Emodin Attenuates Severe Acute Pancreatitis via Antioxidant and Anti-inflammatory Activity

Antioxidant and Anti-Inflammatory Activities of Methanol Extract of Senna septemtrionalis (Viv.) H.S. Irwin & Barneby Through Nrf2/HO-1-Mediated Inhibition of NF-κB Signaling in LPS-Stimulated Mouse Microglial Cells

Botanical extracts are recognized in traditional medicine for their therapeutic potential and safety standards. Botanical extracts are viable and sustainable alternatives to synthetic drugs, being essential in drug discovery for various diseases. Senna septemtrionalis (Viv.) H.S. Irwin & Barneby is a medical plant traditionally used to treat inflammation. However, its antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties and the molecular pathways activated in microglial cells require further investigation. Therefore, this study examines the antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties of Senna septemtrionalis (Viv.) H.S. Irwin & Barneby methanol extracts (SMEs) in lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-stimulated mouse microglial cells. SMEs significantly inhibit LPS-induced nitric oxide (NO) and proinflammatory cytokine production, which are mediated through the dephosphorylation of mitogen-activated protein kinases and inhibition of nuclear factor kappa B (NF-κB) translocation into the nucleus. Additionally, SME treatment upregulated the expression of nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 (Nrf2) and heme oxygenase (HO)-1, reducing oxidative stress, indicated by a decrease in reactive oxygen species and restoration of the total glutathione content in LPS-stimulated BV2 cells. The inhibitory effects of SMEs on inflammatory mediator production and NF-κB nuclear translocation were significantly reversed by Sn-protoporphyrin, a specific HO-1 inhibitor. These findings demonstrate that SME protects microglial cells by activating the Nrf2/HO-1 pathway and inhibiting NF-κB translocation.

Network Pharmacology and Molecular Docking: Exploring the Mechanism of Peppermint in Mastitis Prevention and Treatment in Dairy Cows

In order to elucidate the active ingredients, potential targets, and mechanisms of action of peppermint in treating bovine mastitis, this study utilized network pharmacology analysis and molecular docking to conduct an exploratory, prospective investigation. Using the Traditional Chinese Medicine Systems Pharmacology (TCMSP) database, all compounds and targets of peppermint were retrieved. After removing duplicates, a total of 133 compounds and 272 targets were obtained. Targets were then standardized to gene names using the UniProt database to construct a drug-component-target network. A total of 183 disease targets related to bovine mastitis were retrieved from the GeneCards database. We obtained 28 cross targets of peppermint targets and bovine mastitis targets, and constructed a protein-protein interaction (PPI) network using the STRING database. A visual network was built using Cytoscape 3.10.0 software, and seven core targets were analyzed and obtained. GO and KEGG pathway enrichment analysis was performed using the Metascape database. Molecular docking was conducted using AutoDockTools-1.5.6 software on some small-molecule compounds and the seven targets to evaluate the stability of binding between peppermint and core targets. Apigenin, luteolin, and ursolic acid are the three main components in peppermint. Core targets (TNF, IL-6, STAT-3, IL-1β, FGF-2, IFNG, and ESR-1) were selected based on the PPI network. The enrichment analysis suggested that the major signaling pathways in network pharmacology may include AGEs-RAGE, IL-17, NF-κB, TLRs, HIF-1, TGF-β, PI3K-Akt, and MAPK. The molecular docking results showed that one of the main components of mint, ursolic acid, exhibited good binding activity with all core targets of bovine mastitis. Other constituents also produced favorable binding with some core targets. This study elucidates the mechanisms of mint in treating bovine mastitis, providing data to support the potential development of new therapies for bovine mastitis using mint and its constituents.

Integrative metabolomics and molecular networking reveal metabolic rewiring in Tartary buckwheat sprouts under moderate hydrostatic pressure

The effects of moderate hydrostatic pressure (MHP) pretreatment on bioactive metabolites in Tartary buckwheat sprouts remain insufficiently studied. In this work, a non-targeted metabolomics approach, combined with feature-based molecular networking (FBMN), identified 22 metabolites in sprouts treated with 0-30 MPa pressure, four of which were previously unreported, thus expanding the species' phytochemical diversity. MHP treatment activated phenylalanine ammonia-lyase (PAL), resulting in a 2.3-fold increase in total flavonoids, particularly glycosylated derivatives such as quercetin 3-rutinoside 7-glucoside (13.2-fold increase at 25 MPa). In contrast, condensed tannins, responsible for astringency, were reduced by 40-60 %. These findings suggest that MHP pretreatment may serve as a sustainable alternative to chemical elicitors, promoting biofortification and improving sensory attributes in sprout-based functional foods.

Genetic and pharmacological targeting of HINT2 promotes OXPHOS to alleviate inflammatory responses and cell necrosis in acute pancreatitis

The necrosis of pancreatic acinar cells is a key molecular event in the progression of acute pancreatitis (AP), with disturbances in mitochondrial energy metabolism considered to be a direct causative factor of acinar cell necrosis. Histidine triad nucleotide-binding protein 2 (HINT2) has been implicated in the development of various diseases, whereas its involvement in the progression of AP remains unclear. This study aims to investigate the role of HINT2 in AP. HINT2 expression in pancreatic tissues was significantly downregulated after AP. The results of glutathione-S-transferase (GST) pull-down and proteomics analyses revealed the involvement of HINT2 in regulating mitochondrial oxidative phosphorylation (OXPHOS) in AP mice. Moreover, lentivirus-mediated HINT2 overexpression not only alleviated AP-induced ATP depletion, but also relieved inflammatory responses and cell necrosis. Mechanistically, HINT2 interacted with cytochrome C oxidase II (MTCO2) to promote mitochondrial OXPHOS, thereby reducing ROS accumulation and inhibiting the activation of inflammatory signaling pathway. Besides, HINT2 act as a direct pharmacological target of Emo to elicit protective effects on AP. Importantly, Emo upregulates the expression of HINT2 and OXPHOS complex proteins and enhances the interaction between HINT2 and MTCO2. Furthermore, CRISPR/Cas9-mediated HINT2 knockout significantly impaired the protective effects of Emo against AP-induced mitochondrial energy metabolism disorders, inflammatory responses, and acinar cell necrosis. Overall, these results uncover a previously unexplored role for HINT2 in maintaining mitochondrial energy metabolism in pancreatic acinar cells and reveals novel mechanism and target for Emo-mediated AP remission.

Micheliolide ameliorates severe acute pancreatitis in mice through potentiating Nrf2-mediated anti-inflammation and anti-oxidation effects

Severe acute pancreatitis (SAP) is an acute inflammatory injury disease with significant mortality rate and currently without effective strategy being available. Inflammation and oxidative stress play central roles in the etiology of SAP. Micheliolide (MCL), an active monomeric component isolated from Michelia champaca, has been proved its multiple therapeutic properties including anti-inflammatory, antioxidant and anti-cancer. Nevertheless, the therapeutic effect and underlying mechanism of MCL in SAP still remain unclear. Here, we found that caerulein with lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced SAP murine models exhibited severe pancreatic injury, including necrosis, edema, and vacuolation of acinar cells in the pancreas, elevated serum levels of amylase and lipase, and reduced number of the exocrine cells. As expected, MCL treatment alleviated these side effects. Mechanistically, MCL triggered nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 (Nrf2) activation, thereby activating Nrf2-regulated antioxidative pathways and inhibiting nuclear factor kappa B p65 (NF-κB p65)-mediated inflammatory response, resulting in protection against pancreatic injury in SAP mice. In addition, Nrf2 gene deficiency abolished the beneficial effects of MCL on SAP-induced pancreatic inflammation and oxidative stress and blocked the ability of MCL to alleviate the pancreatic injury in SAP mice. Collectively, these findings indicated that the suppression of SAP-induced pancreatic injury by MCL was at least in part due to Nrf2-mediated anti-oxidation effect and inhibition of inflammation.

Research Progress on the Anti-Liver Cancer Mechanism and Toxicity of Rhubarb Anthraquinone

Ethnopharmacological Relevance

Rhubarb has the effect of breaking blood stasis and abnormal mass, and was often used to treat various tumor diseases including liver cancer in ancient China. Recipes containing rhubarb have anti-liver cancer properties and are still used today. However, the main components and mechanism of action of rhubarb against liver cancer are still unclear.

Aim of the Review

To conduct a review of the anti-liver cancer effects and toxicity of rhubarb anthraquinones (AQs).

Materials and Methods

This article reviewed the effects of rhubarb AQs in the treatment of liver cancer and the signaling pathways involved, and discussed the toxicity and pharmacokinetics of rhubarb AQs by searching the Web of Science, PubMed and CNKI databases.

Results

Rhubarb (Rhei Radix et Rhizoma) is a traditional Chinese medicine that has been existed for thousands of years and is used as an anti-cancer drug. Modern pharmacological research shows that rhubarb AQs, as the main component of rhubarb, contains emodin, rhein, chrysophanol, physcione and aloe-emodin, which has anti-liver cancer effects and can be considered as a potential therapeutic drug for liver cancer. However, many modern studies have shown that rhubarb AQs have certain toxicity, which hinders in-depth research on rhubarb AQs.

