Influences of culture and environmental attitude on thermal, emotional and perceptual evaluations of a public square

Evaluating the impact of added greenery on perceived factors of an urban environment in virtual reality

The wellbeing effects of urban greenspace are well established, but may be more attributable to pedestrians' perceptions than objective levels of greenery. An immersive virtual environment was designed with three levels of roadside greenery: no trees, 200 trees, and 400 trees. Participants were asked to rate each for several perceived and objective factors, and gave their years lived experience in urban, rural, and suburban environments. Trees impacted perceptions of beauty and greenness, and, slightly, building heights. Controlling for urban experience significantly lessened the impact of trees, but showed that perceived greenness had higher significant correlations to all other outcomes.

Clothing and Outdoor Thermal Comfort (OTC) in tourist environments: a case study from Porto (Portugal)

This study focuses on assessing tourists' perception of bioclimatic comfort in the urban context of Porto, Portugal, specifically in the areas of Avenida dos Aliados and Praça da Liberdade. The study examines the relationship between meteorological conditions, tourists' clothing choices, and their physical activity levels. The study integrates microclimatic measurements and questionnaire surveys carried out during the summers of 2019 and 2020, and the winter of 2019-2020. A comprehensive questionnaire following international standards was administered to a representative sample of 563 tourists. The results show significant variations in mean air temperature (AT), wind speed (Wχ), relative humidity (RH), global radiation (GRAD), and total mean radiant temperature (TMRT) over the study periods. The assessment of Outdoor Thermal Comfort (OTC) is based on ASHRAE 55 standards, using the Thermal Sensation Vote (TSV) scale and the tourists' opinions on their thermal preferences. Clothing choices are found to be influenced by AT, with tourists choosing lighter clothing in warmer conditions. Gender and age differences in clothing insulation (Icl) are identified, suggesting potential differences in OTC perception. AT varied significantly, with an inflection point in clothing choices at 21.7°C and a correlation between AT and reduction in clothing layers (r2 = 0.846; p < 0.05). The study also observes seasonal variations in physical activity levels of tourists, with higher activity levels in summer due to milder weather (110.0 W·m⁻2). More thermally comfortable environments tend to promote a sense of well-being among visitors, which directly affects their satisfaction during their stay in the city. When tourists feel comfortable with the thermal conditions of the urban environment, they are more likely to explore and enjoy local attractions for longer periods of time, thereby enhancing their cultural and leisure experiences. Women tend to wear fewer layers of clothing than men in summer, reflecting potential differences in OTC perception. Results align with previous studies, indicating the impact of clothing insulation of individual subject (Icl) on OTC varies across locations and cultures. Cultural factors influence clothing preferences and thermal tolerance, emphasizing the need for nuanced considerations in understanding OTC perceptions. The study provides to the understanding of the OTC of tourists in the city of Porto, but also offers relevant contributions for improving the visitor experience and sustainable development, namely in other geographical contexts. The major contribution of this research lies in the comparative analysis of Icl and OTC between tourists, based on physical measurements and questionnaire surveys conducted in summer and winter, providing valuable insights for tourist spot design.

Machine learning thermal comfort prediction models based on occupant demographic characteristics

This study aims to investigate the predictive occupant demographic characteristics of thermal sensation (TS) and thermal satisfaction (TSa) as well as to find the most effective machine learning (ML) algorithms for predicting TS and TSa. To achieve this, a survey campaign was carried out in three mixed-mode buildings to develop TS and TSa prediction models by using six ML algorithms (Logistic Regression, Naïve Bayes, Decision Tree (DT), Random Forest (RF), K-Nearest Neighborhood (KNN) and Support Vector Machine). The prediction models were developed based on six demographic characteristics (gender, age, thermal history, education level, income, occupation). The results show that gender, age, and thermal history are significant predictors of both TS and TSa. Education level, income, and occupation were not significant predictors of TS, but were significant predictors of TSa. The study also found that RF and KNN are the most effective ML algorithms for predicting TS, while DT and RF are the most effective ML algorithms for predicting TSa. The study found that the accuracy of TS prediction models ranges from 83% to 99%, with neutral being the most correctly classified scale. The accuracy of TSa prediction models ranges from 84% to 97%, with dissatisfaction being the most common misclassification.

The thermal comfort of pedestrians in a humid subtropical climate according to different thermal perception ratings

This study aims to evaluate agreement among subjective thermal comfort, thermal sensation, thermal perception, and thermal tolerance indices, according to pedestrians in downtown Santa Maria, southern Brazil, which has a humid subtropical climate (Cfa). Between August 2015 and July 2016 (three periods), 1728 questionnaires were applied. Evaluation of the dependence of statistical variables was based on gender and age, at three periods of time: August 2015 (864 respondents), January 2016 (432 respondents), and July 2016 (432 respondents). Statistical evaluation was based on Pearson's chi-square test using RStudio software, and a significance level (α) of 5% for thermal comfort, thermal sensation, thermal preference, and thermal tolerance was used. Results indicated that age and gender affect the relationship between the variables. Thermal comfort and thermal tolerance presented the best correlation and coherence, regardless of age or gender. This study contributes to knowledge on the local microclimate and can contribute to urban planning to implement strategies that improve pedestrians' thermal comfort.

A systematic review advocating a framework and benchmarks for assessing outdoor human thermal perception

Since the early 2000's, much attention has been paid to human thermal assessment in urban outdoor environments in different climatic zones. Some previous studies have argued that an absence of an agreed protocol for outdoor human bio-meteorological research causes complexity in comparing the studies' results for several reasons: An abundance of human thermal indices, a variety of interpretations of bio-meteorological terms, an array of procedures for data collection and a lack of agreed methods in determining thermal comfort ranges and index modifications. This study aims to review strategies and methods for human bio-meteorological research and to examine their suitability for thermal perception assessment. From 2001 to 2021, 254 case studies assessed human thermal perception by investigating in-situ thermal conditions versus subjective thermal perception, relying on protocols such as ASHRAE Standard 55 and EN ISO 10551 that were originally developed for indoor environments. Fifty-four cases determined different ranges for thermal comfort. Although 43 studies tried to modify indices to various climatic zones, only 13 studies modified the nine PET physiological stress categories and 4 studies modified the ten UTCI stress categories). Thus, comparisons between the studies' results become complicated. Our review points to three main reasons for the complexity: first, the 7-point TSV scales, does not always fit the scales of the applied thermal index; second, measurement procedures do not always represent the local climate conditions; third, certain methods for modifying thermal index scale thresholds are not capable of modifying the entire index scale. On the basis of our findings, we suggest a framework for bio-meteorological research, with attention to measurement procedure, appropriate questionnaire design, careful data control and suitable methods to enable modification of thermal indices. This study recommends applying systematic and objective statistical methods like linear regression and discriminant analysis in order to successfully modify the entire index scale.

