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Alexander LT, Durairaj J, Kryshtafovych A, Abriata LA, Bayo Y, Bhabha G, Breyton C, Caulton SG, Chen J, Degroux S, Ekiert DC, Erlandsen BS, Freddolino PL, Gilzer D, Greening C, Grimes JM, Grinter R, Gurusaran M, Hartmann MD, Hitchman CJ, Keown JR, Kropp A, Kursula P, Lovering AL, Lemaitre B, Lia A, Liu S, Logotheti M, Lu S, Markússon S, Miller MD, Minasov G, Niemann HH, Opazo F, Phillips GN, Davies OR, Rommelaere S, Rosas‐Lemus M, Roversi P, Satchell K, Smith N, Wilson MA, Wu K, Xia X, Xiao H, Zhang W, Zhou ZH, Fidelis K, Topf M, Moult J, Schwede T. Protein target highlights in CASP15: Analysis of models by structure providers. Proteins 2023; 91:1571-1599. [PMID: 37493353 PMCID: PMC10792529 DOI: 10.1002/prot.26545] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/12/2023] [Accepted: 06/15/2023] [Indexed: 07/27/2023]
Abstract
We present an in-depth analysis of selected CASP15 targets, focusing on their biological and functional significance. The authors of the structures identify and discuss key protein features and evaluate how effectively these aspects were captured in the submitted predictions. While the overall ability to predict three-dimensional protein structures continues to impress, reproducing uncommon features not previously observed in experimental structures is still a challenge. Furthermore, instances with conformational flexibility and large multimeric complexes highlight the need for novel scoring strategies to better emphasize biologically relevant structural regions. Looking ahead, closer integration of computational and experimental techniques will play a key role in determining the next challenges to be unraveled in the field of structural molecular biology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Leila T. Alexander
- BiozentrumUniversity of BaselBaselSwitzerland
- Computational Structural BiologySIB Swiss Institute of BioinformaticsBaselSwitzerland
| | - Janani Durairaj
- BiozentrumUniversity of BaselBaselSwitzerland
- Computational Structural BiologySIB Swiss Institute of BioinformaticsBaselSwitzerland
| | | | - Luciano A. Abriata
- School of Life SciencesÉcole Polytechnique Fédérale de LausanneLausanneSwitzerland
| | - Yusupha Bayo
- Department of BiosciencesUniversity of MilanoMilanItaly
- IBBA‐CNR Unit of MilanoInstitute of Agricultural Biology and BiotechnologyMilanItaly
| | - Gira Bhabha
- Department of Cell BiologyNew York University School of MedicineNew YorkNew YorkUSA
| | | | | | - James Chen
- Department of Cell BiologyNew York University School of MedicineNew YorkNew YorkUSA
| | | | - Damian C. Ekiert
- Department of Cell BiologyNew York University School of MedicineNew YorkNew YorkUSA
- Department of MicrobiologyNew York University School of MedicineNew YorkNew YorkUSA
| | - Benedikte S. Erlandsen
- Wellcome Centre for Cell BiologyInstitute of Cell Biology, University of EdinburghEdinburghUK
| | - Peter L. Freddolino
- Department of Biological Chemistry, Computational Medicine and BioinformaticsUniversity of MichiganAnn ArborMichiganUSA
| | - Dominic Gilzer
- Department of ChemistryBielefeld UniversityBielefeldGermany
| | - Chris Greening
- Department of Microbiology, Biomedicine Discovery InstituteMonash UniversityClaytonVictoriaAustralia
- Securing Antarctica's Environmental FutureMonash UniversityClaytonVictoriaAustralia
- Centre to Impact AMRMonash UniversityClaytonVictoriaAustralia
- ARC Research Hub for Carbon Utilisation and RecyclingMonash UniversityClaytonVictoriaAustralia
| | - Jonathan M. Grimes
- Division of Structural Biology, Wellcome Centre for Human GeneticsUniversity of OxfordOxfordUK
| | - Rhys Grinter
- Department of Microbiology, Biomedicine Discovery InstituteMonash UniversityClaytonVictoriaAustralia
- Centre for Electron Microscopy of Membrane ProteinsMonash Institute of Pharmaceutical SciencesParkvilleVictoriaAustralia
| | - Manickam Gurusaran
- Wellcome Centre for Cell BiologyInstitute of Cell Biology, University of EdinburghEdinburghUK
| | - Marcus D. Hartmann
- Max Planck Institute for BiologyTübingenGermany
- Interfaculty Institute of Biochemistry, University of TübingenTübingenGermany
| | - Charlie J. Hitchman
- Department of Molecular and Cell Biology, Leicester Institute of Structural and Chemical BiologyUniversity of LeicesterLeicesterUK
| | - Jeremy R. Keown
- Division of Structural Biology, Wellcome Centre for Human GeneticsUniversity of OxfordOxfordUK
| | - Ashleigh Kropp
- Department of Microbiology, Biomedicine Discovery InstituteMonash UniversityClaytonVictoriaAustralia
| | - Petri Kursula
- Department of BiomedicineUniversity of BergenBergenNorway
- Faculty of Biochemistry and Molecular Medicine & Biocenter OuluUniversity of OuluOuluFinland
| | | | - Bruno Lemaitre
- School of Life SciencesÉcole Polytechnique Fédérale de LausanneLausanneSwitzerland
| | - Andrea Lia
- Department of Molecular and Cell Biology, Leicester Institute of Structural and Chemical BiologyUniversity of LeicesterLeicesterUK
- ISPA‐CNR Unit of LecceInstitute of Sciences of Food ProductionLecceItaly
| | - Shiheng Liu
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology, and Molecular GeneticsUniversity of CaliforniaLos AngelesCaliforniaUSA
- California NanoSystems InstituteUniversity of CaliforniaLos AngelesCaliforniaUSA
| | - Maria Logotheti
- Max Planck Institute for BiologyTübingenGermany
- Interfaculty Institute of Biochemistry, University of TübingenTübingenGermany
- Present address:
Institute of BiochemistryUniversity of GreifswaldGreifswaldGermany
| | - Shuze Lu
- Lanzhou University School of Life SciencesLanzhouChina
| | | | | | - George Minasov
- Department of Microbiology‐ImmunologyNorthwestern Feinberg School of MedicineChicagoIllinoisUSA
| | | | - Felipe Opazo
- NanoTag Biotechnologies GmbHGöttingenGermany
- Institute of Neuro‐ and Sensory PhysiologyUniversity of Göttingen Medical CenterGöttingenGermany
- Center for Biostructural Imaging of Neurodegeneration (BIN)University of Göttingen Medical CenterGöttingenGermany
| | - George N. Phillips
- Department of BiosciencesRice UniversityHoustonTexasUSA
- Department of ChemistryRice UniversityHoustonTexasUSA
| | - Owen R. Davies
- Wellcome Centre for Cell BiologyInstitute of Cell Biology, University of EdinburghEdinburghUK
| | - Samuel Rommelaere
- School of Life SciencesÉcole Polytechnique Fédérale de LausanneLausanneSwitzerland
| | - Monica Rosas‐Lemus
- Department of Microbiology‐ImmunologyNorthwestern Feinberg School of MedicineChicagoIllinoisUSA
- Present address:
Department of Molecular Genetics and MicrobiologyUniversity of New MexicoAlbuquerqueNew MexicoUSA
| | - Pietro Roversi
- IBBA‐CNR Unit of MilanoInstitute of Agricultural Biology and BiotechnologyMilanItaly
- Department of Molecular and Cell Biology, Leicester Institute of Structural and Chemical BiologyUniversity of LeicesterLeicesterUK
| | - Karla Satchell
- Department of Microbiology‐ImmunologyNorthwestern Feinberg School of MedicineChicagoIllinoisUSA
| | - Nathan Smith
- Department of Biochemistry and the Redox Biology CenterUniversity of NebraskaLincolnNebraskaUSA
| | - Mark A. Wilson
- Department of Biochemistry and the Redox Biology CenterUniversity of NebraskaLincolnNebraskaUSA
| | - Kuan‐Lin Wu
- Department of ChemistryRice UniversityHoustonTexasUSA
| | - Xian Xia
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology, and Molecular GeneticsUniversity of CaliforniaLos AngelesCaliforniaUSA
- California NanoSystems InstituteUniversity of CaliforniaLos AngelesCaliforniaUSA
| | - Han Xiao
- Department of BiosciencesRice UniversityHoustonTexasUSA
- Department of ChemistryRice UniversityHoustonTexasUSA
- Department of BioengineeringRice UniversityHoustonTexasUSA
| | - Wenhua Zhang
- Lanzhou University School of Life SciencesLanzhouChina
| | - Z. Hong Zhou