Conclusion

Rhubarb AQs can be used as a potential anti-liver cancer drug, but its research still has many limitations. Strengthening research on related experiments and finding a balance between toxicity and efficacy are all directions worth studying in the future.

Reactive oxygen species and oxidative stress in acute pancreatitis: Pathogenesis and new therapeutic interventions

Acute pancreatitis (AP) is a common acute gastrointestinal disorder affecting approximately 20% of patients with systemic inflammatory responses that may cause pancreatic and peripancreatic fat necrosis. This condition often progresses to multiple organ failure, significantly increasing morbidity and mortality. Oxidative stress, characterized by an imbalance between the body's reactive oxygen species (ROS) and antioxidants, activates the inflammatory signaling pathways. Although the pathogenesis of AP is not fully understood, ROS are increasingly recognized as critical in the disease's progression and development. Modulating the oxidative stress pathway has shown efficacy in mitigating the progression of AP. Despite numerous basic studies examining this pathway, comprehensive reviews of recent research remain sparse. This systematic review offers an in-depth examination of the critical role of oxidative stress in the pathogenesis and progression of AP and evaluates the therapeutic potential of antioxidant interventions in its management.

Emodin suppresses mast cell migration via modulating the JAK2/STAT3/JMJD3/CXCR3 signaling to prevent cystitis

AIMS

This study aimed to determine the preventive effects of emodin on cyclophosphamide (CYP)-induced cystitis and to explore the molecular mechanism.

METHODS

In vivo, mice were modeled by CYP. Before a half hour of CYP treatment, Jumonji domain-containing protein-3 (JMJD3) inhibitors (GSK-J4) and emodin were used to treat CYP model mice. Bladder samples were stained for hematoxylin-eosin and toluidine blue. Next, JMJD3 was quantified by immunofluorescence staining, RT-PCR, and Western blot. CXCR3 was quantified by Western blot and ELISA. In vitro, before stimulated by lipopolysaccharide (LPS), human bladder smooth muscle cells (hBSMCs) were transfected with pcDNA3.1-JMJD3 plasmids, shRNA-JMJD3 plasmids or pretreated with emodin. Collected cells to detect JMJD3 and CXCR3 ligands again; collected supernatant of culture for Transwell assay. Finally, as the JAK2 inhibitor, AG490 was used to pretreat LPS-induced hBSMCs. Western blot was performed to quantify proteins.

RESULTS

Emodin inhibited mast cell migration and suppressed the expression of JMJD3, CXCR3, and CXCR3 ligands, not only in vivo but also in vitro. The pharmacological effects of emodin were similar to GSK-J4 or JMJD3 inhibition. In addition, emodin significantly downregulated the phosphorylation of JAK2 and STAT3, and inhibited JMJD3/CXCR3 axis transduction like AG490.

CONCLUSION

Emodin has a preventive effect on cystitis by inhibiting mast cell migration through inhibition of the JAK2/STAT3/JMJD3/CXCR3 signaling pathway.

Colon Targeting pH-Responsive Coacervate Microdroplets for Treatment of Ulcerative Colitis

Ulcerative colitis (UC), an immune-mediated chronic inflammatory disease, drastically impacts patients' quality of life and increases their risk of colorectal cancer worldwide. However, effective oral targeted delivery and retention of drugs in colonic lesions are still great challenges in the treatment of UC. Coacervate microdroplets, formed by liquid-liquid phase separation, are recently explored in drug delivery as the simplicity in fabrication, spontaneous enrichment on small molecules and biological macromolecules, and high drug loading capacity. Herein, in this study, a biocompatible diethylaminoethyl-dextran hydrochloride/sodium polyphenylene sulfonate coacervates, coated with eudragit S100 to improve the stability and colon targeting ability, named EU-Coac, is developed. Emodin, an active ingredient in traditional Chinese herbs proven to alleviate UC symptoms, is loaded in EU-Coac (EMO@EU-Coac) showing good stability in gastric acid and pepsin and pH-responsive release behavior. After oral administration, EMO@EU-Coac can effectively target and retain in the colon, displaying good therapeutic effects on UC treatment through attenuating inflammation and oxidative stress response, repairing colonic epithelia, as well as regulating intestinal flora balance. In short, this study provides a novel and facile coacervate microdroplet delivery system for UC treatment.

Emodin nanocapsules inhibit acute pancreatitis by regulating lipid metabolic reprogramming in macrophage polarization

BACKGROUND

Emodin is a chemical compound found in traditional Chinese herbs. It possesses anti-inflammatory and many other pharmacological effects. Our previous study showed that emodin significantly alleviates the inflammation effect of severe acute pancreatitis (SAP). However, its poor solubility, high toxicity and limited pancreas retention time hinder its clinical application.

PURPOSE

We aimed to prepare emodin nanocapsules with improved bioavailability to achieve the controlled release of emodin by targeting macrophages. Further, the mechanism of mannose-conjugated chitosan-coated lipid nanocapsules loaded with emodin (M-CS-E-LNC) in the treatment of SAP was explored.

METHODS

M-CS-E-LNC were prepared by the phase inversion method with slight modification. The expression of inflammation mediators and the anti-inflammation efficacy of M-CS-E-LNC were examined by ELISA, IHC and IF in macrophage cells and LPS-induced SAP mice. IVIS spectrum imaging and HPLC were applied to explore the controlled release of M-CS-E-LNC in the pancreas. LC-MS/MS was performed for lipidomics analysis of macrophages. Moreover, a vector-based short hairpin RNA (shRNA) method was used to silence CTP1 gene expression in macrophage cells.

RESULTS

The levels of inflammatory mediators in macrophages were markedly decreased after treatment with M-CS-E-LNC. The same anti-inflammation effects were detected in SAP mouse through the analysis of serum levels of amylase, TNF-α and IL-6. Importantly, M-CS-E-LNC allowed the emodin to selectively accumulate at pancreas and gastrointestinal tissues, thus exhibiting a targeted release. Mechanistically, the M-CS-E-LNC treatment group showed up-regulated expression of the carnitine palmitoyltransferase 1 (CPT1) protein which promoted intracellular long-chain fatty acid transport, thereby promoting the M2 phenotype polarization of macrophages.

CONCLUSION

M-CS-E-LNC exhibited significantly improved bioavailability and water solubility, which translated to greater therapeutic effects on macrophage polarization. Our findings also demonstrate, for the first time, that CPT1 may be a new therapeutic target for SAP treatment.

Rhei Radix et Rhizoma and its anthraquinone derivatives: Potential candidates for pancreatitis treatment

BACKGROUND

Pancreatitis is a common exocrine inflammatory disease of the pancreas and lacks specific medication currently. Rhei Radix et Rhizoma (RR) and its anthraquinone derivatives (AQs) have been successively reported for their pharmacological effects and molecular mechanisms in experimental and clinical pancreatitis. However, an overview of the anti-pancreatitis potential of RR and its AQs is limited.

PURPOSE

To summarize and analyze the pharmacological effects of RR and its AQs on pancreatitis and the underlying mechanisms, and discuss their drug-like properties and future perspectives.

METHODS

The articles related to RR and its AQs were collected from the Chinese National Knowledge Infrastructure, Wanfang data, PubMed, and the Web of Science using relevant keywords from the study's inception until April first, 2024. Studies involving RR or its AQs in cell or animal pancreatitis models as well as structure-activity relationship, pharmacokinetics, toxicology, and clinical trials were included.

RESULTS

Most experimental studies are based on severe acute pancreatitis rat models and a few on chronic pancreatitis. Several bioactive anthraquinone derivatives of Rhei Radix et Rhizoma (RRAQs) exert local protective effects on the pancreas by maintaining pancreatic acinar cell homeostasis, inhibiting inflammatory signaling, and anti-fibrosis, and they improve systemic organ function by alleviating intestinal and lung injury. Pharmacokinetic and toxicity studies have revealed the low bioavailability and wide distribution of RRAQs, as well as hepatotoxicity and nephrotoxicity. However, there is insufficient research on the clinical application of RRAQs in pancreatitis. Furthermore, we propose effective strategies for subsequent improvement in terms of balancing effectiveness and safety.

CONCLUSION

RRAQs can be developed as either candidate drugs or novel lead structures for pancreatitis treatment. The comprehensive review of RR and its AQs provides references for optimizing drugs, developing therapies, and conducting future studies on pancreatitis.

