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Iwasaki N, Roldo M, Karali A, Blunn G. In vitro development of a muscle-tendon junction construct using decellularised extracellular matrix: Effect of cyclic tensile loading. BIOMATERIALS ADVANCES 2024; 161:213873. [PMID: 38692180 DOI: 10.1016/j.bioadv.2024.213873] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/03/2024] [Revised: 04/10/2024] [Accepted: 04/24/2024] [Indexed: 05/03/2024]
Abstract
The muscle tendon junction (MTJ) plays a crucial role in transmitting the force generated by muscles to the tendon and then to the bone. Injuries such as tears and strains frequently happen at the MTJ, where the regenerative process is limited due to poor vascularization and the complex structure of the tissue. Current solutions for a complete tear at the MTJ have not been successful and therefore, the development of a tissue-engineered MTJ may provide a more effective treatment. In this study, decellularised extracellular matrix (DECM) derived from sheep MTJ was used to provide a scaffold for the MTJ with the relevant mechanical properties and differentiation cues such as the relase of growth factors. Human mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) were seeded on DECM and 10 % cyclic strain was applied using a bioreactor. MSCs cultured on DECM showed significantly higher gene and protein expression of MTJ markers such as collagen 22, paxillin and talin, than MSCs in 2D culture. Although collagen 22 protein expression was higher in the cells with strain than without strain, reduced gene expression of other MTJ markers was observed when the strain was applied. DECM combined with 10 % strain enhanced myogenic differentiation, while tenogenic differentiation was reduced when compared to static cultures of MSCs on DECM. For the first time, these results showed that DECM derived from the MTJ can induce MTJ marker gene and protein expression by MSCs, however, the effect of strain on the MTJ development in DECM culture needs further investigation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nodoka Iwasaki
- School of Pharmacy and Biomedical Sciences, University of Portsmouth, Portsmouth, UK.
| | - Marta Roldo
- School of Pharmacy and Biomedical Sciences, University of Portsmouth, Portsmouth, UK
| | - Aikaterina Karali
- School of Mechanical and Design Engineering, University of Portsmouth, Portsmouth, UK
| | - Gordon Blunn
- School of Pharmacy and Biomedical Sciences, University of Portsmouth, Portsmouth, UK
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Orlowska MK, Krycer JR, Reid JD, Mills RJ, Doran MR, Hudson JE. A miniaturized culture platform for control of the metabolic environment. BIOMICROFLUIDICS 2024; 18:024101. [PMID: 38434908 PMCID: PMC10908563 DOI: 10.1063/5.0169143] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/18/2023] [Accepted: 02/05/2024] [Indexed: 03/05/2024]
Abstract
The heart is a metabolic "omnivore" and adjusts its energy source depending on the circulating metabolites. Human cardiac organoids, a three-dimensional in vitro model of the heart wall, are a useful tool to study cardiac physiology and pathology. However, cardiac tissue naturally experiences shear stress and nutrient fluctuations via blood flow in vivo, whilst in vitro models are conventionally cultivated in a static medium. This necessitates the regular refreshing of culture media, which creates acute cellular disturbances and large metabolic fluxes. To culture human cardiac organoids in a more physiological manner, we have developed a perfused bioreactor for cultures in a 96-well plate format. The designed bioreactor is easy to fabricate using a common culture plate and a 3D printer. Its open system allows for the use of traditional molecular biology techniques, prevents flow blockage issues, and provides easy access for sampling and cell assays. We hypothesized that a perfused culture would create more stable environment improving cardiac function and maturation. We found that lactate is rapidly produced by human cardiac organoids, resulting in large fluctuations in this metabolite under static culture. Despite this, neither medium perfusion in bioreactor culture nor lactate supplementation improved cardiac function or maturation. In fact, RNA sequencing revealed little change across the transcriptome. This demonstrates that cardiac organoids are robust in response to fluctuating environmental conditions under normal physiological conditions. Together, we provide a framework for establishing an easily accessible perfusion system that can be adapted to a range of miniaturized cell culture systems.