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology, and Molecular GeneticsUniversity of CaliforniaLos AngelesCaliforniaUSA
- California NanoSystems InstituteUniversity of CaliforniaLos AngelesCaliforniaUSA
| | | | - Maya Topf
- University Medical Center Hamburg‐Eppendorf (UKE)HamburgGermany
- Centre for Structural Systems BiologyLeibniz‐Institut für Virologie (LIV)HamburgGermany
| | - John Moult
- Department of Cell Biology and Molecular Genetics, Institute for Bioscience and Biotechnology ResearchUniversity of MarylandRockvilleMarylandUSA
| | - Torsten Schwede
- BiozentrumUniversity of BaselBaselSwitzerland
- Computational Structural BiologySIB Swiss Institute of BioinformaticsBaselSwitzerland
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Native structure of mosquito salivary protein uncovers domains relevant to pathogen transmission. Nat Commun 2023; 14:899. [PMID: 36797290 PMCID: PMC9935623 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-023-36577-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/04/2022] [Accepted: 02/07/2023] [Indexed: 02/18/2023] Open
Abstract
Female mosquitoes inject saliva into vertebrate hosts during blood feeding. This process transmits mosquito-borne human pathogens that collectively cause ~1,000,000 deaths/year. Among the most abundant and conserved proteins secreted by female salivary glands is a high-molecular weight protein called salivary gland surface protein 1 (SGS1) that facilitates pathogen transmission, but its mechanism remains elusive. Here, we determine the native structure of SGS1 by the cryoID approach, showing that the 3364 amino-acid protein has a Tc toxin-like Rhs/YD shell, four receptor domains, and a set of C-terminal daisy-chained helices. These helices are partially shielded inside the Rhs/YD shell and poised to transform into predicted transmembrane helices. This transformation, and the numerous receptor domains on the surface of SGS1, are likely key in facilitating sporozoite/arbovirus invasion into the salivary glands and manipulating the host's immune response.
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Kearney EA, Agius PA, Chaumeau V, Cutts JC, Simpson JA, Fowkes FJI. Anopheles salivary antigens as serological biomarkers of vector exposure and malaria transmission: A systematic review with multilevel modelling. eLife 2021; 10:e73080. [PMID: 34939933 PMCID: PMC8860437 DOI: 10.7554/elife.73080] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/16/2021] [Accepted: 12/21/2021] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Entomological surveillance for malaria is inherently resource-intensive and produces crude population-level measures of vector exposure which are insensitive in low-transmission settings. Antibodies against Anopheles salivary proteins measured at the individual level may serve as proxy biomarkers for vector exposure and malaria transmission, but their relationship is yet to be quantified. Methods A systematic review of studies measuring antibodies against Anopheles salivary antigens (PROSPERO: CRD42020185449). Multilevel modelling (to account for multiple study-specific observations [level 1], nested within study [level 2], and study nested within country [level 3]) estimated associations between seroprevalence with Anopheles human biting rate (HBR) and malaria transmission measures. Results From 3981 studies identified in literature searches, 42 studies across 16 countries were included contributing 393 study-specific observations of anti-Anopheles salivary antibodies determined in 42,764 samples. A positive association between HBR (log transformed) and seroprevalence was found; overall a twofold (100% relative) increase in HBR was associated with a 23% increase in odds of seropositivity (OR: 1.23, 95% CI: 1.10-1.37; p<0.001). The association between HBR and Anopheles salivary antibodies was strongest with concordant, rather than discordant, Anopheles species. Seroprevalence was also significantly positively associated with established epidemiological measures of malaria transmission: entomological inoculation rate, Plasmodium spp. prevalence, and malarial endemicity class. Conclusions Anopheles salivary antibody biomarkers can serve as a proxy measure for HBR and malaria transmission, and could monitor malaria receptivity of a population to sustain malaria transmission. Validation of Anopheles species-specific biomarkers is important given the global heterogeneity in the distribution of Anopheles species. Salivary biomarkers have the potential to transform surveillance by replacing impractical, inaccurate entomological investigations, especially in areas progressing towards malaria elimination. Funding Australian National Health and Medical Research Council, Wellcome Trust.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ellen A Kearney
- The McFarlane Burnet Institute of Medical Research and Public HealthMelbourneAustralia
- Centre for Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Melbourne School of Population and Global Health, The University of MelbourneMelbourneAustralia
| | - Paul A Agius
- The McFarlane Burnet Institute of Medical Research and Public HealthMelbourneAustralia
- Centre for Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Melbourne School of Population and Global Health, The University of MelbourneMelbourneAustralia
- Department of Epidemiology and Preventive Medicine, Monash UniversityMelbourneAustralia
| | - Victor Chaumeau
- Shoklo Malaria Research Unit, Mahidol-Oxford Tropical Medicine Research Unit, Faculty of Tropical Medicine, Mahidol UniversityMae SotThailand
- Centre for Tropical Medicine and Global Health, Nuffield Department of Medicine, University of OxfordOxfordUnited Kingdom
| | - Julia C Cutts
- The McFarlane Burnet Institute of Medical Research and Public HealthMelbourneAustralia
- Department of Medicine at the Doherty Institute, The University of MelbourneMelbourneAustralia
| | - Julie A Simpson
- Centre for Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Melbourne School of Population and Global Health, The University of MelbourneMelbourneAustralia
| | - Freya JI Fowkes
- The McFarlane Burnet Institute of Medical Research and Public HealthMelbourneAustralia
- Centre for Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Melbourne School of Population and Global Health, The University of MelbourneMelbourneAustralia
- Department of Epidemiology and Preventive Medicine, Monash UniversityMelbourneAustralia
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Complex Roles of Neutrophils during Arboviral Infections. Cells 2021; 10:cells10061324. [PMID: 34073501 PMCID: PMC8227388 DOI: 10.3390/cells10061324] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/30/2021] [Revised: 05/21/2021] [Accepted: 05/21/2021] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Arboviruses are known to cause large-scale epidemics in many parts of the world. These arthropod-borne viruses are a large group consisting of viruses from a wide range of families. The ability of their vector to enhance viral pathogenesis and transmission makes the development of treatments against these viruses challenging. Neutrophils are generally the first leukocytes to be recruited to a site of infection, playing a major role in regulating inflammation and, as a result, viral replication and dissemination. However, the underlying mechanisms through which neutrophils control the progression of inflammation and disease remain to be fully understood. In this review, we highlight the major findings from recent years regarding the role of neutrophils during arboviral infections. We discuss the complex nature of neutrophils in mediating not only protection, but also augmenting disease pathology. Better understanding of neutrophil pathways involved in effective protection against arboviral infections can help identify potential targets for therapeutics.