The Effects of Aflatoxin B1 on Liver Cholestasis and Its Nutritional Regulation in Ducks

The aim of this study was to investigate the effects of aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) on cholestasis in duck liver and its nutritional regulation. Three hundred sixty 1-day-old ducks were randomly divided into six groups and fed for 4 weeks. The control group was fed a basic diet, while the experimental group diet contained 90 μg/kg of AFB1. Cholestyramine, atorvastatin calcium, taurine, and emodin were added to the diets of four experimental groups. The results show that in the AFB1 group, the growth properties, total bile acid (TBA) serum levels and total superoxide dismutase (T-SOD), glutathione peroxidase (GSH-Px), and glutathione (GSH) liver levels decreased, while the malondialdehyde (MDA) and TBA liver levels increased (p < 0.05). Moreover, AFB1 caused cholestasis. Cholestyramine, atorvastatin calcium, taurine, and emodin could reduce the TBA serum and liver levels (p < 0.05), alleviating the symptoms of cholestasis. The qPCR results show that AFB1 upregulated cytochrome P450 family 7 subfamily A member 1 (CYP7A1) and cytochrome P450 family 8 subfamily B member 1 (CYP8B1) gene expression and downregulated ATP binding cassette subfamily B member 11 (BSEP) gene expression in the liver, and taurine and emodin downregulated CYP7A1 and CYP8B1 gene expression (p < 0.05). In summary, AFB1 negatively affects health and alters the expression of genes related to liver bile acid metabolism, leading to cholestasis. Cholestyramine, atorvastatin calcium, taurine, and emodin can alleviate AFB1-induced cholestasis.

A Review on Bioactive Anthraquinone and Derivatives as the Regulators for ROS

Anthraquinones are bioactive natural products, which are often found in medicinal herbs. These compounds exert antioxidant-related pharmacological actions including neuroprotective effects, anti-inflammation, anticancer, hepatoprotective effects and anti-aging, etc. Considering the benefits from their pharmacological use, recently, there was an upsurge in the development and utilization of anthraquinones as reactive oxygen species (ROS) regulators. In this review, a deep discussion was carried out on their antioxidant activities and the structure-activity relationships. The antioxidant mechanisms and the chemistry behind the antioxidant activities of both natural and synthesized compounds were furtherly explored and demonstrated. Due to the specific chemical activity of ROS, antioxidants are essential for human health. Therefore, the development of reagents that regulate the imbalance between ROS formation and elimination should be more extensive and rational, and the exploration of antioxidant mechanisms of anthraquinones may provide new therapeutic tools and ideas for various diseases mediated by ROS.

Development and validation of a prediction model for the early occurrence of acute kidney injury in patients with acute pancreatitis

BACKGROUND

Acute pancreatitis (AP) is associated with a high incidence of acute kidney injury (AKI). This study aimed to develop a nomogram for predicting the early onset of AKI in AP patients admitted to the intensive care unit.

METHOD

Clinical data for 799 patients diagnosed with AP were extracted from the Medical Information Mart for Intensive Care IV database. Eligible AP patients were randomly divided into training and validation cohorts. The independent prognostic factors for the early development of AKI in AP patients were determined using the all-subsets regression method and multivariate logistic regression. A nomogram was constructed for predicting the early occurrence of AKI in AP patients. The performance of the nomogram was evaluated based on the area under the receiver operating characteristic curve (AUC), calibration curves and decision curve analysis (DCA).

RESULTS

Seven independent prognostic factors were identified as predictive factors for early onset AKI in AP patients. The AUC of the nomogram in the training and validation cohorts were 0.795 (95% CI, 0.758-0.832) and 0.772 (95% CI, 0.711-0.832), respectively. The AUC of the nomogram was higher compared with that of the BISAP, Ranson, APACHE II scores. Further, the calibration curve revealed that the predicted outcome was in agreement with the actual observations. Finally, the DCA curves showed that the nomogram had a good clinical applicability value.

CONCLUSION

The constructed nomogram showed a good predictive ability for the early occurrence of AKI in AP patients.

Elucidating the mechanism of action of mycotoxins through machine learning-driven QSAR models: Focus on lipid peroxidation

Understanding the mechanisms of mycotoxin toxicity is crucial for establishing effective guidelines and preventive strategies. In this study, machine learning models based on quantitative structure-activity relationship (QSAR) were employed to predict the lipid peroxidation activity of mycotoxins. Two different algorithms using Linear Discriminant Analysis (LDA) and Artificial Neural Networks (ANNs) have been trained using a dataset of 70 mycotoxins. The LDA model had an average correct classification rate of 91%, while the ANN model achieved a perfect 100% classification rate. Following an internal validation process, the models were utilized to predict mycotoxins with known lipid peroxidation activity. The machine learning models achieved an 88% correct classification rate for these mycotoxins. Finally, by utilizing classified algorithms, the study aimed to infer the mechanism of action related to lipid peroxidation for 91 unstudied mycotoxins. These models provide a fast, accurate, and cost-effective means to assess the potential toxicity and mechanism of action of mycotoxins. The findings of this study contribute to a comprehensive understanding of mycotoxin toxicology and assist researchers and toxicologists in evaluating health risks associated with mycotoxin exposure and developing appropriate preventive strategies and potential therapeutic interventions to mitigate the effects of mycotoxins.

Emodin protects against intestinal dysfunction and enhances survival in rat model of septic peritonitis through anti-inflammatory actions

BACKGROUND

Sepsis is a significant contributor to organ function damage or failure that results in intestinal dysfunction. Emodin (Emo) has received much attention for its notable anti-inflammatory and antibacterial properties. We aimed to explore the function of Emo on sepsis.

METHODS

Sprague Dawley (SD) rats were pretreated with 20 or 40 mg/kg of Emo, followed by using cecal ligation and perforation to establish sepsis models. Hereafter, blood glucose levels, biochemical parameters, and inflammatory cytokines were measured. Additionally, ileal myeloperoxidase (MPO) activity was also measured. Diamine oxidase (DAO) level in plasma, fluorescein isothiocyanate-dextran 40 (FD-40) level in serum, bacteria number in blood and peritoneal fluid, histopathological changes of ileum, and tight junction (TJ) protein expressions in ileum were tested to evaluate the barrier function. Furthermore, CD4+ and CD8+ T cells' percentages were evaluated by flow cytometry. Finally, rats' survival rate was calculated as live rats divided by the total number of rats.

RESULTS

Emo pretreatment not only decreased blood glucose level, but also downregulated triglyceride (TG), alanine aminotransferase (ALT), aspartate aminotransferase (AST), serum creatinine (SCr), blood urea nitrogen (BUN) contents for sepsis rats, especially for the high dose of Emo (p < .05). Furthermore, Emo inhibited MPO activity and inflammatory factor release (p < .05). Crucially, after Emo administration, the barrier function of ileum was enhanced, evidenced by the reduced DAO, FD-40 levels, decreased bacteria number, alleviated pathological damage in ileum and increased TJ protein expressions (p < .05). Rats treated with Emo exhibited increased percentages of CD8+ and CD4+ T cells (p < .05), as well as an improved survival rate.

CONCLUSION

Emo exhibited a remarkable ability to attenuate sepsis by restoring intestinal dysfunction and improving survival rates, and the mechanism was closely related to anti-inflammatory properties, which provided new solid evidence for the use of Emo in treating sepsis.

Role of emodin in atherosclerosis and other cardiovascular diseases: Pharmacological effects, mechanisms, and potential therapeutic target as a phytochemical

The morbidity and mortality of cardiovascular diseases (CVDs) are increasing in recent years, and atherosclerosis (AS), a major CVD, becomes a disorder that afflicts human beings severely, especially the elders. AS is recognized as the primary cause and pathological basis of some other CVDs. The active constituents of Chinese herbal medicines have garnered increasing interest in recent researches owing to their influence on AS and other CVDs. Emodin (1,3,8-trihydroxy-6-methylanthraquinone) is a naturally occurring anthraquinone derivative found in some Chinese herbal medicines such as Rhei radix et rhizome, Polygoni cuspidati rhizoma et radix and Polygoni multiflori root. In this paper, we first review the latest researches about emodin's pharmacology, metabolism and toxicity. Meanwhile, it has been shown to be effective in treating CVDs caused by AS in dozens of previous studies. Therefore, we systematically reviewed the mechanisms by which emodin treats AS. In summary, these mechanisms include anti-inflammatory activity, lipid metabolism regulation, anti-oxidative stress, anti-apoptosis and vascular protection. The mechanisms of emodin in other CVDs are also discussed, such as vasodilation, inhibition of myocardial fibrosis, inhibition of cardiac valve calcification and antiviral properties. We have further summarized the potential clinical applications of emodin. Through this review, we hope to provide guidance for clinical and preclinical drug development.