Spatial Differences in Outdoor Thermal Comfort during the Transition Season in Cold Regions of China

This study investigates the differences in outdoor thermal comfort in different spatial types over long-term observations during the transition season in a cold region. Using the Universal Thermal Climate Index (UTCI) as an evaluation index, subjective questionnaires and field surveys were conducted on thermal comfort in three different typical outdoor environments (sunlight, tree shade and building shade) in Dalian (Northeast China). The results demonstrated the following: (1) Air temperature and mean radiant temperature were the dominant meteorological factors affecting outdoor thermal comfort in Dalian. (2) The main thermal sensation recorded in the transition season was “slightly cool”. Over time, the human thermal sensation experienced a gradual transition from “hot” to “cold”. (3) Compared with direct sunlight, the average UTCI decreased by 6.6 and 3.5 °C for building shade and tree shade environments, and the neutral UTCI in Dalian was found to be 18.8 °C. Subjects were most sensitive to the thermal environment in building shade, then in tree shade and the least in sunlight. (4) When UTCI ≥ 21.9 °C, the thermal acceptability rate in building shade remained the highest; when 10.2 °C ≤ UTCI < 21.9 °C, it was highest in tree shade; and when the UTCI < 10.2 °C, it was highest in sunlight. This study verifies the UTCI applicability in the transition season in cold regions and analyzes the spatial differences in human thermal comfort. These differences play a positive role in developing optimization strategies for outdoor thermal environments, improving environmental satisfaction and facilitating pedestrian outdoor activities.

A Systematic Review of Objective Factors Influencing Behavior in Public Open Spaces

As a significant part of outdoor built-environment, public open spaces are closely associated with people's daily lives. Studies of outdoor behavior in these spaces can shed light on users' environmental perceptions and contribute to the promotion of physiological and psychological health. Many recent studies are case studies focused where observations, surveys and interviews have been conducted to understand the factors influencing people's behavior on one or few sites or city environments. There have been few reviews related to this topic, and none have been based on the systematic understanding of influencing factors. This paper presents a systematic review of interactions between behavior and the built environment in public open spaces, and highlights the impacts of diverse and objective influencing factors. Followed the rules of PRISMA method (Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses), 109 papers published in 2000-2021 were selected and reviewed. The distribution of the studied interactions is analyzed, and the impacts of four distinct factors: personal background, location and context, environmental component, and climate stimuli, are extracted, categorized, and specified. Moreover, outdoor health benefits are discussed based on which, crucial factors that require emphasis after the outbreak of COVID-19 are identified. Throughout this paper, behavioral influencing processes, including objective influencing factors, subjective feedback, and the relationships involved, are considered to provide a comprehensive picture. With the robust classification of existing factors, architects, urban designers, policy makers and fellow researches could be easier to get a more comprehensive trend from the past. This paper also provides guidance for future research, especially given that COVID-19 has created huge changes to outdoor needs and customary behavior. Systematic Review Registration: http://www.prisma-statement.org/.

Using Structural Equation Modeling to Examine Pathways Between Environmental Characteristics and Perceived Restorativeness on Public Rooftop Gardens in China

As a kind of informal green space more closely related to the built environment, public rooftop gardens (PRGs) are novel green open space and important salutogenic resource for urban residents. It is one of the most easily accessible method for urban residents to be in contact with outdoor or natural elements from the context of high-altitude living. Given its potential health benefits to city dwellers, existing empirical studies are heavily focused on immediate recovery through visually accessing PRGs (through windows), neglecting the possibility of using PRGs physically as a place of interaction. This paper hypothesizes usage patterns will mediate the associations between the environmental characteristics of PRG and users' restoration. This is done through inputting data from 12 typical samples of PRG in Chengdu, China into structural equation model (SEM). Combining the concept of Perceived Sensory Dimensions (PSD) and Perceived Restorativeness Scales (PRS) with the usage patterns of the above samples, this study aims to examine the correlation of environmental characteristics, usage pattern and restoration, in which identify their relative importance in the context of PRGs. Through serials of numerical tests on the model, the study shows that out of the 20 theoretical pathways constructed by the environmental characteristics (x)–usage patterns (m)–restorative effect (y), only 14 forms a significant correlation. In addition, out of all PSDs, social, serene, refuge, space and nature dimensions are induced into restorative effects through four patterns of use: retreat, nature touch, interpersonal interaction and family-bonding activities. The findings also show that social and family-bonding are the most influential independent and mediating variables respectively in achieving restorative effects in the PRG. This study reveals important findings about how usage patterns mediate the association between the PSD and PRS of users. And it also has generated practical implications on how we can design public rooftop gardens from the perspective of restoration, which could potentially be the key to the future survival and development of PRGs in urban environments.

The Street Walkability and Thermal Comfort Index (SWTCI): A new assessment tool combining street design measurements and thermal comfort

In recent years, walkability is increasingly integrated into sustainability strategies, considering its many health and environmental benefits. Besides, thermal comfort also has been progressively promoted as a critical measure for pedestrian comfort and wellbeing. Despite the relevance of the two concepts, few studies combined them in a comprehensive model. This study considers thermal comfort in assessing walkability by developing a new measurement tool, the Street Walkability and Thermal Comfort Index (SWTCI), which focuses on comfort facilities and Physiological Equivalent Temperature (PET), at the street scale. The applied point system method requires combining a questionnaire survey, observations, and in situ measurements (air temperature, wind velocity, and relative humidity). The questionnaire survey (330 responders) measured 21 street design indicators' importance, using a five-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (least important) to 5 (very important). The observation technique seeks to evaluate every pedestrian comfort indicator score (Si_s). The in situ measurements permit Envi-met's calibrated data validation and getting the mean radian temperature (T_mrt). Those were considered in the PET's calculation using Rayman software. Three distinct streets have been chosen in Annaba city, Algeria, within the Mediterranean climate (Csa). The results show that the SWTCI achieves its highest score on the three streets when the thermal perception is neutral (20 < PET <26), and its lowest score, with a warm thermal sensation (28 < PET < 31). Despite the divergence in PET values, the highest score of SWTCI was 33%, reflecting a low comfort quality and minimal pedestrian facilities. Applying the SWTCI method can transform uncomfortable streets into an ideal walkable and pleasant path by finding the problems and proposing improvements.

Heterogeneity in outdoor comfort assessment in urban public spaces

The assessment of outdoor comfort can provide valuable insights into the quality of urban public spaces. Rational indices based on the heat-balance model have been extensively used for assessing thermal comfort in various outdoor environments for a long time. However, a growing body of literature is arguing the theoretical limitations of rational indices, including the lack of contextual considerations and the non-consideration of the active role of human being. Furthermore, the well-documented inconsistency in previous investigations suggests individuals' heterogeneous thermal expectations, preferences and adaptations typically depend on person-related and place-related contexts. Nevertheless, the study of heterogeneity in comfort assessment remains fragmentary. In an attempt to incorporate heterogeneity into a comprehensive conceptual framework of outdoor comfort, this study develops a latent class path model based on empirical data of 701 respondents from Eindhoven, the Netherlands. We identified two latent classes associated with different causal structures underlying the assessment of outdoor comfort. Meanwhile, the membership of latent classes is identified based on respondents' socio-demographic and behavioral covariates. The results show that, with respect to the influence on comfort assessment, the exogenous and endogenous variables are varying in effectiveness and strength between the two latent classes. Latent class 1 assesses the outdoor comfort mainly based on thermal sensation and expectations of thermal and wind conditions, whereas latent class 2 comprehensively considered both thermal and non-thermal influences, especially, the psychological acceptability and need satisfaction of outdoor activity. Our findings suggest that, in addition to the expanded framework of outdoor comfort study, understanding the heterogeneity in respondents' comfort perception is needed to comprehensively address the approaches to archive the comfortable urban public spaces in design, planning and management practices.