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Favarin DC, Pereira ABM, Francischetti IMB, da Silva MV, Rodrigues V, da Silva PR, Valenzuela JG, Teixeira DNS, Oliveira CJF, Rogério ADP. Agaphelin modulates the activation of human bronchial epithelial cells induced by lipopolysaccharide and IL-4. Immunobiology 2020; 225:151937. [PMID: 32201094 DOI: 10.1016/j.imbio.2020.151937] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/18/2019] [Revised: 03/06/2020] [Accepted: 03/16/2020] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
Sand fly saliva presents molecules with potential to development of compounds for treatment of inflammatory diseases. Agaphelin, isolated from the saliva of the mosquito Anopheles gambiae, demonstrates anti-inflammatory properties such as neutrophils chemotaxis inhibition. Here, we extend these results and evaluated the role of agaphelin (0.1-100 nM) in an in vitro model consisting in the activation of human bronchial epithelial cells (BEAS-2B) by IL-4 (50 ng/mL) or lipopolysaccharide (LPS; 10 ng/mL). Agaphelin is non-cytotoxic for BEAS-2B cells. Notably, agaphelin markedly reduces CCL2 and IL-8 production induced by IL-4 or LPS, without altering the IL-10 production. The TLR4 expression and STAT1 phosphorylation induced by LPS were inhibited by agaphlin. In addition, agaphelin decreased the phosphorylation of STAT6 induce by IL-4, whose effect was independent of IL-4-binding activity. Taken together, these findings identify agaphelin as a potential anti-inflammatory therapeutic agent for airway inflammations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniely Cornélio Favarin
- Institute of Health Sciences, Department of Clinical Medicine, Laboratory of Experimental Immunopharmacology, Federal University of Triângulo Mineiro, Uberaba, MG, 38025-350, Brazil.
| | - Aline Beatriz Mahler Pereira
- Institute of Health Sciences, Department of Clinical Medicine, Laboratory of Experimental Immunopharmacology, Federal University of Triângulo Mineiro, Uberaba, MG, 38025-350, Brazil.
| | - Ivo M B Francischetti
- Laboratory of Malaria and Vector Research, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Rockville, MD, USA.
| | - Marcos Vinicius da Silva
- Laboratory of Immunology and Infectious Diseases, Triângulo Mineiro Federal University, Uberaba, Brazil.
| | - Virmondes Rodrigues
- Laboratory of Immunology and Infectious Diseases, Triângulo Mineiro Federal University, Uberaba, Brazil.
| | - Paulo Roberto da Silva
- Institute of Health Sciences, Department of Clinical Medicine, Laboratory of Experimental Immunopharmacology, Federal University of Triângulo Mineiro, Uberaba, MG, 38025-350, Brazil.
| | - Jesus G Valenzuela
- Laboratory of Malaria and Vector Research, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Rockville, MD, USA.
| | - David Nascimento Silva Teixeira
- Institute of Health Sciences, Department of Clinical Medicine, Laboratory of Experimental Immunopharmacology, Federal University of Triângulo Mineiro, Uberaba, MG, 38025-350, Brazil.
| | - Carlo José Freire Oliveira
- Laboratory of Immunology and Infectious Diseases, Triângulo Mineiro Federal University, Uberaba, Brazil.
| | - Alexandre de Paula Rogério
- Institute of Health Sciences, Department of Clinical Medicine, Laboratory of Experimental Immunopharmacology, Federal University of Triângulo Mineiro, Uberaba, MG, 38025-350, Brazil.
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Lu F, Huang S. The Roles of Mast Cells in Parasitic Protozoan Infections. Front Immunol 2017; 8:363. [PMID: 28428784 PMCID: PMC5382204 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2017.00363] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/15/2016] [Accepted: 03/14/2017] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Protozoan parasites such as Plasmodium spp., Leishmania spp., Trypanosoma spp., and Toxoplasma gondii are major causes of parasitic diseases in both humans and animals. The immune system plays a critical role against protozoa, but their immune mechanism remains poorly understood. This highlights the need to investigate the function of immune cells involved in the process of parasite infections and the responses of host immune system to parasite infections. Mast cells (MCs) are known to be central players in allergy and anaphylaxis, and it has been demonstrated that MCs have crucial roles in host defense against a number of different pathogens, including parasites. To date, there are many studies that have examined the interaction of helminth-derived antigens and MCs. As one of the major effector cells, MCs also play an important role in the immune response against some parasitic protozoa, but their role in protozoan infections is, however, less well characterized. Herein, we review the current knowledge about the roles of MCs and their mediators during infections involving highly pathogenic protozoa including Plasmodium spp., Leishmania spp., Trypanosoma spp., and T. gondii. We offer a general review of the data from patients and experimental animal models infected with the aforementioned protozoa, which correlate MCs and MC-derived mediators with exacerbated inflammation and disease progression as well as protection against the parasitic infections in different circumstances. This review updates our current understanding of the roles of MCs during parasitic protozoan infections, and the participation of MCs in parasitic protozoan infections could be of a potential therapeutic target.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fangli Lu
- Department of Parasitology, Zhongshan School of Medicine, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, China.,Key Laboratory of Tropical Disease Control Sun Yat-sen University, Ministry of Education, Guangzhou, China
| | - Shiguang Huang
- School of Stomatology, Jinan University, Guangzhou, China
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Hopp CS, Sinnis P. The innate and adaptive response to mosquito saliva and Plasmodium sporozoites in the skin. Ann N Y Acad Sci 2015; 1342:37-43. [PMID: 25694058 PMCID: PMC4405444 DOI: 10.1111/nyas.12661] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
A malaria infection begins when an infected mosquito takes a blood meal and inoculates parasites into the skin of its mammalian host. The parasite then has to exit the skin and escape the immune cells that protect the body from infection and alert the system to intruding pathogens. It has become apparent that this earliest stage of infection is amenable to vaccine interventions. Here, we discuss how the innate and adaptive host response to both mosquito saliva and the parasite may interfere with the infection, as well as possible mechanisms the parasite might use to circumvent the host defense.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christine S Hopp
- Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, Johns Hopkins School of Public Health, Baltimore, Maryland; Johns Hopkins Malaria Research Institute, Baltimore, Maryland
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Francischetti IMB, Ma D, Andersen JF, Ribeiro JMC. Evidence for a lectin specific for sulfated glycans in the salivary gland of the malaria vector, Anopheles gambiae. PLoS One 2014; 9:e107295. [PMID: 25207644 PMCID: PMC4160252 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0107295] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/21/2014] [Accepted: 08/14/2014] [Indexed: 01/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Salivary gland homogenate (SGH) from the female mosquitoes Anopheles gambiae, An. stephensi, An. freeborni, An. dirus and An. albimanus were found to exhibit hemagglutinating (lectin) activity. Lectin activity was not found for male An. gambiae, or female Ae aegypti, Culex quinquefasciatus, Phlebotomus duboscqi, and Lutzomyia longipalpis. With respect to species-specificity, An. gambiae SGH agglutinates red blood cells (RBC) from humans, horse, sheep, goat, pig, and cow; it is less active for rats RBC, and not detectable for guinea-pigs or chicken RBC. Notably, lectin activity was inhibited by low concentrations of dextran sulfate 50–500 K, fucoidan, heparin, laminin, heparin sulfate proteoglycan, sialyl-containing glycans (e.g. 3′-sialyl Lewis X, and 6′-sialyl lactose), and gangliosides (e.g. GM3, GD1, GD1b, GTB1, GM1, GQ1B), but not by simple sugars. These results imply that molecule(s) in the salivary gland target sulfated glycans. SGH from An. gambiae was also found to promote agglutination of HL-60 cells which are rich in sialyl Lewis X, a glycan that decorates PSGL-1, the neutrophils receptor that interacts with endothelial cell P-selectin. Accordingly, SGH interferes with HL-60 cells adhesion to immobilized P-selectin. Because An. gambiae SGH expresses galectins, one member of this family (herein named Agalectin) was expressed in E. coli. Recombinant Agalectin behaves as a non-covalent homodimer. It does not display lectin activity, and does not interact with 500 candidates tested in a Glycan microarray. Gel-filtration chromatography of the SGH of An. gambiae identified a fraction with hemagglutinating activity, which was analyzed by 1D PAGE followed by in-gel tryptic digestion, and nano-LC MS/MS. This approach identified several genes which emerge as candidates for a lectin targeting sulfated glycans, the first with this selectivity to be reported in the SGH of a blood-sucking arthropod. The role of salivary molecules (sialogenins) with lectin activity is discussed in the context of inflammation, and parasite-vector-host interactions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ivo M. B. Francischetti
- Section of Vector Biology, Laboratory of Malaria and Vector Research, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland, United States of America
- * E-mail:
| | - Dongying Ma
- Section of Vector Biology, Laboratory of Malaria and Vector Research, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland, United States of America
| | - John F. Andersen
- Section of Vector Biology, Laboratory of Malaria and Vector Research, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland, United States of America
| | - José M. C. Ribeiro
- Section of Vector Biology, Laboratory of Malaria and Vector Research, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland, United States of America
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Role of skin immune cells on the host susceptibility to mosquito-borne viruses. Virology 2014; 464-465:26-32. [PMID: 25043586 DOI: 10.1016/j.virol.2014.06.023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 65] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/09/2014] [Revised: 05/15/2014] [Accepted: 06/17/2014] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Due to climate change and the propagation of competent arthropods worldwide, arboviruses have become pathogens of major medical importance. Early transmission to vertebrates is initiated by skin puncture and deposition of virus together with arthropod saliva in the epidermis and dermis. Saliva components have the capacity to modulate skin cell responses by enhancing and/or counteracting initial replication and establishment of systemic viral infection. Here, we review the nature of the cells targeted by arboviruses at the skin level and discuss the type of cellular responses elicited by these pathogens in light of the immunomodulatory properties of arthropod vector-derived salivary factors injected at the inoculation site. Understanding cutaneous arbovirus-host interactions may provide new clues for the design of future therapeutics.