Emodin ameliorates renal injury and fibrosis via regulating the miR-490-3p/HMGA2 axis

Renal fibrosis is a major pathological feature of chronic kidney disease (CKD). While emodin is reported to elicit anti-fibrotic effects on renal injury, little is known about its effects on microRNA (miRNA)-modulated mechanisms in renal fibrosis. In this study, we established a unilateral ureteral obstruction (UUO) model and a transforming growth factor (TGF)-β1-induced normal rat renal tubular epithelial cell line (NRK-52E) model to investigate the protective effects of emodin on renal fibrosis and its miRNA/target gene mechanisms. Dual-luciferase assay was performed to confirm the direct binding of miRNA and target genes in HEK293 cells. Results showed that oral administration of emodin significantly ameliorated the loss of body weight and the increase in physicochemical parameters, including serum uric acid, creatinine, and urea nitrogen in UUO mice. Inflammatory cytokines, including tumor necrosis factor-α, monocyte chemoattractant protein-1, and interleukin (IL)-1β, but not IL-6, were down-regulated by emodin administration. Emodin decreased the expression levels of TGF-β1 and fibrotic-related proteins, including alpha-smooth muscle actin, Collagen IV, and Fibronectin, and increased the expression of E-cadherin. Furthermore, miR-490-3p was decreased in UUO mice and negatively correlated with increased expression of high migration protein A2 (HMGA2). We further confirmed HMGA2 was the target of miR-490-3p. Transfection of miR-490-3p mimics decreased, while transfection of miR-490-3p inhibitors increased fibrotic-related proteins and HMGA2 expression levels in TGF-β1-induced NRK-52E cells. Furthermore, transfection of miR-490-3p mimics enhanced the anti-fibrotic effects of emodin, while transfection of miR-490-3p inhibitors abolished the protective effects of emodin. Thus, as a novel target of emodin that prevents renal fibrosis in the HMGA2-dependent signaling pathway, miR-490-3p has potential implications in CKD pathology.

Bicarbonated Ringer's solution improves L-arg-induced acute pancreatitis in rats via the NF-κB and Nrf2 pathways

OBJECTIVE

Bicarbonated Ringer's solution (BRS), as a new generation of crystalline fluid, has been widely used for intravenous fluid resuscitation in patients with shock diseases. The purpose of our study is to investigate the intervention effects and potential mechanisms of BRS on L-arg-induced AP in rats.

METHODS

The AP model was induced by intraperitoneal injection of 20% L-arg. BRS was infused immediately following the previous L-arg injection. The pancreatic tissue was harvested for histological examination. The serum levels of amylase and lipase activity, lactic acid, proinflammatory and anti-inflammatory cytokines were determined. The peroxide and antioxidant activities in the pancreatic tissue were measured. The protein and mRNA levels of nuclear factor-κB, TNF-α, nuclear factor erythroid 2-related Factor 2 and heme oxygenase-1 were determined by Western blot and quantitative reverse transcription PCR analysis.

RESULTS

Pancreatic tissue injuries were obviously alleviated, with a significant increase in normal acinar cells after BRS treatment. The serum levels of amylase, lipase, lactic acid, IL-1β and TNF-α were significantly decreased, while IL-10 was obviously increased by inhibiting the NF-κB pathway and TNF-α. Moreover, Nrf2 pathway and HO-1 were promoted by BRS treatment, which resulted in significantly reduced malondialdehyde and reactive oxygen species levels. In contrast, antioxidant activities, including glutathione peroxidase and so on, were markedly increased after BRS treatment.

CONCLUSIONS

Bicarbonated Ringer's solution improves L-arg-induced acute pancreatitis in rats through the NF-κB and Nrf2 pathways, indicating that BRS holds promise as a priority in fluid resuscitation to treat acute pancreatitis.

Antioxidant and Anti-Inflammatory Properties of Phytochemicals Found in the Yucca Genus

The Yucca genus encompasses about 50 species native to North America. Species within the Yucca genus have been used in traditional medicine to treat pathologies related to inflammation. Despite its historical use and the popular notion of its antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties, there is a limited amount of research on this genus. To better understand these properties, this work aimed to analyze phytochemical composition through documentary research. This will provide a better understanding of the molecules and the mechanisms of action that confer such antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties. About 92 phytochemicals present within the genus have reported antioxidant or anti-inflammatory effects. It has been suggested that the antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties are mainly generated through its free radical scavenging activity, the inhibition of arachidonic acid metabolism, the decrease in TNF-α (Tumor necrosis factor-α), IL-6 (Interleukin-6), iNOS (Inducible nitric oxide synthase), and IL-1β (Interleukin 1β) concentration, the increase of GPx (Glutathione peroxidase), CAT (Catalase), and SOD (Superoxide dismutase) concentration, and the inhibition of the MAPK (Mitogen-Activated Protein Kinase), and NF-κB (Nuclear factor kappa B), and the activation of the Nrf2 (Nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor) signaling pathway. These studies provide evidence of its use in traditional medicine against pathologies related to inflammation. However, more models and studies are needed to properly understand the activity of most plants within the genus, its potency, and the feasibility of its use to help manage or treat chronic inflammation.

Traditional Chinese medicine for treatment of sepsis and related multi-organ injury

Sepsis is a common but critical illness in patients admitted to the intensive care unit and is associated with high mortality. Although there are many treatments for sepsis, specific and effective therapies are still lacking. For over 2,000 years, traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) has played a vital role in the treatment of infectious diseases in Eastern countries. Both anecdotal and scientific evidence show that diverse TCM preparations alleviate organ dysfunction caused by sepsis by inhibiting the inflammatory response, reducing oxidative stress, boosting immunity, and maintaining cellular homeostasis. This review reports on the efficacy and mechanism of action of various TCM compounds, herbal monomer extracts, and acupuncture, on the treatment of sepsis and related multi-organ injury. We hope that this information would be helpful to better understand the theoretical basis and empirical support for TCM in the treatment of sepsis.

Emodin suppresses oxaliplatin-induced neuropathic pain by inhibiting COX2/NF-κB mediated spinal inflammation

Oxaliplatin (OXA) is a common chemotherapy drug for colorectal, gastric, and pancreatic cancers. The anticancer effect of OXA is often accompanied by neurotoxicity and acute and chronic neuropathy. The symptoms present as paresthesia and pain which adversely affect patients' quality of life. Herein, five consecutive intraperitoneal injections of OXA at a dose of 4 mg/kg were used to mimic chemotherapy. OXA administration induced mechanical allodynia, activated spinal astrocytes, and increased inflammatory response. To develop an effective therapeutic measure for OXA-induced neuropathic pain, emodin was intrathecally injected into OXA rats. Emodin developed an analgesic effect, as demonstrated by a significant increase in the paw withdrawal threshold of OXA rats. Moreover, emodin treatment reduced the pro-inflammatory cytokines (tumor necrosis factor-α and interleukin-1β) which upregulated in OXA rats. Furthermore, autodock data showed four hydrogen bonds were formed between emodin and cyclooxygenase-2 (COX2), and emodin treatment decreased COX2 expression in OXA rats. Cell research further proved that emodin suppressed nuclear factor κB (NF-κB)-mediated inflammatory signal and reactive oxygen species level. Taken together, emodin reduced spinal COX2/NF-κB mediated inflammatory signal and oxidative stress in the spinal cord of OXA rats which consequently relieved OXA-induced neuropathic pain.

Efficacy and safety of Dachaihu Decoction for acute pancreatitis: Protocol for a systematic review and meta-analysis

BACKGROUND

Dachaihu Decoction (DCD) is a traditional herbal formula widely used for treating acute pancreatitis (AP) in China. However, the efficacy and safety of DCD has never been validated, limiting its application. This study will assess the efficacy and safety of DCD for AP treatment.

METHODS

Relevant randomized controlled trials of DCD in treating AP will be searched through Cochrane Library, PubMed, Embase, Web of Science, Scopus, CINAHL, China National Knowledge Infrastructure database, Wanfang Database, VIP Database, and Chinese Biological Medicine Literature Service System database. Only studies published between the inception of the databases and May 31, 2023 shall be considered. Searches will also be performed in the WHO International Clinical Trials Registry Platform, Chinese Clinical Trial Registry, and ClinicalTrials.gov. Preprint databases and grey literature sources such as OpenGrey, British Library Inside, ProQuest Dissertations & Theses Global, and BIOSIS preview will also be searched for relevant resources. The primary outcomes to be assessed will include mortality rate, rate of surgical intervention, proportion of patients with severe acute pancreatitis transferred to ICU, gastrointestinal symptoms, and the acute physiology and chronic health evaluation II score. Secondary outcomes will include systemic complications, local complications, the normalization period of C-reactive protein, length of stay in the hospital, TNF-α, IL-1, IL-6, IL-8, and IL-10 levels, and adverse events. Study selection, data extraction, and assessment of bias risk will be conducted independently by two reviewers using the Endnote X9 and Microsoft Office Excel 2016 software. The risk of bias of included studies will be assessed by the Cochrane "risk of bias" tool. Data analysis will be performed using the RevMan software (V.5.3). Subgroup and sensitivity analysis will be performed where necessary.

RESULTS

This study will provide high-quality current evidence of DCD for treating AP.

CONCLUSION

This systematic review will provide evidence of whether DCD is an effective and safe therapy for treating AP.

TRIAL REGISTRATION

PROSPERO registration number CRD42021245735. The protocol for this study was registered at PROSPERO, and is available in the S1 Appendix. https://www.crd.york.ac.uk/prospero/display_record.php?ID=CRD42021245735.