Interactive effect between long-term and short-term thermal history on outdoor thermal comfort: Comparison between Guangzhou, Zhuhai and Melbourne

Thermal history can influence human thermal comfort through physiological (short-term) and psychological (long-term) aspects. However, the nature of the interaction between long-term and short-term thermal history is unclear. To investigate the interactive effects of long-term and short-term thermal history on outdoor thermal comfort, we conducted summer thermal comfort surveys in Melbourne (n = 3293, January-February 2014), Guangzhou, and Zhuhai (n = 4304, September 2018). The mean thermal sensation of residents of Guangzhou was higher than that of Melbourne and Zhuhai residents under a similar Universal Thermal Climate Index (UTCI) range. The preferred UTCI was the highest for Melbourne residents (19.62 °C). When UTCI was 25.6-38.4 °C, respondents' mean thermal sensation from Köppen climate zones A, B, and C was significantly higher in Guangzhou than those of Zhuhai and Melbourne. A three-way ANOVA test revealed that peoples' thermal sensations depended on a significant interaction among UTCI thermal stress levels, climate zones, and prior exposure environment. The prior exposure environment could affect the difference in thermal perception between climate zones. However, there was no significant interaction between climate zones and activity engaged in before taking the survey on thermal sensation. The difference in the thermal perception of various climate zones diminished under universally uncomfortable conditions for specific prior exposure environments and activities. The socio-ecological system model, environmental perception theory, climatocultural adaptation, and alliesthesia are useful for understanding the interactive effect of long- and short-term thermal history on outdoor thermal comfort. By revealing how people adapt to different climatic environments, our results can help ensure that people with diverse climatic backgrounds can experience thermal comfort outdoors.

A comprehensive review of thermal comfort studies in urban open spaces

Urban open spaces provide various benefits to large populations in cities. Since thermally comfortable urban open spaces improve the quality of urban living, an increasing number of studies have been conducted to extend the existing knowledge of outdoor thermal comfort. This paper comprehensively reviews current outdoor thermal comfort studies, including benchmarks, data collection methods, and models of outdoor thermal comfort. Because outdoor thermal comfort is a complex issue influenced by various factors, a conceptual framework is proposed which includes physical, physiological and psychological factors as direct influences; and behavioral, personal, social, cultural factors, as well as thermal history, site, and alliesthesia, as indirect influences. These direct and indirect factors are further decomposed and reviewed, and the interactions among various factors are discussed. This review provides researchers with a systematic and comprehensive understanding of outdoor thermal comfort, and can also guide designers and planners in creating thermally comfortable urban open spaces.

Impacts of Tree Canopy Cover on Microclimate and Human Thermal Comfort in a Shallow Street Canyon in Wuhan, China

Increasing the number of street trees can be a promising method to reduce impacts of climate change currently impacting urban public health. However, the quantitative relationships between tree canopy cover and thermal comfort remains unclear, particularly in areas with high temperature and high humidity. This study aims to provide a better understanding of the effects of different degrees of tree canopy cover on human thermal comfort in shallow street canyons in a high temperature, high humidity area of China. Microclimatic measurements and qualitative surveys were conducted on sunny summer days in a shallow street canyon in Wuhan. The results suggest that microclimate benefits are greater for areas with a high-percentage tree canopy cover compared to medium- and low-percentage tree canopy cover—especially at noon. In streets with a high-percentage tree canopy cover, afternoon air temperatures and mean radiant temperatures can be reduced by up to 3.3 °C and 13.9 °C, respectively, compared to a similar street with no tree shade. The thermal sensation prediction formula is proposed and the relationship between human thermal sensation and microclimate factors is established. Blocking solar radiation and increasing wind speed are more feasible than controlling air temperature and humidity as ways to improve human thermal comfort.

Improving street walkability: Biometeorological assessment of artificial-partial shade structures in summer sunny conditions

Recent rapid urbanization has rendered outdoor space a key quality-of-life factor, yet walkability studies especially in hot-humid climates have seldom considered human biometeorology. This site-level study investigated microclimatic functions of an overhead structure in improving walkability, and identified biometeorology-related factors influencing pedestrian behaviour. A walkway with overhead tinted glass cover, demarcated into sunny zone and shaded zone, was equipped with hanging aluminium fins. Human thermal sensation was approximated by physiologically equivalent temperature (PET) and universal thermal climate index (UTCI), both closely related to global solar radiation and black-globe temperature. Pedestrian flow was tallied by demographic factors to assess the choice between shaded or sunny zones. Compared with sunny zone, shaded zone slashed maximum global solar radiation by 432 W/m² in full effect to achieve 90% solar radiation reduction. The maximum cooling in air and black-globe temperatures reached 0.8 °C and 6.1 °C respectively. The overhead structure imposed minimal effect on wind field in both zones. Contrast in maximum PET and UTCI between the two zones reached 8.2 °C and 5.3 °C respectively. In shaded zone, the dominant biometeorological condition was moderate heat stress or slightly warm sensation in contrast to strong heat stress or warm sensation in sunny zone. An overall preference for shaded zone was detected. Pedestrian gender and age, namely female and elderly, were significantly associated with shaded zone preference. The findings could inspire a biometeorological perspective in understanding walking behaviour and pedestrian-friendly facilities. Biometeorological-sensitive design of artificial shade could improve walkability in urban environment that increasingly demands climate change proofing.

Relationships Between Identity, Well-Being, and Willingness to Sacrifice in Personal and Collective Favorite Places: The Mediating Role of Well-Being

In line with research indicating positive associations between well-being and personal and collective people-place bonding, and that collectivistic compared to individualistic commitment may have stronger associations with pro-environmental behavior, we investigated relationships between identity, well-being, and willingness to sacrifice (type of pro-environmental behavior) in personal and collective favorite places. A total of 884 respondents, living in three Swedish municipalities, participated in this study. In line with the hypotheses, we showed congruent positive relationships between place-related: (1) personal identity and personal well-being; (2) collective identity and collective well-being, (3) collective identity and collective willingness to sacrifice; and (4) an incongruent positive association between collective identity and personal willingness to sacrifice. Additionally, a significant role of well-being in mediating the identity → willingness to sacrifice relationship was reported, suggesting that our willingness to pay higher taxes and prices and to accept cuts in standard of living in order to protect our personal and collective favorite places might be accounted for partly by how we feel visiting these places.

Photographic comparison: a method for qualitative outdoor thermal perception surveys

This article addresses the use of photographic comparison as a complementary visual appraisal method in an outdoor thermal perception survey. This survey was carried out during a Ph.D. research exploring how materials and vegetation influence thermal comfort in outdoor public spaces. Objective and subjective thermal perception parameters were combined and quantitative and qualitative research methods were used. The quantitative methods included microclimatic measurements, whilst the qualitative methods comprised observations and spatially localised interviews based on a questionnaire and the photographic comparison. This article explores how such visual research method allowed triangulating findings of this field survey. Three non-edited photographs of outdoor public spaces, under similar summer meteorological conditions but with contrasting spatial features, were shown to respondents to the questionnaire. The photographs depicted undisclosed locations for preventing biased emotional appreciations. Respondents were asked to select the potentially most comfortable and uncomfortable environments depicted. The choice of photographs matched the previous answers on the thermal sensation and evaluation judgement scales. Hence, we discuss the way the visual interpretations by respondents allowed the triangulation of in situ thermal perception data. The extent to which thermal comfort can be interpreted from thermal environments depicted in photographs containing clear visual signs is further discussed. The article concludes on how such a visual appraisal method can be valuable for enriching future qualitative outdoor thermal perception surveys with subjective interpretation of visual data.