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Bernard Q, Jaulhac B, Boulanger N. Smuggling across the Border: How Arthropod-Borne Pathogens Evade and Exploit the Host Defense System of the Skin. J Invest Dermatol 2014; 134:1211-1219. [DOI: 10.1038/jid.2014.36] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/28/2013] [Revised: 12/04/2013] [Accepted: 12/28/2013] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
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Fast MD. Fish immune responses to parasitic copepod (namely sea lice) infection. DEVELOPMENTAL AND COMPARATIVE IMMUNOLOGY 2014; 43:300-312. [PMID: 24001580 DOI: 10.1016/j.dci.2013.08.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 74] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/18/2013] [Revised: 08/22/2013] [Accepted: 08/22/2013] [Indexed: 06/02/2023]
Abstract
Parasitic copepods, in particular sea lice, have considerable impacts upon global freshwater and marine fisheries, with major economic consequences recognized primarily in aquaculture. Sea lice have been a contentious issue with regards to interactions between farmed and wild populations of fish, in particular salmonids, and their potential for detrimental effects at a population level. The following discussion will pertain to aquatic parasitic copepod species for which we have significant information on the host-parasite interaction and host response to infection (Orders Cyclopoida, Poecilostomatoida and Siphonostomatoida). This review evaluates prior research in terms of contributions to understanding parasite stage specific responses by the host, and in many cases draws upon model organisms like Lepeophtheirus salmonis and Atlantic salmon to convey important concepts in fish responses to parasitic copepod infection. The article discusses TH1 and TH2-like host responses in light of parasite immunomodulation of the host, current methods of immunological stimulation and where the current and future work in this field is heading.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mark D Fast
- Department of Pathology and Microbiology, Atlantic Veterinary College - University of Prince Edward Island, 550 University Avenue, Charlottetown, PEI, Canada.
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12
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McGovern KE, Wilson EH. Role of Chemokines and Trafficking of Immune Cells in Parasitic Infections. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2014; 9:157-168. [PMID: 25383073 DOI: 10.2174/1573395509666131217000000] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/24/2023]
Abstract
Parasites are diverse eukaryotic pathogens that can have complex life cycles. Their clearance, or control within a mammalian host requires the coordinated effort of the immune system. The cell types recruited to areas of infection can combat the disease, promote parasite replication and survival, or contribute to disease pathology. Location and timing of cell recruitment can be crucial. In this review, we explore the role chemokines play in orchestrating and balancing the immune response to achieve optimal control of parasite replication without promoting pathology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kathryn E McGovern
- School of Medicine, Division of Biomedical Sciences, University of California, Riverside, CA, 92521-0129, USA
| | - Emma H Wilson
- School of Medicine, Division of Biomedical Sciences, University of California, Riverside, CA, 92521-0129, USA
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Allergy to Hematophagous Arthropods Bites. CURRENT DERMATOLOGY REPORTS 2014. [DOI: 10.1007/s13671-013-0065-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
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Choumet V, Attout T, Chartier L, Khun H, Sautereau J, Robbe-Vincent A, Brey P, Huerre M, Bain O. Visualizing non infectious and infectious Anopheles gambiae blood feedings in naive and saliva-immunized mice. PLoS One 2012; 7:e50464. [PMID: 23272060 PMCID: PMC3521732 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0050464] [Citation(s) in RCA: 64] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/16/2012] [Accepted: 10/23/2012] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Anopheles gambiae is a major vector of malaria and lymphatic filariasis. The arthropod-host interactions occurring at the skin interface are complex and dynamic. We used a global approach to describe the interaction between the mosquito (infected or uninfected) and the skin of mammals during blood feeding. Methods Intravital video microscopy was used to characterize several features during blood feeding. The deposition and movement of Plasmodium berghei sporozoites in the dermis were also observed. We also used histological techniques to analyze the impact of infected and uninfected feedings on the skin cell response in naive mice. Results The mouthparts were highly mobile within the skin during the probing phase. Probing time increased with mosquito age, with possible effects on pathogen transmission. Repletion was achieved by capillary feeding. The presence of sporozoites in the salivary glands modified the behavior of the mosquitoes, with infected females tending to probe more than uninfected females (86% versus 44%). A white area around the tip of the proboscis was observed when the mosquitoes fed on blood from the vessels of mice immunized with saliva. Mosquito feedings elicited an acute inflammatory response in naive mice that peaked three hours after the bite. Polynuclear and mast cells were associated with saliva deposits. We describe the first visualization of saliva in the skin by immunohistochemistry (IHC) with antibodies directed against saliva. Both saliva deposits and sporozoites were detected in the skin for up to 18 h after the bite. Conclusion This study, in which we visualized the probing and engorgement phases of Anopheles gambiae blood meals, provides precise information about the behavior of the insect as a function of its infection status and the presence or absence of anti-saliva antibodies. It also provides insight into the possible consequences of the inflammatory reaction for blood feeding and pathogen transmission.
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Affiliation(s)
- Valerie Choumet
- Unité de Biochimie et de Biologie Moléculaire des Insectes, Institut Pasteur, Paris, France.
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Machain-Williams C, Mammen MP, Zeidner NS, Beaty BJ, Prenni JE, Nisalak A, Blair CD. Association of human immune response to Aedes aegypti salivary proteins with dengue disease severity. Parasite Immunol 2012; 34:15-22. [PMID: 21995849 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-3024.2011.01339.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Dengue viruses (DENV; family Flaviviridae, genus Flavivirus) are transmitted by Aedes aegypti mosquitoes and can cause dengue fever (DF), a relatively benign disease, or more severe dengue haemorrhagic fever (DHF). Arthropod saliva contains proteins delivered into the bite wound that can modulate the host haemostatic and immune responses to facilitate the intake of a blood meal. The potential effects on DENV infection of previous exposure to Ae. aegypti salivary proteins have not been investigated. We collected Ae. aegypti saliva, concentrated the proteins and fractionated them by nondenaturing polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (PAGE). By the use of immunoblots, we analysed reactivity with the mosquito salivary proteins (MSP) of sera from 96 Thai children diagnosed with secondary DENV infections leading either to DF or DHF, or with no DENV infection, and found that different proportions of each patient group had serum antibodies reactive to specific Ae. aegypti salivary proteins. Our results suggest that prior exposure to MSP might play a role in the outcome of DENV infection in humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- C Machain-Williams
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Pathology, Arthropod-borne and Infectious Diseases Laboratory, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO, USA.