Computer-aided drug design combined network pharmacology to explore anti-SARS-CoV-2 or anti-inflammatory targets and mechanisms of Qingfei Paidu Decoction for COVID-19

Introduction

Coronavirus Disease-2019 (COVID-19) is an infectious disease caused by SARS-CoV-2. Severe cases of COVID-19 are characterized by an intense inflammatory process that may ultimately lead to organ failure and patient death. Qingfei Paidu Decoction (QFPD), a traditional Chines e medicine (TCM) formula, is widely used in China as anti-SARS-CoV-2 and anti-inflammatory. However, the potential targets and mechanisms for QFPD to exert anti-SARS-CoV-2 or anti-inflammatory effects remain unclear.

Methods

In this study, Computer-Aided Drug Design was performed to identify the antiviral or anti-inflammatory components in QFPD and their targets using Discovery Studio 2020 software. We then investigated the mechanisms associated with QFPD for treating COVID-19 with the help of multiple network pharmacology approaches.

Results and discussion

By overlapping the targets of QFPD and COVID-19, we discovered 8 common targets (RBP4, IL1RN, TTR, FYN, SFTPD, TP53, SRPK1, and AKT1) of 62 active components in QFPD. These may represent potential targets for QFPD to exert anti-SARS-CoV-2 or anti-inflammatory effects. The result showed that QFPD might have therapeutic effects on COVID-19 by regulating viral infection, immune and inflammation-related pathways. Our work will promote the development of new drugs for COVID-19.

Yttrium Oxide Nanoparticles Attenuate L-Arginine Induced Chronic Pancreatitis

In this work, we tested the efficacy of yttrium oxide nanoparticles (NY), a promising antioxidant and anti-inflammatory agent, in L-arginine (L-Arg) induced chronic pancreatitis (CP) model. The nanoparticles were characterized using multiple techniques including transmission electron microscopy (TEM), Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), powder X-ray diffraction (pXRD), and Energy dispersive X-ray analysis (EDX). The rats were divided into three groups: normal control, L-Arg control, L-Arg + NY (1 mg/kg). We probed the mechanistic effects of the NY by ELISA, multiplex analysis of TGF-β pathway and inflammatory cytokines and immunoblotting. NY treatment significantly reduced pancreatic oxidative-nitrosative stress. In addition, NY intervention also reduced inflammatory cytokines and chemokines resulting in the inhibition of fibrosis signaling. Further, NY treatment suppressed the TGF-β signaling and epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT). We conclude that NY shows potential antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and anti-fibrotic effects against CP and associated fibrosis.

Inhibition of Necroptosis in Acute Pancreatitis: Screening for RIPK1 Inhibitors

This work utilizes the anthraquinone (AQ) database to identify potential inhibitors of the RIPK1 protein for developing medicines targeting AP-associated necroptosis. Screening for necroptosis-related genes that play a crucial role in AP is based on the GEO and GSEA databases. An optimum AQ for receptor-interacting protein kinase 1 (RIPK1) inhibition was virtually screened using the Discovery Studio 2019 tool, with a previously described RIPK1 inhibitor (necrostatin-1) as a reference ligand. Using LibDock and CDOCKER molecular docking, an AQ that robustly binds to RIPK1 was identified. The DOCKTHOR web server was used to calculate the ligand–receptor binding energy. The pharmacological properties and toxicity of potential AQ were evaluated using the ADME module and ProTox-II web server. The stability of ligand–receptor complexes was examined using molecular dynamics (MD) simulation. All 12 AQs showed solid binding activity to RIPK1, 5 of which were superior to necrostatin-1. Rheochrysin and Aloe-Emodin-8-O-Beta-D-Glucopyranoside (A8G) were safe RIPK1 inhibitors based on pharmacological characterization and toxicity studies. Additionally, the potential energy of the candidate AQs with RIPK1 was greater than that of the reference ligand, necrostatin-1. MD simulations also showed that the candidate AQs could bind stably to RIPK1 in the natural environment. Rheochrysin and A8G are safe and effective anthraquinones that inhibit the RIPK1 protein. This research takes a first step toward developing RIPK1 inhibitors by screening AQs that have the potential to be more effective than the reference ligand necrostatin-1.

Recent advances in the therapeutic potential of emodin for human health

Emodin (1,3,8-trihydroxy-6-methylanthraquinone) is a bioactive compound, a natural anthraquinone aglycone, present mainly in herbaceous species of the families Fabaceae, Polygonaceae and Rhamnaceae, with a physiological role in protection against abiotic stress in vegetative tissues. Emodin is mainly used in traditional Chinese medicine to treat sore throats, carbuncles, sores, blood stasis, and damp-heat jaundice. Pharmacological research in the last decade has revealed other potential therapeutic applications such as anticancer, neuroprotective, antidiabetic, antioxidant and anti-inflammatory. The present study aimed to summarize recent studies on bioavailability, preclinical pharmacological effects with evidence of molecular mechanisms, clinical trials and clinical pitfalls, respectively the therapeutic limitations of emodin. For this purpose, extensive searches were performed using the PubMed/Medline, Scopus, Google scholar, TRIP database, Springer link, Wiley and SciFinder databases as a search engines. The in vitro and in vivo studies included in this updated review highlighted the signaling pathways and molecular mechanisms of emodin. Because its bioavailability is low, there are limitations in clinical therapeutic use. In conclusion, for an increase in pharmacotherapeutic efficacy, future studies with carrier molecules to the target, thus opening up new therapeutic perspectives.

Comparative transcriptome analysis of different tissues of Rheum tanguticum Maxim. ex Balf. (Polygonaceae) reveals putative genes involved in anthraquinone biosynthesis

Rheum tanguticum is a perennial herb and an important medicinal plant, with anthraquinones as its main bioactive compounds. However, the specific pathway of anthraquinone biosynthesis in rhubarb is still unclear. The accumulation of anthraquinones in different tissues (root, leaf, stem and seed) of R. tanguticum revealed considerable variation, suggesting possible differences in metabolite biosynthetic pathways and accumulation among various tissues. To better illustrate the biosynthetic pathway of anthraquinones, we assembled transcriptome sequences from the root, leaf, stem and seed tissues yielding 157,564 transcripts and 88,142 unigenes. Putative functions could be assigned to 56,911 unigenes (64.57%) based on BLAST searches against annotation databases, including GO, KEGG, Swiss-Prot, NR, and Pfam. In addition, putative genes involved in the biosynthetic pathway of anthraquinone were identified. The expression profiles of nine unigenes involved in anthraquinone biosynthesis were verified in different tissues of R. tanguticum by qRT-PCR. Various transcription factors, including bHLH, MYB_related, and C2H2, were identified by searching unigenes against plantTFDB. This is the first transcriptome analysis of different tissues of R. tanguticum and can be utilized to describe the genes involved in the biosynthetic pathway of anthraquiones, understanding the molecular mechanism of active compounds in R. tanguticum.

Emodin Alleviates Sodium Taurocholate-Induced Pancreatic Ductal Cell Damage by Inhibiting the S100A9/VNN1 Signaling Pathway

OBJECTIVES

Because the pathogenesis of the disease is unclear, the treatment of patients with acute pancreatitis, especially severe acute pancreatitis, is still a major challenge for clinicians. Emodin is an anthraquinone compound extracted from rhubarb that can alleviate the damage to pancreatic ductal epithelial cells induced by adenosine triphosphate, but whether it has a similar protective effect on sodium taurocholate (STC)-stimulated pancreatic ductal cells and the underlying mechanism has not yet been reported.

METHODS

A model of STC-induced HPDE6-C7 human pancreatic ductal epithelial cell injury was established, and then apoptosis and the levels of reactive oxygen species (ROS), glutathione, gamma-glutamylcysteine synthetase, and inflammatory cytokines were assessed in the presence or absence of emodin pretreatment. S100 calcium binding protein A9 (S100A9) and Vanin1 (VNN1) protein expression was also measured.

RESULTS

Emodin significantly increased HPDE6-C7 cell viability, inhibited apoptosis and ROS release, and elevated glutathione levels and gamma-glutamylcysteine synthetase activity. Furthermore, emodin downregulated S100A9 and VNN1 protein expression and inhibited the production of inflammatory factors, such as interleukin (IL)-1β, IL-6, IL-8, and IL-18.

CONCLUSIONS

Emodin attenuates STC-induced pancreatic ductal cell injury possibly by inhibiting S100A9/VNN1-mediated ROS release. This finding provides evidence for the future development of emodin as a therapeutic agent.

Effects of Anthraquinones on Immune Responses and Inflammatory Diseases

The anthraquinones (AQs) and derivatives are widely distributed in nature, including plants, fungi, and insects, with effects of anti-inflammation and anti-oxidation, antibacterial and antiviral, anti-osteoporosis, anti-tumor, etc. Inflammation, including acute and chronic, is a comprehensive response to foreign pathogens under a variety of physiological and pathological processes. AQs could attenuate symptoms and tissue damages through anti-inflammatory or immuno-modulatory effects. The review aims to provide a scientific summary of AQs on immune responses under different pathological conditions, such as digestive diseases, respiratory diseases, central nervous system diseases, etc. It is hoped that the present paper will provide ideas for future studies of the immuno-regulatory effect of AQs and the therapeutic potential for drug development and clinical use of AQs and derivatives.