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Ren Z, Harriot AD, Mair DB, Chung MK, Lee PHU, Kim DH. Biomanufacturing of 3D Tissue Constructs in Microgravity and their Applications in Human Pathophysiological Studies. Adv Healthc Mater 2023; 12:e2300157. [PMID: 37483106 DOI: 10.1002/adhm.202300157] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/13/2023] [Revised: 06/27/2023] [Indexed: 07/25/2023]
Abstract
The growing interest in bioengineering in-vivo-like 3D functional tissues has led to novel approaches to the biomanufacturing process as well as expanded applications for these unique tissue constructs. Microgravity, as seen in spaceflight, is a unique environment that may be beneficial to the tissue-engineering process but cannot be completely replicated on Earth. Additionally, the expense and practical challenges of conducting human and animal research in space make bioengineered microphysiological systems an attractive research model. In this review, published research that exploits real and simulated microgravity to improve the biomanufacturing of a wide range of tissue types as well as those studies that use microphysiological systems, such as organ/tissue chips and multicellular organoids, for modeling human diseases in space are summarized. This review discusses real and simulated microgravity platforms and applications in tissue-engineered microphysiological systems across three topics: 1) application of microgravity to improve the biomanufacturing of tissue constructs, 2) use of tissue constructs fabricated in microgravity as models for human diseases on Earth, and 3) investigating the effects of microgravity on human tissues using biofabricated in vitro models. These current achievements represent important progress in understanding the physiological effects of microgravity and exploiting their advantages for tissue biomanufacturing.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhanping Ren
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD, 21218, USA
| | - Anicca D Harriot
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD, 21205, USA
| | - Devin B Mair
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD, 21205, USA
| | | | - Peter H U Lee
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Brown University, Providence, RI, 02912, USA
- Department of Cardiothoracic Surgery, Southcoast Health, Fall River, MA, 02720, USA
| | - Deok-Ho Kim
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD, 21218, USA
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD, 21205, USA
- Department of Medicine, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, 21205, USA
- Center for Microphysiological Systems, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD, 21205, USA
- Institute for NanoBioTechnology, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, 21218, USA
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Sanchez MM, Bagdasarian IA, Darch W, Morgan JT. Organotypic cultures as aging associated disease models. Aging (Albany NY) 2022; 14:9338-9383. [PMID: 36435511 PMCID: PMC9740367 DOI: 10.18632/aging.204361] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/15/2022] [Accepted: 10/21/2022] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
Aging remains a primary risk factor for a host of diseases, including leading causes of death. Aging and associated diseases are inherently multifactorial, with numerous contributing factors and phenotypes at the molecular, cellular, tissue, and organismal scales. Despite the complexity of aging phenomena, models currently used in aging research possess limitations. Frequently used in vivo models often have important physiological differences, age at different rates, or are genetically engineered to match late disease phenotypes rather than early causes. Conversely, routinely used in vitro models lack the complex tissue-scale and systemic cues that are disrupted in aging. To fill in gaps between in vivo and traditional in vitro models, researchers have increasingly been turning to organotypic models, which provide increased physiological relevance with the accessibility and control of in vitro context. While powerful tools, the development of these models is a field of its own, and many aging researchers may be unaware of recent progress in organotypic models, or hesitant to include these models in their own work. In this review, we describe recent progress in tissue engineering applied to organotypic models, highlighting examples explicitly linked to aging and associated disease, as well as examples of models that are relevant to aging. We specifically highlight progress made in skin, gut, and skeletal muscle, and describe how recently demonstrated models have been used for aging studies or similar phenotypes. Throughout, this review emphasizes the accessibility of these models and aims to provide a resource for researchers seeking to leverage these powerful tools.
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Affiliation(s)
- Martina M. Sanchez
- Department of Bioengineering, University of California, Riverside, CA 92521, USA
| | | | - William Darch
- Department of Bioengineering, University of California, Riverside, CA 92521, USA
| | - Joshua T. Morgan
- Department of Bioengineering, University of California, Riverside, CA 92521, USA
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Kar SK, Wells JM, Ellen ED, Te Pas MFW, Madsen O, Groenen MAM, Woelders H. Organoids: a promising new in vitro platform in livestock and veterinary research. Vet Res 2021; 52:43. [PMID: 33691792 PMCID: PMC7943711 DOI: 10.1186/s13567-021-00904-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/07/2020] [Accepted: 01/13/2021] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Organoids are self-organizing, self-renewing three-dimensional cellular structures that resemble organs in structure and function. They can be derived from adult stem cells, embryonic stem cells, or induced pluripotent stem cells. They contain most of the relevant cell types with a topology and cell-to-cell interactions resembling that of the in vivo tissue. The widespread and increasing adoption of organoid-based technologies in human biomedical research is testament to their enormous potential in basic, translational- and applied-research. In a similar fashion there appear to be ample possibilities for research applications of organoids from livestock and companion animals. Furthermore, organoids as in vitro models offer a great possibility to reduce the use of experimental animals. Here, we provide an overview of studies on organoids in livestock and companion animal species, with focus on the methods developed for organoids from a variety of tissues/organs from various animal species and on the applications in veterinary research. Current limitations, and ongoing research to address these limitations, are discussed. Further, we elaborate on a number of fields of research in animal nutrition, host-microbe interactions, animal breeding and genomics, and animal biotechnology, in which organoids may have great potential as an in vitro research tool.