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Abstract
Huge emphasis has been placed on the role of the adaptive immune system in dengue pathogenesis. Yet there is increasing evidence for the importance of the innate immune system in regulating dengue infection and possibly influencing the disease. This review focuses on the interplay between the innate immune system and dengue and highlights the role of soluble immunological mediators. Type I and type II interferons of the innate immune system demonstrate non-overlapping roles in dengue infection. Furthermore, while some IFN responses to dengue are protective, others may exert disease-related effects on the host. But aside from interferons, a number of cytokines have also been implicated in dengue pathogenesis. Our expanding knowledge of cytokines indicates that these soluble mediators act upon a complicated network of events to provoke the disease. This cytokine storm is generally attributed to massive T cell activation as an outcome of secondary infection. However, there is reason to believe that innate immune response-derived cytokines also have contributory effects, especially in the context of severe cases of primary dengue infection. Another less popular but interesting perspective on dengue pathogenesis is the effect of mosquito feeding on host immune responses and viral infection. Various studies have shown that soluble factors from vector saliva have the capacity to alter immune reactions and thereby influence pathogen transmission and establishment. Hence, modulation of the innate immune system at various levels of infection is a critical component of dengue disease. In the absence of an approved drug or vaccine for dengue, soluble mediators of the innate immune system could be a strategic foothold for developing anti-viral therapeutics and improving clinical management.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lyre Anni Espada-Murao
- Department of Virology, Institute of Tropical Medicine, GCOE Programme, Nagasaki University, Sakamoto machi 1-12-4, Nagasaki 852-8523, Japan
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King JG, Vernick KD, Hillyer JF. Members of the salivary gland surface protein (SGS) family are major immunogenic components of mosquito saliva. J Biol Chem 2011; 286:40824-34. [PMID: 21965675 PMCID: PMC3220476 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m111.280552] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/07/2011] [Revised: 09/23/2011] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Mosquitoes transmit Plasmodium and certain arboviruses during blood feeding, when they are injected along with saliva. Mosquito saliva interferes with the host's hemostasis and inflammation response and influences the transmission success of some pathogens. One family of mosquito salivary gland proteins, named SGS, is composed of large bacterial-type proteins that in Aedes aegypti were implicated as receptors for Plasmodium on the basal salivary gland surface. Here, we characterize the biology of two SGSs in the malaria mosquito, Anopheles gambiae, and demonstrate their involvement in blood feeding. Western blots and RT-PCR showed that Sgs4 and Sgs5 are produced exclusively in female salivary glands, that expression increases with age and after blood feeding, and that protein levels fluctuate in a circadian manner. Immunohistochemistry showed that SGSs are present in the acinar cells of the distal lateral lobes and in the salivary ducts of the proximal lobes. SDS-PAGE, Western blots, bite blots, and immunization via mosquito bites showed that SGSs are highly immunogenic and form major components of mosquito saliva. Last, Western and bioinformatic analyses suggest that SGSs are secreted via a non-classical pathway that involves cleavage into a 300-kDa soluble fragment and a smaller membrane-bound fragment. Combined, these data strongly suggest that SGSs play an important role in blood feeding. Together with their role in malaria transmission, we propose that SGSs could be used as markers of human exposure to mosquito bites and in the development of disease control strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jonas G. King
- From the Department of Biological Sciences and Institute for Global Health, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, Tennessee 37235 and
| | - Kenneth D. Vernick
- the Department of Parasitology and Mycology, Institut Pasteur, Paris 75015, France
| | - Julián F. Hillyer
- From the Department of Biological Sciences and Institute for Global Health, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, Tennessee 37235 and
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Mecheri S. Contribution of allergic inflammatory response to the pathogenesis of malaria disease. Biochim Biophys Acta Mol Basis Dis 2011; 1822:49-56. [PMID: 21354307 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbadis.2011.02.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/30/2010] [Revised: 01/03/2011] [Accepted: 02/14/2011] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Abstract
Plasmodium falciparum, the aetiological agent of human lethal malaria, is responsible for over 2 million deaths per year and malaria episodes may vary considerably in their severity and clinical manifestations. Dysregulated balance of the inflammatory response and a defect in the anti-Plasmodium parasite immune response represent the hallmarks of malaria disease. Among the many possible mechanisms, it is now widely recognized that the production of pro-inflammatory mediators and cytokines and upregulation of endothelial cell adhesion molecules play important roles in malaria pathogenesis. We and others provided evidence that some components of allergic inflammatory response to malaria parasites or elicited by by-products of parasite infection may contribute to malaria pathogenesis. This review provides some clue regarding these mechanisms where mast cells and histamine, an inflammatory mediator generated following IgE-independent or IgE-mediated immune response, were found to play a major role in parasite transmission and malaria pathogenesis, respectively. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled: Mast cells in inflammation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Salaheddine Mecheri
- Biology of Host Parasite Interactions Unit, Institut Pasteur, Paris, France.
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Thangamani S, Higgs S, Ziegler S, Vanlandingham D, Tesh R, Wikel S. Host immune response to mosquito-transmitted chikungunya virus differs from that elicited by needle inoculated virus. PLoS One 2010; 5:e12137. [PMID: 20711354 PMCID: PMC2920837 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0012137] [Citation(s) in RCA: 83] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/23/2010] [Accepted: 07/20/2010] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Mosquito-borne diseases are a worldwide public health threat. Mosquitoes transmit viruses or parasites during feeding, along with salivary proteins that modulate host responses to facilitate both blood feeding and pathogen transmission. Understanding these earliest events in mosquito transmission of arboviruses by mosquitoes is essential for development and assessment of rational vaccine and treatment strategies. In this report, we compared host immune responses to chikungunya virus (CHIKV) transmission by (1) mosquito bite, or (2) by needle inoculation. METHODS AND FINDINGS Differential cytokine expression was measured using quantitative real-time RT-PCR, at sites of uninfected mosquito bites, CHIKV-infected mosquito bites, and needle-inoculated CHIKV. Both uninfected and CHIKV infected mosquitoes polarized host cytokine response to a TH2 profile. Compared to uninfected mosquito bites, expression of IL-4 induced by CHIKV-infected mosquitoes were 150 fold and 527.1 fold higher at 3 hours post feeding (hpf) and 6 hpf, respectively. A significant suppression of TH1 cytokines and TLR-3 was also observed. These significant differences may result from variation in the composition of uninfected and CHIKV-infected mosquito saliva. Needle injected CHIKV induced a robust interferon-gamma, no detectable IL-4, and a significant up-regulation of TLR-3. CONCLUSIONS This report describes the first analysis of cutaneous cytokines in mice bitten by CHIKV-infected mosquitoes. Our data demonstrate contrasting immune activation in the response to CHIKV infection by mosquito bite or needle inoculation. The significant role of mosquito saliva in these earliest events of CHIKV transmission and infection are highlighted.
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Affiliation(s)
- Saravanan Thangamani
- Department of Pathology, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, Texas, United States of America.
