survival of nigral neurons in mice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matthew S Goldberg
- Center for Neurologic Diseases, Harvard Medical School, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Boston, Massachusetts 02115, USA
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45
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Abstract
Mutations in the Parkin gene are associated with Parkinson s disease (PD). The gene product has been shown to be an E3 protein-ubiquitin ligase, catalyzing the addition of ubiquitin to target proteins prior to their destruction via the proteasome. This activity is thus key in regulating the turnover of substrate proteins. A predictive hypothesis for how this results in PD is that the misregulation of proteasomal degradation of Parkin s substrates is deleterious to neurons. Several different laboratories have identified alternate candidate proteins. In this review, the likelihood of each of the proposed substrates for parkin being robust will be evaluated. The distribution and abundance of the proteins will be examined for clues as to which are the pathologically important substrates for parkin. The possibility that loss of regulation of turnover of one or more of these substrates contributes to the selective neurodegeneration seen in PD is also discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mark R Cookson
- Laboratory of Neurogenetics National Institute on Agins, NIH, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA.
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46
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D'Agata V, Zhao W, Pascale A, Zohar O, Scapagnini G, Cavallaro S. Distribution of parkin in the adult rat brain. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry 2002; 26:519-27. [PMID: 11999903 DOI: 10.1016/s0278-5846(01)00301-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/17/2022]
Abstract
A mutation in the parkin gene has been identified as the cause for an autosomal recessively inherited form of Parkinson's disease (PD). The authors have recently isolated the mRNA coding for the rat homolog of parkin and showed its widespread expression in the central nervous system (CNS) by in situ hybridization. In the present study, we investigated the distribution of parkin in the rat CNS with a polyclonal antibody that reacts with a approximately 52-kDa protein, mainly localized in the cytoplasm and corresponding to the predicted molecular mass of parkin. Immunohistochemistry on adult rat brain sections showed a widespread distribution of parkin. This included labeling of cell bodies, nuclei as well as processes in the hippocampus, cerebral cortex, cerebellum, and several nuclei in the brainstem. The regional expression of parkin-immunoreactivity (IR) correlated well with the parkin-mRNA levels assessed by real-time quantitative reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR). This study provides the detailed analysis of the regional and cellular distribution of parkin in the rat brain and may be useful in elucidating its pathophysiological role.
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Affiliation(s)
- Velia D'Agata
- Institute of Bioimaging and Pathophysiology of the Central Nervous System, Italian National Research Council, Catania.
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47
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48
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Huynh DP, Dy M, Nguyen D, Kiehl TR, Pulst SM. Differential expression and tissue distribution of parkin isoforms during mouse development. BRAIN RESEARCH. DEVELOPMENTAL BRAIN RESEARCH 2001; 130:173-81. [PMID: 11675120 DOI: 10.1016/s0165-3806(01)00234-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/20/2023]
Abstract
Mutations of the parkin gene are a cause of autosomal recessive juvenile parkinsonism. Although the parkin gene has been isolated from mouse, rat, and human, little is known about its expression in neural and nonneural tissues during development. In this study, we used a polyclonal antibody to a peptide downstream of the parkin ubiquitin domain to investigate (1) the differential expression of parkin isoforms in protein extracts from fetal and adult mouse tissues, and (2) the distribution of parkin in mouse fetal tissues at different developmental stages and in adult CNS tissues. By Western blot analyses, at least three isoforms of parkin of 22, 50, and 55 kDa were differentially expressed in mouse tissues. The p22 and p50 isoforms were found in fetal and adult mouse CNS tissues, while the p55 isoform was found only in adult tissues. The p50 isoform is the predominant form in both fetal and adult tissues. Immunolocalization in mouse fetuses showed that parkin was expressed only after neuronal differentiation. Although parkin was localized throughout the cytoplasm, the highest level of parkin was found in the neurites of both fetal and adult neurons.
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Affiliation(s)
- D P Huynh
- Division of Neurology and Rose Moss Laboratory for Parkinson and Neurodegenerative Diseases, Burns and Allen Research Institute, Cedars-Sinai Medical Center, UCLA School of Medicine, 8700 Beverley Boulevard, Los Angeles, CA 90048, USA
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49
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Abstract
Parkinson disease (PD) is a progressive neurological disorder with a prevalence of 1-2% in people over the age of 50. It has a world-wide distribution and has no gender preference. The neurological hallmark of PD is the presence of Lewy bodies and is characterized by the degeneration of nigrostriatal dopaminergic neurons. The causes of PD are unknown but considerable evidence suggests a multifactorial etiology involving genetic and environmental factors. A molecular genetic approach identified three genes and at least two additional loci in rare familial forms of PD. Two of these genes are involved in the ubiquitin mediated pathway of protein degradation and the third one is a highly expressed protein in the synaptic terminal and is called alpha-synuclein. In animal models, it has been shown that use of the household pesticide which is known to contain rotenone, causes PD. Thus, a combined action of genetic and environmental factors is responsible for the pathogenesis of PD. Although use of levodopa or dopamine agonists can substantially reduce clinical symptoms, and transplantation of fetal nerve tissue still remains as an alternative therapy (although it has been recently shown to be having no overall benefit), directed delivery of glial cell derived neurotrophic factor (known to have trophic effects on dopaminergic neurons) may also be a beneficial therapeutic option for PD patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- B S Shastry
- Department of Biological Sciences, Oakland University, Rochester, MI 48309, USA.
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50
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Farrer M, Chan P, Chen R, Tan L, Lincoln S, Hernandez D, Forno L, Gwinn-Hardy K, Petrucelli L, Hussey J, Singleton A, Tanner C, Hardy J, Langston JW. Lewy bodies and parkinsonism in families with parkin mutations. Ann Neurol 2001; 50:293-300. [PMID: 11558785 DOI: 10.1002/ana.1132] [Citation(s) in RCA: 344] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Previous work has established that compound mutations and homozygous loss of function of the parkin gene cause early-onset, autosomal recessive parkinsonism. Classically, this disease has been associated with loss of dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra pars compacta and locus ceruleus, without Lewy body pathology. We have sequenced the parkin gene of 38 patients with early-onset Parkinson's disease (<41 years). Two probands with mutations were followed up. Clinical evaluation of their families was performed, blinded to both genetic and pathological findings. Chromosome 6q25.2-27 haplotype analysis was carried out independently of the trait; parkin gene expression was examined at both the RNA and protein levels. Haplotype analysis of these families revealed a common chromosome 6, with a novel 40 bp exon 3 deletion that cosegregated with disease. In the proband of the smaller kindred, an exon 7 R275W substitution was identified in addition to the exon 3 deletion; RNA analysis demonstrated that the mutations were on alternate transcripts. However, Lewy body pathology typical of idiopathic Parkinson's disease was found at autopsy in the proband from the smaller kindred. These data suggest that compound heterozygous parkin mutations and loss of parkin protein may lead to early-onset parkinsonism with Lewy body pathology, while a hemizygous mutation may confer increased susceptibility to typical Parkinson's disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Farrer
- Department of Neuroscience, Mayo Clinic Jacksonville, FL, USA
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