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Affiliation(s)
- Soumya K Kar
- Wageningen Livestock Research, Wageningen University & Research, Wageningen, The Netherlands.
| | - Jerry M Wells
- Host-Microbe Interactomics, Wageningen University & Research, Wageningen, The Netherlands
| | - Esther D Ellen
- Wageningen Livestock Research, Wageningen University & Research, Wageningen, The Netherlands
| | - Marinus F W Te Pas
- Wageningen Livestock Research, Wageningen University & Research, Wageningen, The Netherlands
| | - Ole Madsen
- Animal Breeding and Genomics, Wageningen University & Research, Wageningen, The Netherlands
| | - Martien A M Groenen
- Animal Breeding and Genomics, Wageningen University & Research, Wageningen, The Netherlands
| | - Henri Woelders
- Wageningen Livestock Research, Wageningen University & Research, Wageningen, The Netherlands
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Large-Volume Vascularized Muscle Grafts Engineered From Groin Adipose Tissue in Perfusion Bioreactor Culture. J Craniofac Surg 2020; 31:588-593. [PMID: 31977702 DOI: 10.1097/scs.0000000000006257] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Muscle tissue engineering still remains a major challenge. An axial vascular pedicle and a perfusion bioreactor are necessary for the development and maintenance of a large-volume engineered muscle tissue to provide circulation within the construct. This study aimed to determine whether large-volume vascularized muscle-like constructs could be made from rat groin adipose tissue in a perfusion bioreactor. METHODS Epigastric adipofascial flaps based on the inferior superficial epigastric vessels were elevated bilaterally in male Lewis rats and connected to the bioreactor. The system was run using a cable pump and filled with myogenic differentiation medium in the perfusion bioreactor for 1, 3, 5, or 7 weeks. The resulting tissue constructs were characterized with respect to the morphology and muscle-related expression of genes and proteins. RESULTS The histological examination demonstrated intact muscle-like tissue fibers; myogenesis was verified by the expression of myosin, MADS box transcription enhancer factor 2 D, desmin-a disintegrin and metalloproteinase domain (ADAM) 12-and M-cadherin using reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction. Western blot analysis for desmin, MyoD1, N-cadherin, and ADAM12 was performed to verify the myogenic phenotype of the extracted differentiated tissue and prove the formation of muscle-like constructs. CONCLUSIONS A large-volume vascularized muscle tissue could be engineered in a perfusion bioreactor. The resulting tissue had muscle-like histological features and expressed muscle-related genes and proteins, indicating that the trans-differentiation of adipose tissue into muscle tissue occurred.