Pyroptosis in acute pancreatitis and its therapeutic regulation

Pyroptosis defines a new type of GSDMs-mediated programmed cell death, distinguishes from the classical concepts of apoptosis and necrosis-mediated cell death and is prescribed by cell swelling and membrane denaturation, leading to the extensive secretion of cellular components and low-grade inflammatory response. However, NLRP3 inflammasome activation can trigger its downstream inflammatory cytokines, leading to the activation of pyroptosis-regulated cell death. Current studies reveal that activation of caspase-4/5/11-driven non-canonical inflammasome signaling pathways facilitates the pathogenesis and progression of acute pancreatitis (AP). In addition, a large number of studies have reported that NLRP3 inflammasome-dependent pyroptosis is a crucial player in driving the course of the pathogenesis of AP. Excessive uncontrolled GSDMD-mediated pyroptosis has been implicated in AP. Therefore, the pyroptosis-related molecule GSDMD may be an independent prognostic biomarker for AP. The present review paper summarizes the molecular mechanisms of pyroptotic signaling pathways and their pathophysiological impacts on the progress of AP. Moreover, we briefly present some experimental compounds targeting pyroptosis-regulated cell death for exploring novel therapeutic directions for the treatment and management of AP. Our review investigations strongly suggest that targeting pyroptosis could be an ideal therapeutic approach in AP.

Emodin Ameliorates Acute Pancreatitis-Associated Lung Injury Through Inhibiting the Alveolar Macrophages Pyroptosis

Objective: To investigate the protective effect of emodin in acute pancreatitis (AP)-associated lung injury and the underlying mechanisms. Methods: NaT-AP model in rats was constructed using 3.5% sodium taurocholate, and CER+LPS-AP model in mice was constructed using caerulein combined with Lipopolysaccharide. Animals were divided randomly into four groups: sham, AP, Ac-YVAD-CMK (caspase-1 specific inhibitor, AYC), and emodin groups. AP-associated lung injury was assessed with H&E staining, inflammatory cytokine levels, and myeloperoxidase activity. Alveolar macrophages (AMs) pyroptosis was evaluated by flow cytometry. In bronchoalveolar lavage fluid, the levels of lactate dehydrogenase and inflammatory cytokines were measured by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. Pyroptosis-related protein expressions were detected by Western Blot. Results: Emodin, similar to the positive control AYC, significantly alleviated pancreas and lung damage in rats and mice. Additionally, emodin mitigated the pyroptotic process of AMs by decreasing the level of inflammatory cytokines and lactate dehydrogenase. More importantly, the protein expressions of NLRP3, ASC, Caspase1 p10, GSDMD, and GSDMD-NT in AMs were significantly downregulated after emodin intervention. Conclusion: Emodin has a therapeutic effect on AP-associated lung injury, which may result from the inhibition of NLRP3/Caspase1/GSDMD-mediated AMs pyroptosis signaling pathways.

Comparison of Cytotoxic, Genotoxic, and DNA-Protective Effects of Skyrin on Cancerous vs. Non-Cancerous Human Cells

Secondary metabolites as a potential source of anticancer therapeutics have been the subject of many studies. Since hypericin, a metabolite isolated from Hypericum perforatum L., shows several biomedical properties applicable in oncology, the aim of our study was to investigate its potential precursor skyrin in terms of genotoxic and DNA-protective effects. These skyrin effects were analyzed by cell-free methods, and cytotoxicity was estimated by an MTT assay and by a trypan blue exclusion test, while the genotoxic/antigenotoxic potential was examined by comet assay using non-cancerous human lymphocytes and the HepG2 cancer cell line. Skyrin did not show DNA-damaging effects but rather exhibited DNA-protectivity using a DNA-topology assay. However, we observed only weak antioxidant and chelating skyrin properties in other cell-free methods. Regarding the cytotoxic activity of skyrin, HepG2 cells were more prone to skyrin-induced death in comparison to human lymphocytes. Skyrin in non-cytotoxic concentrations did not exhibit elevated genotoxicity in both cell types. On the other hand, skyrin displayed moderate DNA-protective effects that were more noticeable in the case of non-cancerous human lymphocytes. The potential genotoxic effects of skyrin were not observed, and its DNA-protective capacity was more prominent in non-cancerous cells. Therefore, skyrin might be a promising agent used in anticancer therapy.

New 18β-Glycyrrhetinic Acid-Emodin Esters Synthetized by a One-Step Innovative Route, Its Structural Characterization, and in Vivo Toxicity Assessed on Zebrafish Models

To integrate the active advantages of 18β-glycyrrhetinic acid (18β-GA) and emodin, improve bioavailability, increase efficiency, and reduce toxicity, a one-step innovative synthetic route was set up for the first time: 4-dimethylaminopyridine (DMAP) was used as catalyst, 1-ethyl-(3-dimethylaminopropyl)carboimide hydrochloride (EDCI) as condensation agent, dry dichloromethane (DCM) as solvent at 25 °C for 12 h, the three target products were obtained and purified by high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC), the chemical structures of them were characterized by nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) technique and high resolution electron ionization mass spectrometry (HREI-MS), namely, 18β-glycyrrhetinic acid-3-emodin ester (1, yield 78.83 %, known), di-18β-glycyrrhetinic acid-1-emodin ester (2, yield 6.49 %, new), and di-18β-glycyrrhetinic acid-8-emodin ester (3, yield 1.81 %, new). To estimate their effects of the products on toxicity in zebrafish embryos and juvenile fishes, the two precursors and three target products were assayed involving in hatching rate, survival rate, morphology, heart rate, and apoptosis of cardiomyocytes. The results showed that the target products enhanced the hatching and survival rate of zebrafish embryos, decreased the malformation rate and the apoptosis of cardiomyocytes. It should be suggested that the one-step synthesis route with high yield makes the industrial application of the target products possible due to significantly reduced toxicity. The two new by-products provide potential candidates for the applications of pharmaceutical industry in the future.

Adsorption Characteristics and Enrichment of Emodin from Marine-Derived Aspergillus flavipes HN4-13 Extract by Macroporous Resin XAD-16

Emodin, a hydroxyanthraquinone derivative, has been used as medicine for more than 2000 years due to its extensive pharmacological activities. Large-scale production of emodin has been achieved by optimizing the fermentation conditions of marine-derived Aspergillus flavus HN4-13 in a previous study. However, the fermentation broth contained complex unknown components, which adversely affected the study of emodin. Herein, the conditions for the enrichment of emodin from A. flavipes HN4-13 extract using XAD-16 resin were optimized, and a separation method with high efficiency, simple operation, a low cost, and a large preparative scale was established. The adsorption process of emodin on the XAD-16 resin conformed to pseudo-second-order kinetics and Langmuir models. The optimal conditions for the adsorption process were as follows: An emodin concentration, flow rate, and loading volume of 0.112 mg/mL, 2 BV/h, and 10 BV, respectively. For desorption, 50% ethanol was used to elute impurities and 80% ethanol was used to desorb emodin. After enrichment with XAD-16 resin, the emodin content increased from 1.16% to 11.48%, and the recovery rate was 75.53% after one-step treatment. These results demonstrate the efficiency of the simple adsorption–desorption strategy, using the XAD-16 resin for emodin enrichment.

Emodin Alleviates High-Glucose-Induced Pancreatic β-Cell Pyroptosis by Inhibiting NLRP3/GSDMD Signaling

Diabetes mellitus (DM) is a chronic noninfectious disease that is mainly featured by pancreatic β-cell (β-cell) dysfunction and impaired glucose homeostasis. Currently, the pathogenesis of dysfunction of the β-cells in DM remains unclear, and therapeutic approaches to it are limited. Emodin (EMD), a natural anthraquinone derivative, has been preliminarily proven to show antidiabetic effects. However, the underlying mechanism of EMD on β-cells still needs to be elucidated. In this study, we investigated the protective effects of EMD on the high glucose (50 mM)-induced INS-1 cell line and the underlying mechanism. INS-1 cells were treated with EMD (5, 10, and 20 μM) when exposed to high glucose. The effects of EMD were examined by using the inverted phase-contrast microscope, qRT-PCR, ELISA, and western blot. The results showed that EMD could alleviate cellular morphological changes, suppress IL-1β and LDH release, and promote insulin secretion in high-glucose-induced INS-1 cells. Furthermore, EMD inhibits NOD-like receptor protein 3 (NLRP3) activation and gasdermin D (GSDMD) cleavage to alleviate pyroptosis induced by high glucose. Overexpression of NLRP3 reversed the above changes caused by EMD. Collectively, our findings suggest that EMD attenuates high-glucose-induced β-cell pyroptosis by inhibiting NLRP3/GSDMD signaling.