Exploring outdoor thermal perception-a revised model

This paper aims at extending earlier models of outdoor thermal perception by fusing new knowledge from recent literature and deriving perspectives for future research and methods from the new model. Previous models focused on physical and physiological aspects. Only recently, the psychological aspects of thermal perception received more attention, such as spatial perception. Furthermore, in recent literature on thermal perception, two time scales have been described: the short-term and the long-term thermal perception. Based on this new literature, we develop a conceptual, more comprehensive model that takes these factors into account as well. It hypothesizes how thermal sensation and psychological processes interact on the two time scales. However, to be able to describe relationships between psychological aspects of thermal perception more precisely, more research is required on the following issues: (1) influence of momentary personal references and preferences (e.g., mood), (2) influence of long-term personal references and preferences (e.g., cultural aspects, habituation), and (3) influence of the perception of the spatial environment on thermal perception. Moreover, the relation between momentary and long-term thermal perception has not been studied yet. We conclude this paper with an outlook on possible methods to study these factors.

Semantics of outdoor thermal comfort in religious squares of composite climate: New Delhi, India

Religious spaces are an integral part of Indian cities. Unique in their spatiality, they function as socio-cultural hubs drawing users from varied economic and social hierarchies. This study deals with physical and perceptional assessments of micrometeorological conditions in two religious squares namely Hanuman Mandir Square (HMS) and Gurudwara Bangla Sahib Square (GBS) located in New Delhi (28.6° N; 77.2° E), India. The study involved real-time physical measurement of environmental variables such as dry-bulb temperature (T_a, °C), globe temperature (T_g, °C), relative humidity (RH), and air velocity (V_a). Variables such as physiological effective temperature (PET), universal thermal comfort index (UTCI), and mean radiant temperature (T_mrt, °C) were computed from measured variables. Concurrent thermal comfort surveys were carried out with 353 respondents in both the squares. The paper describes the thermal characteristics of the studied squares and presents the associated subjective thermal response and preferences of the users. PET was found to correlate well with the subjective responses. The neutral value of PET is found to be 24.7 °C. The neutral PET value of respondents visiting for non-worship purposes was found to be 2.7 °C lesser than those visiting for worship purposes. People visiting the squares for non-worship purpose however were found to be more tolerant of higher PET conditions as compared to others. Factors such as intent of visit, solar exposure, thermal history, and landscape elements were found to have a statistically significant influence on the thermal perception. The paper further summarizes the adaptive opportunities preferred by the users in order to improve thermal comfort in the studied squares. A weighted ranking of adaptive preferences reported by the respondents has also been presented.

Comparison of microclimate measurements and perceptions as part of a global evaluation of environmental quality at neighbourhood scale

The EUREQUA project raises the issue of the definition and evaluation of the environmental quality of neighbourhoods. The approach consists of integrating and cross-referencing observable data characterising the physical environment and people's perception of their quality of life. The study area is a neighbourhood in Toulouse (France) with high social and typo-morphological diversity, subject to noise and air pollution nuisances. Three 3-day field campaigns were organised in January, April, and June 2014. Instrumented and commented walks took place three times per day. For each one, measurements of physical environmental parameters and surveys were performed simultaneously at six locations in the neighbourhood. The study focuses on microclimate and thermal comfort issues. It aims to compare in situ meteorological data of air temperature, humidity, wind speed, and mean radiant temperature, with quantitative results rating human perception of heat, humidity, wind, and thermal comfort. The variability in perception and measurements is mainly driven by seasonal effects, especially for heat and humidity, and, to a lesser extent, for wind. Wind perception and measurement also vary spatially, thus highlighting site effects. Linear models indicate a positive link between heat perception and mean radiant temperature, as well as between wind perception and mean and standard deviation of wind speed (with a higher sensitivity of people to wind under winter climate conditions). Finally, it is found that perception of thermal comfort is only slightly linked to the different microclimate dimensions, and is rather driven by other appreciation factors and emotional criteria related to the general environmental quality of the study area.

Outdoor thermal comfort for pedestrians in movement: thermal walks in complex urban morphology

In the discussion of designing for a healthier city, people in movement between interconnected spaces perform a non-sedentary activity enhancing sustainability and well-being. However, adverse weather conditions may create uncomfortable thermal sensations that change or ruin the experience of people walking outdoors. This paper is presenting the findings of a 3-year study on the perceptual variation of thermo-spatial conditions and comfort state for pedestrians moving between interconnected spaces. Thermal walks were organised in two European pedestrian routes of 500-m length. The structured walks were conducted with simultaneous microclimatic monitoring and field surveys of thermal perception based on 314 questionnaires, with a focus on the variation of comfort states. The findings suggest that spaces in sequence do not affect significantly microclimatic variation but have a large impact on the dynamic thermal perception of pedestrians. Interconnected spaces of high density result in a differentiation of thermal pleasantness between streets and squares. The aspect of movement along with complexity in urban morphology along a sequence enhances diversity in thermal sensation. This understanding opens possibilities in developing a multisensory-centred urbanism, where the experience of the thermal environment plays an integral role for perception-driven and healthier urban design.

The influence of thermal comfort conditions on user's exposure time in open spaces

This paper discusses the influence of the user thermal comfort conditions on the time spent in open spaces through a case study performed in Bauru, Sao Paulo, Brazil. The study was carried out in two subspaces of a zoo, under warm and wet conditions. Although the subspaces had different levels of shading, they were of similar interest to visitors. The methodology adopted the collection of objective (air and globe temperature, humidity, and velocity) and subjective data (by application of questionnaires), for a sample of 174 users, and local observations with photographic records each 3 min. Data and images obtained enabled the characterization of the local microclimates and contributed to evaluate (1) user's thermal perception (7-point scale), (2) affective evaluation of the thermal comfort (4-point scale), (3) thermal preference (7-point scale), (4) calculated thermal perception (through PET (physiological equivalent temperature) index), and (5) user's exposure time in each subspace. The great contributions of this work were to identify that in the subspace with bigger shading and less rigorous microclimatic conditions, users had exposure time longer than another more exposed to solar radiation and to validate a method to measure user's exposition time through sequential photos. These results contribute to a discussion that has yet been little explored in the literature of the area, proving the strong influence of the thermal comfort conditions in the users' exposure time in open spaces.

The Cooling Effect of Large-Scale Urban Parks on Surrounding Area Thermal Comfort

This empirical study investigates large urban park cooling effects on the thermal comfort of occupants in the vicinity of the main central park, located in Madrid, Spain. Data were gathered during hot summer days, using mobile observations and a questionnaire. The results showed that the cooling effect of this urban park of 125 ha area at a distance of 150 m could reduce air temperatures by an average of 0.63 °C and 1.28 °C for distances of 380 m and 665 meters from the park. Moreover, the degree of the physiological equivalent temperature (PET) index at a distance of 150 meters from the park is on average 2 °C PET and 2.3 °C PET less compared to distances of 380 m and 665 m, respectively. Considering the distance from the park, the correlation between occupant perceived thermal comfort (PTC) and PET is inverse. That is, augmenting the distance from the park increases PET, while the extent of PTC reduces accordingly. The correlation between these two factors at the nearest and furthest distances from the park is meaningful (p-value < 0.05). The results also showed that large-scale urban parks generally play a significant part in creating a cognitive state of high-perceived thermal comfort spaces for residents.