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Schneider BS, Soong L, Coffey LL, Stevenson HL, McGee CE, Higgs S. Aedes aegypti saliva alters leukocyte recruitment and cytokine signaling by antigen-presenting cells during West Nile virus infection. PLoS One 2010; 5:e11704. [PMID: 20661470 PMCID: PMC2908538 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0011704] [Citation(s) in RCA: 70] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/26/2010] [Accepted: 06/29/2010] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
West Nile virus (WNV) is transmitted during mosquito bloodfeeding. Consequently, the first vertebrate cells to contact WNV are cells in the skin, followed by those in the draining lymph node. Macrophages and dendritic cells are critical early responders in host defense against WNV infection, not just because of their role in orchestrating the immune response, but also because of their importance as sites of early peripheral viral replication. Antigen-presenting cell (APC) signals have a profound effect on host antiviral responses and disease severity. During transmission, WNV is intimately associated with mosquito saliva. Due to the ability of mosquito saliva to affect inflammation and immune responses, and the importance of understanding early events in WNV infection, we investigated whether mosquito saliva alters APC signaling during arbovirus infection, and if alterations in cell recruitment occur when WNV infection is initiated with mosquito saliva. Accordingly, experiments were performed with cultured dendritic cells and macrophages, flow cytometry was used to characterize infiltrating cell types in the skin and lymph nodes during early infection, and real-time RT-PCR was employed to evaluate virus and cytokine levels. Our in vitro results suggest that mosquito saliva significantly decreases the expression of interferon-beta and inducible nitric oxide synthase in macrophages (by as much as 50 and 70%, respectively), whilst transiently enhancing interleukin-10 (IL-10) expression. In vivo results indicate that the predominate effect of mosquito feeding is to significantly reduce the recruitment of T cells, leading the inoculation site of mice exposed to WNV alone to have up to 2.8 fold more t cells as mice infected in the presence of mosquito saliva. These shifts in cell population are associated with significantly elevated IL-10 and WNV (up to 4.0 and 10 fold, respectively) in the skin and draining lymph nodes. These results suggest that mosquito saliva dysregulates APC antiviral signaling, and reveal a possible mechanism for the observed enhancement of WNV disease mediated by mosquito saliva via a reduction of T lymphocyte and antiviral activity at the inoculation site, an elevated abundance of susceptible cell types, and a concomitant increase in immunoregulatory activity of IL-10.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bradley S. Schneider
- Department of Pathology, Center for Biodefense & Emerging Infectious Diseases, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, Texas, United States of America
| | - Lynn Soong
- Department of Pathology, Center for Biodefense & Emerging Infectious Diseases, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, Texas, United States of America
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, Texas, United States of America
| | - Lark L. Coffey
- Institut Pasteur, Department of Virology, Viral Populations and Pathogenesis Group, Paris, France
| | - Heather L. Stevenson
- Department of Pathology, Center for Biodefense & Emerging Infectious Diseases, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, Texas, United States of America
| | - Charles E. McGee
- Department of Pathology, Center for Biodefense & Emerging Infectious Diseases, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, Texas, United States of America
| | - Stephen Higgs
- Department of Pathology, Center for Biodefense & Emerging Infectious Diseases, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, Texas, United States of America
- * E-mail:
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The Yersinia pestis caf1M1A1 fimbrial capsule operon promotes transmission by flea bite in a mouse model of bubonic plague. Infect Immun 2008; 77:1222-9. [PMID: 19103769 DOI: 10.1128/iai.00950-08] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/19/2023] Open
Abstract
Plague is a zoonosis transmitted by fleas and caused by the gram-negative bacterium Yersinia pestis. During infection, the plasmidic caf1M1A1 operon that encodes the Y. pestis F1 protein capsule is highly expressed, and anti-F1 antibodies are protective. Surprisingly, the capsule is not required for virulence after injection of cultured bacteria, even though it is an antiphagocytic factor and capsule-deficient Y. pestis strains are rarely isolated. We found that a caf-negative Y. pestis mutant was not impaired in either flea colonization or virulence in mice after intradermal inoculation of cultured bacteria. In contrast, absence of the caf operon decreased bubonic plague incidence after a flea bite. Successful development of plague in mice infected by flea bite with the caf-negative mutant required a higher number of infective bites per challenge. In addition, the mutant displayed a highly autoaggregative phenotype in infected liver and spleen. The results suggest that acquisition of the caf locus via horizontal transfer by an ancestral Y. pestis strain increased transmissibility and the potential for epidemic spread. In addition, our data support a model in which atypical caf-negative strains could emerge during climatic conditions that favor a high flea burden. Human infection with such strains would not be diagnosed by the standard clinical tests that detect F1 antibody or antigen, suggesting that more comprehensive surveillance for atypical Y. pestis strains in plague foci may be necessary. The results also highlight the importance of studying Y. pestis pathogenesis in the natural context of arthropod-borne transmission.
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Tosta CE. Coadaptation and malaria control. Mem Inst Oswaldo Cruz 2007; 102:385-404. [PMID: 17568946 DOI: 10.1590/s0074-02762007005000042] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/06/2007] [Accepted: 03/22/2007] [Indexed: 01/22/2023] Open
Abstract
Malaria emerges from a disequilibrium of the system 'human-plasmodium-mosquito' (HPM). If the equilibrium is maintained, malaria does not ensue and the result is asymptomatic plasmodium infection. The relationships among the components of the system involve coadaptive linkages that lead to equilibrium. A vast body of evidence supports this assumption, including the strategies involved in the relationships between plasmodium and human and mosquito immune systems, and the emergence of resistance of plasmodia to antimalarial drugs and of mosquitoes to insecticides. Coadaptive strategies for malaria control are based on the following principles: (1) the system HPM is composed of three highly complex and dynamic components, whose interplay involves coadaptive linkages that tend to maintain the equilibrium of the system; (2) human and mosquito immune systems play a central role in the coadaptive interplay with plasmodium, and hence, in the maintenance of the system's equilibrium; the under- or overfunction of human immune system may result in malaria and influence its severity; (3) coadaptation depends on genetic and epigenetic phenomena occurring at the interfaces of the components of the system, and may involve exchange of infectrons (genes or gene fragments) between the partners; (4) plasmodia and mosquitoes have been submitted to selective pressures, leading to adaptation, for an extremely long while and are, therefore, endowed with the capacity to circumvent both natural (immunity) and artificial (drugs, insecticides, vaccines) measures aiming at destroying them; (5) since malaria represents disequilibrium of the system HPM, its control should aim at maintaining or restoring this equilibrium; (6) the disequilibrium of integrated systems involves the disequilibrium of their components, therefore the maintenance or restoration of the system's equilibrium depend on the adoption of integrated and coordinated measures acting on all components, that means, panadaptive strategies. Coadaptive strategies for malaria control should consider that: (1) host immune response has to be induced, since without it, no coadaptation is attained; (2) the immune response has to be sustained and efficient enough to avoid plasmodium overgrowth; (3) the immune response should not destroy all parasites; (4) the immune response has to be well controlled in order to not harm the host. These conditions are mostly influenced by antimalarial drugs, and should also be taken into account for the development of coadaptive malaria vaccines.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carlos Eduardo Tosta
- Laboratórios de Malária e de Imunologia Celular, Faculdade de Medicina, Universidade de Brasília, Brasília, DF, Brasil.