Emodin prevents renal ischemia-reperfusion injury via suppression of CAMKII/DRP1-mediated mitochondrial fission

Acute kidney injury (AKI) is a serious threat to human health. Clinically, ischemia-reperfusion (I/R) injury is considered one of the most common contributors to AKI. Emodin has been reported to alleviate I/R injury in the heart, brain, and small intestine in rats and mice through its anti-inflammatory effects. The present study investigated whether emodin improved AKI induced by I/R and elucidated the molecular mechanisms. We used a mouse model of renal I/R injury and human renal tubular epithelial cell model of hypoxia/reoxygenation (H/R) injury. Ischemia/reperfusion resulted in renal dysfunction. Pretreatment with emodin ameliorated renal injury in mice following I/R injury. Emodin reduced mitochondrial-mediated apoptosis, suppressed the overproduction of mitochondrial reactive oxygen species and accelerated the recovery of adenosine triphosphate both in vivo and in vitro. Emodin prevented mitochondrial fission and restored the balance of mitochondrial dynamics. The phosphorylation of dynamin-related protein 1 (DRP1) at Ser616, a master regulator of mitochondrial fission, was upregulated in both models of I/R and H/R injury, and this upregulation was blocked by emodin. Using computational cognate protein kinase prediction and specific kinase inhibitors, we found that emodin inhibited the phosphorylation of calcium/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase II (https://www.guidetopharmacology.org/GRAC/ObjectDisplayForward?objectId=1554), thereby inhibiting its kinase activity and reducing the phosphorylation of DRP1 at Ser616. The results demonstrated that emodin pretreatment could protect renal function by improving mitochondrial dysfunction induced by I/R.

Application of herbs and active ingredients ameliorate non-alcoholic fatty liver disease under the guidance of traditional Chinese medicine

Non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) is a global health problem, and its prevalence has been on the rise in recent years. Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM) contains a wealth of therapeutic resources and has been in use for thousands of years regarding the prevention of liver disease and has been shown to be effective in the treatment of NAFLD in China. but the molecular mechanisms behind it have not been elucidated. In this article, we have updated and summarized the research and evidence concerning herbs and their active ingredients for the treatment in vivo and vitro models of NAFLD or NASH, by searching PubMed, Web of Science and SciFinder databases. In particular, we have found that most of the herbs and active ingredients reported so far have the effect of clearing heat and dispelling dampness, which is consistent with the concept of dampness-heat syndrome, in TCM theory. we have attempted to establish the TCM theory and modern pharmacological mechanisms links between herbs and monomers according to their TCM efficacy, experiment models, targets of modulation and amelioration of NAFLD pathology. Thus, we provide ideas and perspectives for further exploration of the pathogenesis of NAFLD and herbal therapy, helping to further the scientific connotation of TCM theories and promote the modernization of TCM.

The Effects of NLRP3 Inflammasome Inhibition in Experimental Acute Pancreatitis: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

ABSTRACT

Acute pancreatitis (AP) is an inflammatory disease, and NLRP3 inflammasome activation is involved in the pathogenesis of AP. Previous research showed that inhibition of NLRP3 inflammasome may exert protective effects on animal models of AP and reduces disease severity. The aim of this systematic review and meta-analysis is to evaluate the effects of drug treatment of NLRP3 inflammasome on the outcomes of experimental AP. PubMed, Embase, Medline, and Web of Science databases were searched for relevant articles without language restrictions. The main outcomes for this study included local pancreatic injury, the incidence of systemic inflammatory responses, and the incidence of organ failure. Twenty-eight animal studies including 556 animals with AP were included in the meta-analysis. Compared with controls, inhibition of NLRP3 inflammasome significantly reduced the pancreatic histopathological scores, serum amylase, and lipase levels. In addition, inhibition of NLRP3 inflammasome reduced the levels of circulating inflammatory cytokines, as well as mitigating severity of AP-associated acute lung injury and acute intestinal injury. To conclude, inhibition of NLRP3 inflammasome has protective effects on AP by mitigating organ injury and systemic inflammation in animal studies, indicating that NLRP3 inflammasome holds promise as a target for specific AP therapy.

Emodin Promotes Autophagy and Prevents Apoptosis in Sepsis-Associated Encephalopathy through Activating BDNF/TrkB Signaling

OBJECTIVE

Sepsis-associated encephalopathy (SAE) is a severe and common complication of sepsis and can induce cognitive dysfunction and apoptosis of neurons and neuroinflammation. Emodin has been confirmed to have anti-inflammatory effects. Thus, we sought to investigate the role of Emodin in SAE.

METHODS

The cecal ligation and puncture (CLP) method was used for the establishment of SAE in mice model. For treatment of Emodin, intraperitoneal injection of 20 mg/kg Emodin was performed before the surgery. The Morris water maze and open field tests were carried for measurement of cognitive dysfunction. Hematoxylin and eosin staining was for histological analysis of hippocampus. Cell apoptosis of hippocampus neurons was measured by TUNEL staining. Pro-inflammatory and anti-inflammatory cytokines in hippocampus tissue homogenate were evaluated by ELISA. BDNF/TrkB signaling-related proteins (TrkB, p-TrkB, and BDNF), autophagy-related proteins (LC3 II/I and Beclin-1), and apoptosis-related proteins (Bax, Bcl-2, and cleaved caspase-3) were detected by Western blotting.

RESULTS

Emodin significantly inhibited apoptosis and induced autophagy in hippocampal neurons of CLP-treated mice. In addition, Emodin significantly ameliorated CLP-induced cognitive dysfunction and pathological injury in mice. Meanwhile, Emodin notably inhibited CLP-induced inflammatory responses in mice via upregulation of BDNF/TrkB signaling, while the effect of Emodin was partially reversed in the presence of K252a (BDNF/TrkB signaling inhibitor).

CONCLUSION

Emodin significantly inhibited the progression of SAE via mediation of BDNF/TrkB signaling. Thus, Emodin might serve as a new agent for SAE treatment.

Hepatotoxicity or hepatoprotection of emodin? Two sides of the same coin by 1H-NMR metabolomics profiling

Emodin is the major anthraquinone component of many important traditional Chinese herbs, such as Rheum palmatum L. and Polygonum multiflorum Thunb. They have been popular health products but recently aroused concerns about their hepatotoxicity, which are believed to be arising from the contained anthraquinones, such as emodin. However, emodin exerts potent hepatoprotective ability, such as anti-fibrotic, anti-oxidative, and anti-inflammatory effects. In this study, 1H NMR based metabolomics approach, complemented with histopathological observation, biochemical measurements, western blotting analysis and real-time quantitative PCR (RT-qPCR), was applied to interpret the paradox of emodin (30 mg/kg, 10 mg/kg BW) using both healthy mice (male, ICR) and chronic CCl4-injured mice (0.1 mL/kg, 0.35% CCl4, 3 times a week for a month). Emodin exerted a weight loss property associated with its lipid-lowing effects, which helped alleviate CCl4-induced steatosis. Emodin effectively ameliorated CCl4-induced oxidative stress and energy metabolism dysfunction in mice liver via regulating glucose, lipid and amino acid metabolism, and inhibited excessive inflammatory response. In healthy mice, emodin only exhibited hepatoxicity on high-dosage by disturbing hepatic anti-oxidant homeostasis, especially GSH and xanthine metabolism. This integrated metabolomics approach identified the bidirectional potential of emodin, which are important for its rational use.

Traditional Chinese Medicine Formulas Alleviate Acute Pancreatitis: Pharmacological Activities and Mechanisms

Acute pancreatitis (AP) is a common clinical gastrointestinal disorder with a high mortality rate for severe AP and lacks effective clinical treatment, which leads to considerable comorbidity and financial burden. Traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) has had the unique advantage of treating AP for a long time in China. Clinically, TCM formulas such as Da-cheng-qi decoction, Chai-qin-cheng-qi decoction, Qing-yi decoction, Da-chai-hu decoction, and Da-huang-fu-zi decoction are widely administrated to AP patients. All of these TCM formulas can improve gastrointestinal function, regulate the inflammatory response, and enhance immunity, thus preventing complications, reducing the mortality rate and financial burden. This review will summarize the pharmacological activities and mechanisms of TCM formulas in alleviating AP.