Review of studies on outdoor thermal comfort in warm humid climates: challenges of informal urban fabric

In warm humid climate regions where majority of the population spend most of the time outdoors, an adequate outdoor thermal environment is crucial. A number of studies on outdoor thermal comfort in warm humid climates were carried out in the past decade. However, most of these studies focused on the formal urban fabric and left the informal urban fabric, where typically 30 to 85% of the population in developing countries resides, unattended. Theoretically, the informal urban fabric structure of towns/cities poses many outdoor thermal environmental challenges, such as lack of air movement, high thermal stress and discomfort. This paper reviews previous research on outdoor thermal comfort in warm humid climates, and, particularly, it focuses on the relationship between outdoor thermal comfort and urban fabric as well as human thermal perception. Regarding the formal urban fabric, this review asserts that the thermal comfort range is higher in warm humid climates than in temperate climates and that thermal indices alone cannot predict thermal comfort; behavioural and psychological adaptation have proven to have a big impact on thermal perception. As for the informal urban fabric, only few studies have investigated the influence of the urban geometry and none has studied people's thermal perception of the outdoor thermal environment. To conclude, the article highlights practical challenges posed by the informal urban fabric in contrast to the formal urban fabric in terms of structure (morphology).

How 'hot' is too hot? Evaluating acceptable outdoor thermal comfort ranges in an equatorial urban park

Urban green spaces offer vital ecosystem services such as regulating elevated temperatures in cities. Less information exists, however, on how urban green spaces influence outdoor thermal comfort (OTC), which is dependent on people's perceptions of the complex interactions amongst ambient humidity, wind and both air and radiant temperatures. In this study, we analysed an existing OTC dataset compiled within a large Singapore urban park and calibrated OTC thresholds for physiological equivalent temperatures (PET) by analysing PET against thermal perception survey responses from the park visitors (n = 1508). We examined OTC according to (i) neutral, (ii) acceptable and (iii) preferred temperatures, where respondents felt 'comfortable' outdoors in the park. We estimated that neutral temperature, when all respondents experience neither heat nor cold stress, is 26.2 °C; acceptable temperatures, when only slight heat or cold stress is experienced, range between 21.6 and 31.6 °C; and preferred ('ideal') temperature for all respondents is 24.2 °C. Respondents residing for more than 6 months in Singapore achieved thermal neutrality, suggesting that a greater degree of thermal adaptation likely developed during acclimatisation to local climate through a combination of physiological, behavioural and psychological circumstances. Comparisons with other OTC studies showed differences in synoptic climates are linked to variations in the magnitude and ranges of perceived PET. Lastly, respondents in this study perceived lower neutral and preferred temperatures compared to respondents surveyed over a variety of urban land use categories in another local study. The differences in neutral and preferred temperatures between studies suggest that lower park temperatures and different environmental attitudes influence perceived OTC.

Correlative Impact of Shading Strategies and Configurations Design on Pedestrian-Level Thermal Comfort in Traditional Shophouse Neighbourhoods, Southern China

Traditional shophouse neighbourhoods (TSNs) in southern China respond well to the local hot and humid climate through proper street configurations and the integration of different shading strategies. Investigating the impact of shading strategies and configurations in TSNs on outdoor thermal comfort is valuable for guiding current urban design. Three street canyons in a TSN of Guangzhou with different shading strategies were selected as basic cases for microclimatic measurement in the summer season, i.e., alleys, streets with arcade for pedestrians, and streets with high-density greenery. After validating their simulation models in ENVI-met, five groups of parametric simulations were generated by varying the canyon aspect ratio (CHW), the canyon axis orientation, arcade proportion (AHW), and the tree-covered area (TCA). Using the physiological equivalent temperature (PET) to assess the above results, the correlative impact of different variations on pedestrian’s thermal comfort and their corresponding favourable ranges are summarized. The findings suggest that: (a) only in alleys and arcade streets, the pedestrian-level thermal comfort was significantly influenced by canyon axis orientation. (b) The thermal stress for pedestrians increased dramatically when the CHW was lower than 1.5 in alleys and 0.78 in boulevards (in TCA = 89%), while the CHW higher than 1 indicated a remarkable reduction on the PET for pedestrians in arcades. (c) The pedestrians started losing the protection from shading strategy to thermal stress when the AHW was higher than 1.33 (in canyon with CHW = 1) or the TCA was lower than 33% (in canyon with CHW = 0.78).

Identifying solar access effects on visitors' behavior in outdoor resting areas in a subtropical location: a case study in Japan Square in Curitiba, Brazil

Changes in microclimate due to urban morphology tend to directly affect outdoor thermal comfort, thereby influencing people's behavior. In order to investigate that, this study analyzed preferences for specific resting areas within an urban square surrounded by high-rise buildings in a subtropical location. In order to understand behavioral adaptations as regards sunlight availability (direct or reflected) or shaded situations (partly, fully) in resting areas, the analysis was conducted according to an observational method during the four seasons of 2016. Two high-definition cameras with time-lapse function were positioned at vantage points facing distinct benches, shooting at intervals of 1.5 min between scenes. Altogether, 86,561 scenes were analyzed. As a thermal comfort parameter, the outdoor thermal comfort index 'PET' (physiological equivalent temperature) was used, by post-processing meteorological data from the local meteorological station. The availability of situations (sun-lit, shaded-partly or fully, reflected sunlight) in each frame and per bench and the preference of visitors for such areas were considered in the analysis. During winter, there was a prevalence of shaded situations, mostly due to adjacent buildings. In summer, the most common condition was partly shaded by trees. The choice for a given resting condition was found to be closely related to PET index values and thermal comfort/stress classes and less so to seasonal changes.

Interferences of urban form on human thermal perception

Thermal perception entails to a certain extent visual aspects, which are taken into account when subjects are requested to express their thermal votes to a given indoor or outdoor space. This study concentrates on human cognition and preconceptions of thermal behavior from projected 360° imagery. Urban scenes have been shown with the concurrent administration of thermal perception questionnaires to two distinct sample groups: 1) volunteer participants (n = 86) who filled out online responses to questions regarding thermal perception in undisclosed locations; 2) undergraduate students (n = 85) under temperature-controlled conditions in a computer lab. Both groups have evaluated three different 360° urban scenes with varying morphology attributes using the provided web link to the 360° VR platform Roundme. Method of analysis included means, medians, statistical significance (p-value) and percentage graphs of perceived thermal sensation. Despite the absence of any information regarding location, season and time of day of the scenes, both groups expressed different perceptions with respect to the estimated thermal conditions and thermal comfort levels for the observed urban scenes, consistently attributing windier and warmer thermal conditions to an urban square location and less so to a street canyon.