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Identification of an eosinophil chemotactic factor from anopheline mosquitoes as a chitinase family protein. Parasitol Res 2007; 102:357-63. [DOI: 10.1007/s00436-007-0769-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/11/2007] [Accepted: 09/21/2007] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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Cornelie S, Remoue F, Doucoure S, NDiaye T, Sauvage FX, Boulanger D, Simondon F. An insight into immunogenic salivary proteins of Anopheles gambiae in African children. Malar J 2007; 6:75. [PMID: 17550586 PMCID: PMC1891310 DOI: 10.1186/1475-2875-6-75] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/08/2007] [Accepted: 06/05/2007] [Indexed: 12/01/2022] Open
Abstract
Background During blood feeding, the mosquito injects saliva into the vertebrate host. This saliva contains bioactive components which may play a role in pathogen transmission and in host-vector relationships by inducing an immune response in the vertebrate host. The evaluation of human immune responses to arthropod bites might also represent a research direction for assessing individual exposure to the bite of a malaria vector. Methods The present study examined the antibody (Ab) IgG response during the season of exposure to Anopheles gambiae bites in young children living in a malaria endemic area. Immunoblots were performed with An. gambiae saliva to detect anti-saliva Ab bands and the evolution of immunogenic bands at the peak of, and following, the transmission period. Results The results showed that anti-Anopheles Ab was directed against a limited number of salivary proteins (175, 115, 72 and 30 kDa bands). Specific IgG responses to mosquito salivary proteins were variable among exposed individuals; nevertheless, two major bands (175 and 72 kDa) were observed in all immune-responder children. Analysis of the intensity of immunogenic bands revealed that IgG levels against the 175 kDa band were significantly higher during the peak period compared to the end period malaria transmission. Conclusion This preliminary work supports the potential of using anti-saliva immune responses as a measure of exposure to Anopheles bites. The use of immunoblots coupled with evaluation of band intensity could be an adequate tool for distinguishing immunogenic salivary proteins as candidate markers of bite exposure. Furthermore, this study may open the way to design new epidemiological tools for evaluating the risk of malaria exposure.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sylvie Cornelie
- Unité de Recherche Epidemiologie et Prevention (UR024), Centre IRD de Montpellier, BP 64501,911 avenue Agropolis, 34394 Montpellier cedex 5, France
| | - Franck Remoue
- Unité de Recherche Epidemiologie et Prevention (UR024), Campus IRD de Hann, BP1386, Route des Pères Maristes, CP 18524, Dakar, Sénégal
| | - Souleymane Doucoure
- Unité de Recherche Epidemiologie et Prevention (UR024), Campus IRD de Hann, BP1386, Route des Pères Maristes, CP 18524, Dakar, Sénégal
| | - Tofene NDiaye
- Unité de Recherche Epidemiologie et Prevention (UR024), Campus IRD de Hann, BP1386, Route des Pères Maristes, CP 18524, Dakar, Sénégal
| | - Francois-Xavier Sauvage
- UMR Sciences pour l'Œnologie, INRA Centre de Montpellier, 2 place Viala 34060 Montpellier cedex 1, France
| | - Denis Boulanger
- Unité de Recherche Epidemiologie et Prevention (UR024), Campus IRD de Hann, BP1386, Route des Pères Maristes, CP 18524, Dakar, Sénégal
| | - Francois Simondon
- Unité de Recherche Epidemiologie et Prevention (UR024), Centre IRD de Montpellier, BP 64501,911 avenue Agropolis, 34394 Montpellier cedex 5, France
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Fast MD, Johnson SC, Eddy TD, Pinto D, Ross NW. Lepeophtheirus salmonis secretory/excretory products and their effects on Atlantic salmon immune gene regulation. Parasite Immunol 2007; 29:179-89. [PMID: 17371455 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-3024.2007.00932.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 61] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
We have previously shown that Lepeophtheirus salmonis produces trypsin and prostaglandin E(2) (PGE(2)) that are most likely responsible for the limited inflammatory response of Atlantic salmon to infection. After removal of the dopamine and PGE(2), the immunomodulatory activity of unfractionated and pools of the fractionated secretions was determined by examining the effects of the secretions on Atlantic salmon immune gene expression. Incubation of macrophage-enriched isolates of Atlantic salmon head kidney cells with the unfractionated secretion + PGE(2) revealed a significant inhibition of interleukin-1beta (IL-1beta) and major histocompatibility class I gene expression. Inhibition of lipopolysaccharide-induced IL-1beta expression in the Atlantic salmon head kidney cell line (SHK-1) was observed when three pools of the secretory/excretory products were tested. Further purification of products within these pools revealed that fraction 1-2 could account fully for the inhibition of IL-1beta expression in SHK-1 cells observed in pooled fraction 1. This study demonstrates that there are other immunomodulatory compounds produced by L. salmonis, in addition to PGE(2) and trypsin, that can inhibit the expression of Atlantic salmon immune-related genes in vitro.
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Affiliation(s)
- M D Fast
- Institute for Marine Biosciences, National Research Council, Halifax, NS, Canada.
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Titus RG, Bishop JV, Mejia JS. The immunomodulatory factors of arthropod saliva and the potential for these factors to serve as vaccine targets to prevent pathogen transmission. Parasite Immunol 2006; 28:131-41. [PMID: 16542315 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-3024.2006.00807.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 84] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
In general, attempts to develop vaccines for pathogens transmitted by arthropods have met with little or no success. It has been widely observed that the saliva of arthropods that transmit disease enhances the infectivity of pathogens the arthropod transmits to the vertebrate host. Indeed, it has been observed that vaccinating against components of the saliva of arthropods or against antigens expressed in the gut of arthropods can protect the host from infection and decrease the viability of the arthropod. These results suggest that multi-subunit vaccines that target the pathogen itself as well as arthropod salivary gland components and arthropod gut antigens may be the most effective at controlling arthropod-borne pathogens as these vaccines would target several facets of the lifecycle of the pathogen. This review covers known immunomodulators in arthropod salivary glands, instances when arthropod saliva has been shown to enhance infection and a limited number of examples of antiarthropod vaccines, with emphasis on three arthropods: sandflies, mosquitoes and hard ticks.
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Affiliation(s)
- R G Titus
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Pathology, Colorado State University, 80523, USA
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Depinay N, Hacini F, Beghdadi W, Peronet R, Mécheri S. Mast Cell-Dependent Down-Regulation of Antigen-Specific Immune Responses by Mosquito Bites. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2006; 176:4141-6. [PMID: 16547250 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.176.7.4141] [Citation(s) in RCA: 112] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
While probing host skin to search for blood vessels, the female Anopheles mosquito delivers Plasmodium parasites in the presence of saliva. Saliva from various blood-feeding vectors which contains several pharmacologically active components is believed to facilitate blood feeding as well as parasite transmission to the host. Recently, we found that mosquito saliva has the capacity to activate dermal mast cells and to induce local inflammatory cell influx. Our main objective in the present work is to investigate whether saliva, through mosquito bites, controls the magnitude of Ag-specific immune responses and whether this control is dependent on the mast cell-mediated inflammatory response. Using a mast cell knockin mouse model, we found that mosquito bites consistently induced MIP-2 in the skin and IL-10 in draining lymph nodes, and down-regulate Ag-specific T cell responses by a mechanism dependent on mast cells and mediated by IL-10. Our results provide evidence for new mechanisms which may operate during Plasmodium parasite transmission by mosquito bites.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nadya Depinay
- Unité des Réponses Précoces aux Parasites et Immunopathologie, Institut Pasteur, Paris, France
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Remoue F, Cisse B, Ba F, Sokhna C, Herve JP, Boulanger D, Simondon F. Evaluation of the antibody response to Anopheles salivary antigens as a potential marker of risk of malaria. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 2005; 100:363-70. [PMID: 16310235 DOI: 10.1016/j.trstmh.2005.06.032] [Citation(s) in RCA: 112] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/25/2004] [Revised: 06/03/2005] [Accepted: 06/06/2005] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
The evaluation of human immune responses to arthropod bites may be a useful marker of exposure to vector-borne diseases, with applications to malaria, the most serious parasitic infection in humans. The specific antibody (Ab) IgG response to saliva obtained from Anopheles gambiae mosquitoes was evaluated in young children from an area of seasonal malaria transmission in Senegal. Specific IgG was higher in children who developed clinical Plasmodium falciparum malaria within the 3 months that followed than in those who did not (P<0.05), and it increased significantly (P<0.0001) with the level of Anopheles exposure, as evaluated by conventional entomological methods. These results suggest that evaluation of antisalivary Ab responses could be a useful approach for identifying a marker for the risk of malaria transmission.
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Affiliation(s)
- Franck Remoue
- Institut de Recherche pour le Développement (IRD), UR24 "Epidémiologie et Prévention" Unit, Centre IRD de Hann, BP 1386, Dakar, Sénégal.