Emodin inhibits the progression of acute pancreatitis via regulation of lncRNA TUG1 and exosomal lncRNA TUG1

Acute pancreatitis (AP) is one of the most frequent gastrointestinal diseases and has no specific treatment. It has been shown that dysfunction of pancreatic acinar cells can lead to AP progression. Emodin is a natural product, which can alleviate the symptoms of AP. However, the mechanism by which emodin regulates the function of pancreatic acinar cells remains unclear. Thus, the present study aimed to investigate the mechanism by which emodin modulates the function of pancreatic acinar cells. To mimic AP in vitro, pancreatic acinar cells were cotreated with caerulein and lipopolysaccharide (LPS). Exosomes were isolated using the ExoQuick precipitation kit. Western blot analysis, Nanosight Tracking analysis and transmission electron microscopy were performed to detect the efficiency of exosome separation. Gene expression was detected by reverse transcription‑quantitative PCR. The levels of IL‑1β and TNF‑α were detected by ELISA. The data indicated that emodin significantly decreased the levels of IL‑1β and TNF‑α in the supernatant samples derived from AR42J cells cotreated with caerulein and LPS. In addition, emodin significantly promoted the proliferation of AR42J cells cotreated with caerulein and LPS, and inhibited apoptosis, while the effect of emodin was reversed by long non‑coding (lnc)RNA taurine upregulated 1 (TUG1) overexpression. The expression level of TUG1 in AR42J cells or exosomes derived from AR42J cells was significantly increased following treatment of the cells with LPS and caerulein, while this effect was notably reversed by emodin treatment. In addition, exosomes derived from caerulein and LPS cotreated AR42J cells inhibited the differentiation and anti‑inflammatory function of regulatory T cells, while treatment of the cells with emodin significantly decreased this effect. In conclusion, the data indicated that emodin inhibited the induction of inflammation in AR42J cells by regulating the expression of cellular and exosomal lncRNA. Therefore, emodin may be used as a potential agent for the treatment of AP.

Emodin attenuates severe acute pancreatitis-associated acute lung injury by suppressing pancreatic exosome-mediated alveolar macrophage activation

Severe acute pancreatitis-associated acute lung injury (SAP-ALI) is a serious disease associated with high mortality. Emodin has been applied to alleviate SAP-ALI; however, the mechanism remains unclear. We report that the therapeutic role of emodin in attenuating SAP-ALI is partly dependent on an exosomal mechanism. SAP rats had increased levels of plasma exosomes with altered protein contents compared to the sham rats. These infused plasma exosomes tended to accumulate in the lungs and promoted the hyper-activation of alveolar macrophages and inflammatory damage. Conversely, emodin treatment decreased the plasma/pancreatic exosome levels in the SAP rats. Emodin-primed exosomes showed less pro-inflammatory effects in alveolar macrophages and lung tissues than SAP exosomes. In detail, emodin-primed exosomes suppressed the NF-κB pathway to reduce the activation of alveolar macrophage and ameliorate lung inflammation by regulating PPARγ pathway, while these effects were amplified/abolished by PPARγ agonist/antagonist. Blockage of pancreatic acinar cell exosome biogenesis also exhibited suppression of alveolar macrophage activation and reduction of lung inflammation. This study suggests a vital role of exosomes in participating inflammation-associated organ-injury, and indicates emodin can attenuate SAP-ALI by reducing the pancreatic exosome-mediated alveolar macrophage activation.

Emodin Alleviates Intestinal Barrier Dysfunction by Inhibiting Apoptosis and Regulating the Immune Response in Severe Acute Pancreatitis

OBJECTIVE

The intestinal barrier injury caused by severe acute pancreatitis (SAP) can induce enterogenous infection, further aggravating the inflammatory reactions and immune responses. This study aimed to test the hypothesis that emodin protects the intestinal function and is involved in the immune response in SAP.

METHODS

The network pharmacology was established using the Swiss target prediction and pathway enrichment analysis. The SAP mice model was induced by cerulein (50 μg/kg) and lipopolysaccharide (10 mg/kg) hyperstimulation. The pharmacological effect of emodin in treating SAP was evaluated at mRNA and protein levels by various methods.

RESULTS

The network analysis provided the connectivity between the targets of emodin and the intestinal barrier-associated proteins and predicted the BAX/Bcl-2/caspase 3 signaling pathway. Emodin alleviated the pathological damages to the pancreas and intestine and reduced the high concentrations of serum amylase and cytokines in vivo. Emodin increased the expression of intestinal barrier-related proteins and reversed the changes in the apoptosis-related proteins in the intestine. Simultaneously, emodin regulated the ratio of T helper type 1 (TH1), TH2, TH17, γδ T cells, and interferon γ/interleukin 17 producing γδ T cells.

CONCLUSIONS

These findings partly verified the mechanism underlying the regulation of the intestinal barrier and immune response by emodin.

Emodin resists to Cyprinid herpesvirus 3 replication via the pathways of Nrf2/Keap1-ARE and NF-κB in the ornamental koi carp (Cyprinus carpio haematopterus)

Cyprinid herpesvirus 3 (CyHV-3) causes high mortality in carp. Emodin has been shown of the effects of antioxidant, anti-inflammatory and antiviral. In present study, we investigated the preventive effects and mechanism of emodin on CyHV-3 infection. The ornamental koi carp (Cyprinus carpio haematopterus) were intraperitoneally injected with emodin (10 mg/kg, 20 mg/kg, or 40 mg/kg). 72 h later, an intraperitoneal injection of CyHV-3 was administered, and collected the samples one week later to detect the antioxidant parameters, antioxidant genes, inflammatory genes and to perform histopathology assays. The results showed that emodin significantly suppressed CyHV-3 replication (P < 0.05), improved the koi survival rate and slowed the damage caused by CyHV-3. Emodin treatment increased the antioxidant activity and decreased the lipid peroxidation level of the koi. Compared to the CyHV-3 group, emodin treatment resulted in the same antioxidant parameters after CyHV-3 infection. Emodin treatment activated the Nuclear factorery throid 2-related factor 2/Kelch-like ECH-associated protein 1-antioxidatant response element (Nrf2/Keap1-ARE) pathway and upregulated the expression of heme oxygenase 1 (HO-1), superoxide dismutase (SOD), and catalase (CAT) in the hepatopancreas after CyHV-3 infection. Emodin activated the nuclear factor kappa-B (NF-κB) pathway and decreased the expression of interleukin-6 (IL-6), interleukin-8 (IL-8), and tumour necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) in the koi induced by CyHV-3. In conclusion, emodin treatment can suppress CyHV-3 replication and reduce the mortality of koi caused by CyHV-3. Emodin improves antioxidant function, relieves oxidative stress and inflammation cytokines via Nrf2/Keap1-ARE and NF-κB pathways, and protects against the adverse effects induced by CyHV-3.

Effect of silymarin on intestinal injury and PI3K/Akt and NF-κB signaling pathways in rats with severe acute pancreatitis

BACKGROUND

Acute pancreatitis is a very common clinical acute abdomen. Excessive release of inflammatory factors can damage the intestinal mucosa, induce cell apoptosis, and accelerate the course of the disease. Silymarin has anti-oxidative, immunoregulatory, anti-inflammatory, liver-protecting, anti-tissue fibrosis, and other effects. However, there is no relevant research on the effect of silymarin on the intestinal injury in severe acute pancreatitis.

AIM

To study the effects of silymarin on intestinal injury and PI3K/Akt and NF-κB signaling pathways in rats with severe acute pancreatitis.

METHODS

Rats were divided into a control group, a severe acute pancreatitis (SAP) model group, and low-, medium, and high-dose silymarin groups (severe acute pancreatitis rats given 60, 120 , and 240 mg/kg silymarin, respectively). Rats treated with glutamine (1.5 g/kg) were used as positive controls. The death of rats was recorded. Serum amylase and lipase levels were detected using an automatic biochemical analyzer. Serum IL-1β and TNF-α levels were detected by ELISA. Pancreatic and ileal pathology scores were scalculated. The expression of Bcl-2, Bax, PI3K, p-PI3K, Akt, p-Akt, NF-κBp65, and Bcl-2 in ileal tissues was detected by Western blot. TUNEL method was used to detect cell apoptosis in ileal tissues.

RESULTS

The SAP group, control group, and low-, medium, and high-dose silymarin groups had 3, 0, 2, 1, and 0 deaths, respectively. Compared with the control group, the levels of serum amylase, lipase, IL-1β, and TNF-α , the pancreatic and ileal pathology scores, the levels of Bax, p-PI3K/PI3K, p-Akt/Akt, and NF-κBp65, and the apoptosis index increased, while Bcl-2 protein expression decreased in the SAP group. Compared with the SAP group, the levels of serum amylase, lipase, IL-1β, and TNF-αased, the pancreatic and ileal pathology scores, the levels of Bax, p-PI3K/PI3K, p-Akt/Akt, and NF-κBp65 protein levels, and the apoptosis index gradually decreased, while Bcl-2 protein expression gradually increased in the low-, medium, and high-dose silymarin groups. Compared with the SAP group, the serum levels of amylase, lipase, IL-1β, and TNF-α, the pancreatic and ileal pathology scores, the levels of Bax, p-PI3K/PI3K, p-Akt/Akt, and NF-κBp65, and the apoptosis index decreased, while Bcl-2 protein expression increased in the glutamine group.

CONCLUSION

Silymarin can reduce intestinal injury in rats with SAP, inhibit inflammation, reduce cell apoptosis, and inhibit the activation of the PI3K/Akt and NF-κB signaling pathways.