Human susceptibility to outdoor hot environment

A cross-sectional study examined the human susceptibility of a sample farmworker (N = 1144) in eastern India, who were exposed to the tropical hot outdoor environment during paddy and potato cropping activities (November to April). The study explored the efficacy of human thermal indices in human susceptibility categorization, based on analysis of indices, such as WBGT, HI, Humidex, UTCI, PET, SET*, PMV, and objective and subjective responses to heat-related symptoms and disorders. Analysis indicated dissimilarities in the estimated temperature levels of indices, attributed to different numerical weights of the meteorological and behavioural parameters. Therefore, the study explored the thermal stress level identified by different indices. December and January were recognized the comfortable months by most of the thermal indices. March and April were strong to very strong heat stress, with exception noted for SET*. In comparison to rational indices, the E_sk, a thermoregulatory parameter, signified the relative change in the evaporative exchange with the increasing environmental warmth. The defined level of E_sk at ~200 W/sq·m corresponded to the comfortable temperature range within 19.5 to 22.5 °C for WBGT, PET, and T_a. Beyond this specific range of warmth, a proportionate increase in E_sk would result in cumulative heat-related symptoms of stress and strain. The study noted a sizeable number of farmworkers manifested moderate to high intensity of heat-related symptoms, with a relatively higher percentage in case of females. The principal component analysis yielded three principal components of heat-related responses, labeled as (a) physical fatigue and responses, (b) neural stressors, and (c) behavioural effects. Normalized component scores transformed into a generalized quantitative climatic susceptibility indicator may be applied to the moderate intensity of physical activity in the tropical hot and humid environment.

Thermal comfort in urban spaces: a cross-cultural study in the hot arid climate

This cross-cultural research is an inaugural attempt to investigate the outdoor thermal comfort and the effect of cultural and social differences in hot arid climates. Case studies were carefully selected in two different parts of the world (Marrakech in North Africa and Phoenix, Arizona, in North America) to represent two different cultures in similar climatic context. Field surveys, carried out during winter and summer, included structured interviews with a standard questionnaire, observations and microclimatic monitoring. The results demonstrate a wide thermal comfort zone and prevalence of air-conditioning influencing thermal comfort requirements. The work also provides evidence of substantial cross-cultural differences in thermal comfort requirements between residents in Marrakech and Phoenix. It shows that adaptive measures, such as level of clothing, changing place, cold drinks consumption and thermal experience, varies between cultures and this influences the thermal evaluation of visitors in outdoor spaces in the hot arid climate. Evidence between the time spent in outdoor spaces and thermal expectations has been found. Moreover, environmental variables such as air temperature and solar radiation have a great impact on the use of the outdoor spaces in the hot arid climate and may determine the number of people in urban spaces. The study also identified significant differences in thermal comfort requirements between different socio-economic groups, highlighting the need for comfortable open spaces.

The Dislike of Hot Thermal Conditions and Its Relationship with Sun (Ultraviolet Radiation) Exposure in the Southeastern United States

We investigated the relationship between peoples’ preferences for being outside during certain months of the year, based upon their dislike of hot or warm temperatures, and of taking precautions against ultraviolet radiation (UVR) exposure. A sample of university undergraduates (N = 1400) living in the Northern Hemisphere completed an online survey in the late summer of 2017 that inventoried their dislike of heat and hot conditions, their sun tanning preferences and habits, and their preferences for being outside during different months of the year, along with whether they would protect themselves from the UVR exposure during those months. Dislike of hot conditions was negatively correlated with respondent preferences for sun tanning and with the number of months during the year that people enjoyed being active outside. A greater proportion of people who disliked hot conditions experienced risks of UVR overexposure during the spring and fall. In contrast, people who expressed more liking of heat frequently enjoyed being outside during the warmer months (April to October), and a significantly greater proportion of them experienced risks for sun overexposure in these months. Such individual differences in heat-related attitudes may explain a proportion the variability in individual risk behaviors for skin cancer that is not currently accounted for by approaches using objective variables such as temperature, thermal comfort indices, or the UV index.

The influence of climatocultural background on outdoor thermal perception

This study examines the extent to which people with different past thermal experience and "climatocultural" history systematically report different outdoor thermal sensations and thermal comfort patterns. After constructing two distinct climatocultural groups co-inhabiting the research setting (native Israelis vs. representatives of colder regions), and comparing their relative thermal preferences in both short-term and long-term observational experiments, we confirmed the existence of a strong correlation between affiliation to a certain climatocultural group and outdoor thermal sensation. It was shown that the degree of this correlation was not a constant value, and the strength of the difference in thermal sensation between different groups might change subject to different environmental conditions and possibly expectations. Under some environmental conditions, i.e., stressful but not extreme, the differences may be accentuated, while under others, i.e., either comfortable or extremely stressful, the scope of difference may diminish. Short-term acclimation may to some extent offset the differences between separate climatocultural groups. The study also showed that the meaning of the thermal comfort scale itself may be perceived unevenly between representatives of different groups.

Effect of long-term acclimatization on summer thermal comfort in outdoor spaces: a comparative study between Melbourne and Hong Kong

The Universal Thermal Climate Index (UTCI) is an index for assessing outdoor thermal environment which aims to be applicable universally to different climates. However, the scale of UTCI thermal stress classification can be interpreted depending on the context. Previous studies validated the UTCI in individual cities, but comparative studies between different cities are scarce. This study examines the differences in thermal perception and clothing choices between residents from two climate zones over similar UTCI ranges in summer. We compared summer thermal comfort survey data from Melbourne (n = 2162, January-February 2014) and Hong Kong (n = 414, July-August 2007). We calculated the UTCI from outdoor weather station data and used t tests to compare the differences in thermal sensation and clothing between Hong Kong and Melbourne residents. When the UTCI was between 23.0 and 45.9 °C, Melbourne residents wore significantly more clothing (0.1 clo) than Hong Kong residents. Hong Kong residents reported neutral to warm sensation at a higher UTCI range compared with the dynamic thermal sensation (DTS) model. Moreover, Melbourne residents reported warm and hot sensation at a higher UTCI range than the DTS model. Respondents in Melbourne also exhibited different responses to the mean radiant temperature under shaded and sunny conditions, while such a trend was not observed in Hong Kong. It would be advisable to define different thermal sensation thresholds for the UTCI scale according to different climate zones for better prediction of the outdoor thermal comfort of different urban populations.

Wellbeing in Urban Greenery: The Role of Naturalness and Place Identity

The aim was to investigate effects of urban greenery (high vs. low naturalness) on place identity and wellbeing, and the links between place identity and wellbeing. It was shown that participants (Gothenburg, Sweden, N = 1347) estimated a stronger attachment/closeness/belonging (emotional component of place-identity), and more remembrance and thinking about and mental travel (cognitive component of place-identity) in relation to high vs. low perceived naturalness. High naturalness was also reported to generate higher wellbeing in participants than low naturalness. Furthermore, place identity was shown to predict participants' wellbeing in urban greenery, accounting for 35% of variance explained by the regression. However, there was a stronger relationship between the emotional vs. the cognitive component of place identity and wellbeing. Finally, a significant role of place identity in mediating the naturalness-wellbeing relationship was shown, indicating that the naturalness-wellbeing connection can be partly accounted for by the psychological mechanisms of people-place bonding.