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Gillan V, Devaney E. Mosquito transmission modulates the immune response in mice infected with the L3 of Brugia pahangi. Parasite Immunol 2005; 26:359-63. [PMID: 15679633 DOI: 10.1111/j.0141-9838.2004.00714.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
Abstract
Mice infected by syringe inoculation with the L3 of the filarial nematode Brugia pahangi generate a strong Th2 response. In this study we compared immune responses in mice infected via syringe with those infected by mosquito transmission of L3. Levels of antigen-specific IL-4, IL-5 and IL-10 were significantly reduced in mice infected via mosquito. A possible explanation of these results was that mice infected via mosquito received fewer L3 than those infected via syringe. To investigate this possibility, mice were infected with different numbers of L3 (50, 25 or 10). However there was no difference in responses in these animals, suggesting that the reduced immune reactivity in mice infected by mosquito cannot be solely ascribed to exposure to lower numbers of parasites. These results also demonstrate that the L3 is an extremely potent stimulus for Th2 differentiation, with 10 L3 sufficient to drive a strong Th2 response. The differences in immune reactivity between syringe and mosquito infected mice may relate to the presence of immuno-suppressive factors in mosquito saliva inoculated at the time of transmission or may reflect the interaction of L3 with different populations of antigen presenting cells in the two groups of mice. Further studies will be required to differentiate between these possibilities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Victoria Gillan
- Veterinary Parasitology, Institute of Comparative Medicine, University of Glasgow, Garscube Estate, Bearsden Road, Glasgow G61 1QH, UK
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Demeure CE, Brahimi K, Hacini F, Marchand F, Péronet R, Huerre M, St-Mezard P, Nicolas JF, Brey P, Delespesse G, Mécheri S. AnophelesMosquito Bites Activate Cutaneous Mast Cells Leading to a Local Inflammatory Response and Lymph Node Hyperplasia. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2005; 174:3932-40. [PMID: 15778349 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.174.7.3932] [Citation(s) in RCA: 105] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
When Anopheles mosquitoes probe the skin for blood feeding, they inject saliva in dermal tissue. Mosquito saliva is known to exert various biological activities, but its perception by the immune system and its role in parasite transmission remain poorly understood. In the present study, we report on the cellular changes occurring in the mouse skin and draining lymph nodes after a Anopheles stephensi mosquito bite. We show that mosquito bites induce dermal mast cell degranulation, leading to fluid extravasation and neutrophil influx. This inflammatory response does not occur in mast cell-deficient W/W(v) mice, unless these are reconstituted specifically with mast cells. Mast cell activation caused by A. stephensi mosquito bites is followed by hyperplasia of the draining lymph node due to the accumulation of CD3(+), B220(+), CD11b(+), and CD11c(+) leukocytes. The T cell enrichment of the draining lymph nodes results from their sequestration from the circulation rather than local proliferation. These data demonstrate that mosquito bites and very likely saliva rapidly trigger the immune system, emphasizing the critical contribution of peripheral mast cells in inducing T cell and dendritic cell recruitment within draining lymph nodes, a prerequisite for the elicitation of T and B lymphocyte priming.
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Ader DB, Celluzzi C, Bisbing J, Gilmore L, Gunther V, Peachman KK, Rao M, Barvir D, Sun W, Palmer DR. Modulation of dengue virus infection of dendritic cells by Aedes aegypti saliva. Viral Immunol 2004; 17:252-65. [PMID: 15279703 DOI: 10.1089/0882824041310496] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Dengue virus (DV) is a flavivirus carried by the Aedes aegypti mosquito that causes a spectrum of illnesses in the tropics, including dengue fever, dengue hemorrhagic fever, and dengue shock syndrome. Dendritic cells (DCs) are professional antigen presenting cells recently shown to be permissive for DV, and implicated as the primary targets of initial DV infection. DV is transmitted to human host by infected mosquitoes during a blood meal, but it is currently unknown whether transmission is modified by vector saliva that is also deposited in the host's skin during feeding. Previous studies evaluated only the outcome of DV infection of DCs, and did not address the influence of mosquito saliva. To more fully characterize natural transmission of DV, we evaluated the effects of Ae. aegypti saliva on DV infection of human myeloid DCs. We found that saliva inhibited DV infection in DCs. Moreover, pre-sensitization of DCs with saliva, prior to DV infection, enhanced inhibition. In addition, enhanced production of IL-12p70 and TNF-alpha were detected in DV-infected DC cultures exposed to mosquito saliva. The proportion of dead cells was also significantly reduced in these cultures. These data contribute to the overall understanding of the natural pathogenesis of DV infection and suggest that there is a protective role for mosquito saliva that limits viral uptake by DCs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel B Ader
- Department of Virus Diseases, Walter Reed Army Institute of Research, Silver Spring, Maryland 20810, USA
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Montero-Solis C, Gonzalez-Ceron L, Rodriguez MH, Cirerol BE, Zamudio F, Possanni LD, James AA, de la Cruz Hernandez-Hernandez F. Identification and characterization of gp65, a salivary-gland-specific molecule expressed in the malaria vector Anopheles albimanus. INSECT MOLECULAR BIOLOGY 2004; 13:155-164. [PMID: 15056363 DOI: 10.1111/j.0962-1075.2004.00473.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/24/2023]
Abstract
A group of salivary-gland-specific proteins, designated gp65, were identified in the mosquito Anopheles albimanus. Two-dimensional gel electrophoresis resolved this group into at least four molecules with pI 6.4-6.5. The N-terminal amino acid sequence was determined for the major species, gp65-1, and degenerate oligonucleotide primers were used to amplify a specific probe for library screening. A 1312 bp cDNA clone encoding a predicted translation product of 386 amino acids was recovered. gp65-1 is expressed abundantly in the medial and distal-lateral lobes of the adult female glands, and is secreted in the saliva. The amino acid sequence has potential sites for N-glycosylation, phosphorylation and myristylation, and is similar to a number of proteins of unknown function from other mosquito species.
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Affiliation(s)
- C Montero-Solis
- Centro de Investigación y de Estudios Avanzados del Instituto Politécnico Nacional, Av. Instituto Politécnico Nacional 2508, Col. San Pedro Zacatenco, México D.F., México
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Peng Z, Simons FER. Mosquito Allergy: Immune Mechanisms and Recombinant Salivary Allergens. Int Arch Allergy Immunol 2004; 133:198-209. [PMID: 14963366 DOI: 10.1159/000076787] [Citation(s) in RCA: 83] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Reactions to mosquito bites are immunological in nature, with the involvement of IgE-, IgG- and T lymphocyte-mediated hypersensitivities. Acquired desensitization to mosquito saliva may occur during childhood and adolescence or during long-term exposure to mosquito bites. Due to the lack of salivary preparations, allergic reactions to mosquito bites are underdiagnosed and undertreated. Recombinant mosquito saliva allergens with biological activity are being developed. These recombinant allergens will significantly improve diagnosis of mosquito allergy and eventually will also improve specific immunotherapy for patients with systemic reactions to mosquito bites.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhikang Peng
- Department of Pediatrics and Child Health, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, Canada.
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Malafronte RDS, Calvo E, James AA, Marinotti O. The major salivary gland antigens of Culex quinquefasciatus are D7-related proteins. INSECT BIOCHEMISTRY AND MOLECULAR BIOLOGY 2003; 33:63-71. [PMID: 12459201 DOI: 10.1016/s0965-1748(02)00168-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/24/2023]
Abstract
The sera of persons with strong allergic responses to the bites of the mosquito, Culex quinquefasciatus, contained IgE antibodies reactive with two major salivary gland proteins with molecular weights of 35 and 28 kDa. These antigens were purified, their amino termini sequenced, and the sequences were used to search for similar sequences in public databases. Two cDNAs, CuQu-D7Clu1 and CuQu-D7Clu12, which encode D7-related proteins, were identified as containing predicted amino acid sequences identical to the 35 and 28 kDa antigens, respectively. These proteins are expressed specifically in adult female salivary glands and, their predicted tertiary structures are consistent with a role as carriers of hydrophobic molecules in mosquito saliva.
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