Outdoor thermal comfort in public space in warm-humid Guayaquil, Ecuador

The thermal environment outdoors affects human comfort and health. Mental and physical performance is reduced at high levels of air temperature being a problem especially in tropical climates. This paper deals with human comfort in the warm-humid city of Guayaquil, Ecuador. The main aim was to examine the influence of urban micrometeorological conditions on people's subjective thermal perception and to compare it with two thermal comfort indices: the physiologically equivalent temperature (PET) and the standard effective temperature (SET*). The outdoor thermal comfort was assessed through micrometeorological measurements of air temperature, humidity, mean radiant temperature and wind speed together with a questionnaire survey consisting of 544 interviews conducted in five public places of the city during both the dry and rainy seasons. The neutral and preferred values as well as the upper comfort limits of PET and SET* were determined. For both indices, the neutral values and upper thermal comfort limits were lower during the rainy season, whereas the preferred values were higher during the rainy season. Regardless of season, the neutral values of PET and SET* are above the theoretical neutral value of each index. The results show that local people accept thermal conditions which are above acceptable comfort limits in temperate climates and that the subjective thermal perception varies within a wide range. It is clear, however, that the majority of the people in Guayaquil experience the outdoor thermal environment during daytime as too warm, and therefore, it is important to promote an urban design which creates shade and ventilation.

Evaluation of outdoor human thermal sensation of local climate zones based on long-term database

This study gives a comprehensive picture on the diurnal and seasonal general outdoor human thermal sensation levels in different urban quarters based on long-term (almost 3 years) data series from urban and rural areas of Szeged, Hungary. It is supplemented with a case study dealing with an extreme heat wave period which is more and more frequent in the last decades in the study area. The intra-urban comparison is based on a thermal aspect classification of the surface, namely, the local climate zone (LCZ) system, on an urban meteorological station network and on the utilization of the physiologically equivalent temperature (PET) comfort index with categories calibrated to the local population. The selected stations represent sunlit areas well inside the LCZ areas. The results show that the seasonal and annual average magnitudes of the thermal load exerted by LCZs in the afternoon and evening follow their LCZ numbers. It is perfectly in line with the LCZ concept originally concentrating only on air temperature (T _air) differences between the zones. Our results justified the subdivision of urban areas into LCZs and give significant support to the application possibilities of the LCZ concept as a broader term covering different thermal phenomena.

Using synoptic weather types to predict visitor attendance at Atlanta and Indianapolis zoological parks

Defining an ideal "tourism climate" has been an often-visited research topic where explanations have evolved from global- to location-specific indices tailored to tourists' recreational behavior. Unfortunately, as indices become increasingly specific, they are less translatable across geographies because they may only apply to specific activities, locales, climates, or populations. A key need in the future development of weather and climate indices for tourism has been a translatable, meteorologically based index capturing the generalized ambient atmospheric conditions yet considering local climatology. To address this need, this paper tests the applicability of the spatial synoptic classification (SSC) as a tool to predict visitor attendance response in the tourism, recreation, and leisure (TRL) sector across different climate regimes. Daily attendance data is paired with the prevailing synoptic weather condition at Atlanta and Indianapolis zoological parks from September 2001 to June 2011, to review potential impacts ambient atmospheric conditions may have on visitor attendances. Results indicate that "dry moderate" conditions are most associated with high levels of attendance and "moist polar" synoptic conditions are most associated with low levels of attendance at both zoological parks. Comparing visitor response at these zoo locations, visitors in Indianapolis showed lower levels of tolerance to synoptic conditions which were not "ideal." Visitors in Indianapolis also displayed more aversion to "polar" synoptic regimes while visitors in Atlanta displayed more tolerance to "moist tropical" synoptic regimes. Using a comprehensive atmospheric measure such as the SSC may be a key to broadening application when assessing tourism climates across diverse geographies.

The influence of surface type on the absorbed radiation by a human under hot, dry conditions

Given the predominant use of heat-retaining materials in urban areas, numerous studies have addressed the urban heat island mitigation potential of various "cool" options, such as vegetation and high-albedo surfaces. The influence of altered radiational properties of such surfaces affects not only the air temperature within a microclimate, but more importantly the interactions of long- and short-wave radiation fluxes with the human body. Minimal studies have assessed how cool surfaces affect thermal comfort via changes in absorbed radiation by a human (R _abs) using real-world, rather than modeled, urban field data. The purpose of the current study is to assess the changes in the absorbed radiation by a human-a critical component of human energy budget models-based on surface type on hot summer days (air temperatures > 38.5^∘C). Field tests were conducted using a high-end microclimate station under predominantly clear sky conditions over ten surfaces with higher sky view factors in Lubbock, Texas. Three methods were used to measure and estimate R _abs: a cylindrical radiation thermometer (CRT), a net radiometer, and a theoretical estimation model. Results over dry surfaces suggest that the use of high-albedo surfaces to reduce overall urban heat gain may not improve acute human thermal comfort in clear conditions due to increased reflected radiation. Further, the use of low-cost instrumentation, such as the CRT, shows potential in quantifying radiative heat loads within urban areas at temporal scales of 5-10 min or greater, yet further research is needed. Fine-scale radiative information in urban areas can aid in the decision-making process for urban heat mitigation using non-vegetated urban surfaces, with surface type choice is dependent on the need for short-term thermal comfort, or reducing cumulative heat gain to the urban fabric.

Impact of selected personal factors on seasonal variability of recreationist weather perceptions and preferences in Warsaw (Poland)

Weather and climate are important natural resources for tourism and recreation, although sometimes they can make outdoor leisure activities less satisfying or even impossible. The aim of this work was to determine weather perception seasonal variability of people staying outdoors in urban environment for tourism and recreation, as well as to determine if personal factors influence estimation of recreationist actual biometeorological conditions and personal expectations towards weather elements. To investigate how human thermal sensations vary upon meteorological conditions typical for temperate climate, weather perception field researches were conducted in Warsaw (Poland) in all seasons. Urban recreationists' preference for slightly warm thermal conditions, sunny, windless and cloudless weather, were identified as well as PET values considered to be optimal for sightseeing were defined between 27.3 and 31.7 °C. The results confirmed existence of phenomena called alliesthesia, which manifested in divergent thermal perception of comparable biometeorological conditions in transitional seasons. The results suggest that recreationist thermal sensations differed from other interviewees' responses and were affected not only by physiological processes but they were also conditioned by psychological factors (i.e. attitude, expectations). Significant impact of respondents' place of origin and its climate on creating thermal sensations and preferences was observed. Sex and age influence thermal preferences, whereas state of acclimatization is related with thermal sensations to some point.

Visitors' perception of thermal comfort during extreme heat events at the Royal Botanic Garden Melbourne

Outdoor thermal comfort studies have mainly examined the perception of local residents, and there has been little work on how those conditions are perceived differently by tourists, especially tourists of diverse origins. This issue is important because it will improve the application of thermal indices in predicting the thermal perception of tourists. This study aims to compare the differences in thermal perception and preferences between local and overseas visitors to the Royal Botanic Garden (RBG) in Melbourne during summer. An 8-day survey was conducted in February 2014 at four sites in the garden (n = 2198), including 2 days with maximum temperature exceeding 40 °C. The survey results were compared with data from four weather stations adjacent to the survey locations. One survey location, 'Fern Gully', has a misting system and visitors perceived the Fern Gully to be cooler than other survey locations. As the apparent temperature exceeded 32.4 °C, visitors perceived the environment as being 'warm' or 'hot'. At 'hot' conditions, 36.8 % of European visitors voted for no change to the thermal conditions, which is considerably higher than the response from Australian visitors (12.2 %) and Chinese visitors (7.5 %). Study results suggest that overseas tourists have different comfort perception and preferences compared to local Australians in hot weather based at least in part on expectations. Understanding the differences in visitors' thermal perception is important to improve the garden design. It can also lead to better tour planning and marketing to potential visitors from different countries.

Calibration of the physiological equivalent temperature index for three different climatic regions

In human biometeorology, the integration of several microclimatic variables as a combined index facilitates the understanding of how users perceive thermal environments. Indices, such as the physiological equivalent temperature (PET) index, translate the combined effects of meteorological variables on humans in terms of thermal stress or comfort and serve as important aids to climate-responsive urban and regional planning as well as heat stress and thermal comfort analyses. However, there is a need for adjusting proposed comfort/stress ranges of a given index when using it in different climatic contexts. The purpose of this study is to present a preliminary calibration procedure for the PET index for three different climatic regions: Curitiba, Brazil, a subtropical location; Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, a tropical city; and Glasgow, UK, a high-latitude location. Field studies have been carried out by the authors according to a similar protocol and using similar equipment, yielding actual thermal sensation votes and microclimate data, post-processed as PET data. The calibration procedure uses exclusively thermal sensation data as reported by pedestrians during outdoor comfort campaigns and concurrent microclimatic data recorded during the interviews. PET comfort/stress classes differ among the three locations and, in general, are less restrictive as in the original ranges proposed by the index developers.

Seasonal differences in thermal sensation in the outdoor urban environment of Mediterranean climates - the example of Athens, Greece

Outdoor urban areas are very important for cities and microclimate is a critical parameter in the design process, contributing to thermal comfort which is important for urban developments. The research presented in this paper is part of extensive field surveys conducted in Athens aimed at investigating people's thermal sensation in a Mediterranean city. Based on 2313 questionnaires and microclimatic data the current work focuses on the relative frequencies of people's evaluation of the thermal along with the sun and wind sensations between two seasons trying to identify the seasonal differences in thermal sensation. The impact of basic meteorological factors on thermal discomfort with respect to season are also examined, as well as the use of the outdoor environment. Results show that psychological adaptation is an important contributing factor influencing perception of the thermal environment between seasons. In addition, the thermal sensation votes during the cool months show that individuals are satisfied to a great extend with the thermal environment whereas the combination of high air temperature, strong solar radiation and weak wind lead to thermal discomfort during summertime. As far as the appropriate urban design in the Mediterranean climate is concerned, priority should be given to the warm months of the year.

Outdoor comfort study in Rio de Janeiro: site-related context effects on reported thermal sensation

Aimed at climate-responsive urban design for tropical areas, the paper attempts to answer the question whether the site-related context affects in some way the perceptual assessment of the microclimate by users of outdoor spaces. Our hypothesis was that visual cues resulting from urban design are important components of the outdoor thermal perception. Monitoring was carried out alongside the administration of standard comfort questionnaires throughout summer periods in 2012-2015 in pedestrian areas of downtown Rio de Janeiro (22° 54 10 S, 43° 12 27 W), Brazil. Campaigns took place at different points, pre-defined in respect of urban geometry attributes. For the measurements, a Davis Vantage Pro2 weather station was employed to which a gray globe thermometer was attached. Two thermal indices were used for assessing the overall meteorological conditions and comfort levels in the outdoor locations: physiological equivalent temperature (PET) and universal thermal climate index (UTCI). Our results suggest that thermal sensation in Rio depends to a large extent on the thermal environment as described by air temperature, PET, or UTCI, and that urban geometry (expressed by the sky-view factor (SVF)) may modify this relationship with increased building density associated to warmer sensation votes under moderate heat stress conditions. This relationship however reverses under strong heat stress with warmer sensations in less obstructed locations, and disappears completely under still higher heat stress, where meteorological conditions, and not the site's SVF, will drive thermal sensation.

Evaluation of natural sounds in urban greenery: potential impact for urban nature preservation

Most humans now live in cities and their main experience of nature is through urban greenery. An increasing number of studies show the importance of urban green spaces for well-being, although most of them are based on visual perception. A questionnaire examining people's evaluations of natural sounds was answered by 1326 individuals living near one of six urban green areas of varying naturalness in the city of Gothenburg, Sweden. Women and the elderly reported greater calmness when hearing bird song and rustling leaves (and placed a higher importance on the richness of bird species) than did men, younger and middle-aged individuals. Independent of age and gender, urban woodlands (high naturalness) had higher evaluations than parks (low naturalness). Our results suggest that to increase positive experiences of urban green areas, demographic variables of gender and age should be taken into account, and settings that mimic nature should be prioritized in planning.

Relationships between Personal and Collective Place Identity and Well-Being in Mountain Communities

The aim was to investigate the relationships between landscape-related personal and collective identity and well-being of residents living in a Swedish mountain county (N = 850). It was shown that their most valued mountain activities were viewing and experiencing nature and landscape, outdoor recreation, rest and leisure, and socializing with friends/family. Qualitative analyses showed that the most valued aspects of the sites were landscape and outdoor restoration for personal favorite sites, and tourism and alpine for collective favorite sites. According to quantitative analyses the stronger the attachment/closeness/belonging (emotional component of place identity) residents felt to favorite personal and collective sites the more well-being they perceived when visiting these places. Similarly, the more remembrance, thinking and mental travel (cognitive component of place identity) residents directed to these sites the more well-being they perceived in these places. In both types of sites well-being was more strongly predicted by emotional than cognitive component of place-identity. All this indicates the importance of person-place bonds in beneficial experiences of the outdoors, over and above simply being in outdoor environments.

Evaluation of human thermal comfort ranges in urban climate of winter cities on the example of Erzurum city

Human thermal comfort conditions can be evaluated using various indices based on simple empirical approaches or more complex and reliable human-biometeorological approaches. The latter is based on the energy balance model of the human body, and their calculation is supplemented with computer software. Facilitating the interpretation of results, the generally applied indices express the effects of thermal environment in the well-known temperature unit, just like in the case of the widely used index, the physiologically equivalent temperature (PET). Several studies adopting PET index for characterizing thermal components of climate preferred to organize the resulted PET values into thermal sensation categories in order to demonstrate the spatial and/or temporal characteristics of human thermal comfort conditions. The most general applied PET ranges were derived by Central European researchers, and they are valid for assumed values of internal heat production of light activity and thermal resistance of clothing representing a light business suit. Based on the example of Erzurum city, the present work demonstrates that in a city with harsh winter, the original PET ranges show almost purely discomfort and they seem to be less applicable regarding cold climate conditions. Taking into account 34-year climate data of Erzurum, the annual distribution of PET is presented together with the impact of application of different PET categorization systems, including 8°- and 7°-wide PET intervals. The demonstrated prior analyses lack any questionnaire filed surveys in Erzurum. Thus, as a next step, detailed field investigations would be required with the aim of definition of new PET categorization systems which are relevant for local residents who are adapted to this climatic background, and for tourists who may perform various kinds of winter activities in Erzurum and therefore may perceive the thermal environment more comfortable.