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Rimington RP, Capel AJ, Chaplin KF, Fleming JW, Bandulasena HCH, Bibb RJ, Christie SDR, Lewis MP. Differentiation of Bioengineered Skeletal Muscle within a 3D Printed Perfusion Bioreactor Reduces Atrophic and Inflammatory Gene Expression. ACS Biomater Sci Eng 2019; 5:5525-5538. [PMID: 33464072 DOI: 10.1021/acsbiomaterials.9b00975] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
Bioengineered skeletal muscle tissues benefit from dynamic culture environments which facilitate the appropriate provision of nutrients and removal of cellular waste products. Biologically compatible perfusion systems hold the potential to enhance the physiological biomimicry of in vitro tissues via dynamic culture, in addition to providing technological advances in analytical testing and live cellular imaging for analysis of cellular development. To meet such diverse requirements, perfusion systems require the capacity and adaptability to incorporate multiple cell laden constructs of both monolayer and bioengineered tissues. This work reports perfusion systems produced using additive manufacturing technology for the in situ phenotypic development of myogenic precursor cells in monolayer and bioengineered tissue. Biocompatibility of systems 3D printed using stereolithography (SL), laser sintering (LS), and PolyJet outlined preferential morphological development within both SL and LS devices. When exposed to intermittent perfusion in the monolayer, delayed yet physiologically representative cellular proliferation, MyoD and myogenin transcription of C2C12 cells was evident. Long-term (8 days) intermittent perfusion of monolayer cultures outlined viable morphological and genetic in situ differentiation for the live cellular imaging of myogenic development. Continuous perfusion cultures (13 days) of bioengineered skeletal muscle tissues outlined in situ myogenic differentiation, forming mature multinucleated myotubes. Here, reductions in IL-1β and TNF-α inflammatory cytokines, myostatin, and MuRF-1 atrophic mRNA expression were observed. Comparable myosin heavy chain (MyHC) isoform transcription profiles were evident between conditions; however, total mRNA expression was reduced in perfusion conditions. Decreased transcription of MuRF1 and subsequent reduced ubiquitination of the MyHC protein allude to a decreased requirement for transcription of MyHC isoform transcripts. Together, these data appear to indicate that 3D printed perfusion systems elicit enhanced stability of the culture environment, resulting in a reduced basal requirement for MyHC gene expression within bioengineered skeletal muscle tissue.
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Davis BN, Yen R, Prasad V, Truskey GA. Oxygen consumption in human, tissue-engineered myobundles during basal and electrical stimulation conditions. APL Bioeng 2019; 3:026103. [PMID: 31149650 DOI: 10.1063/1.5093417] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/20/2019] [Accepted: 04/30/2019] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
During three-dimensional culture of skeletal muscle in vitro, electrical stimulation provides an important cue to enhance skeletal muscle mimicry of the in vivo structure and function. However, increased respiration can cause oxygen transport limitations in these avascular three-dimensional constructs, leading to a hypoxic, necrotic core, or nonuniform cell distributions in larger constructs. To enhance oxygen transport with convection, oxygen concentrations were measured using an optical sensor at the inlet and outlet of an 80 μl fluid volume microphysiological system (MPS) flow chamber containing three-dimensional human skeletal muscle myobundles. Finite element model simulations of convection around myobundles and oxygen metabolism by the myobundles in the 80 μl MPS flow chamber agreed well with the oxygen consumption rate (OCR) at different flow rates, suggesting that under basal conditions, mass transfer limitations were negligible for flow rates above 1.5 μl s-1. To accommodate electrodes for electrical stimulation, a modified 450 μl chamber was constructed. Electrical stimulation for 30 min increased the measured rate of oxygen consumption by the myobundles to slightly over 2 times the basal OCR. Model simulations indicate that mass transfer limitations were significant during electrical stimulation and, in the absence of mass transfer limitations, electrical stimulation induced about a 20-fold increase in the maximum rate of oxygen consumption. The results indicate that simulated exercise conditions increase respiration of skeletal muscle and mass transfer limitations reduce the measured levels of oxygen uptake, which may affect previous studies that model exercise with engineered muscle.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brittany N Davis
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Duke University, Durham, North Carolina 27708-0281, USA
| | - Ringo Yen
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Duke University, Durham, North Carolina 27708-0281, USA
| | - Varun Prasad
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Duke University, Durham, North Carolina 27708-0281, USA
| | - George A Truskey
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Duke University, Durham, North Carolina 27708-0281, USA
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Fathollahipour S, Patil PS, Leipzig ND. Oxygen Regulation in Development: Lessons from Embryogenesis towards Tissue Engineering. Cells Tissues Organs 2018; 205:350-371. [PMID: 30273927 DOI: 10.1159/000493162] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 08/11/2018] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Oxygen is a vital source of energy necessary to sustain and complete embryonic development. Not only is oxygen the driving force for many cellular functions and metabolism, but it is also involved in regulating stem cell fate, morphogenesis, and organogenesis. Low oxygen levels are the naturally preferred microenvironment for most processes during early development and mainly drive proliferation. Later on, more oxygen and also nutrients are needed for organogenesis and morphogenesis. Therefore, it is critical to maintain oxygen levels within a narrow range as required during development. Modulating oxygen tensions is performed via oxygen homeostasis mainly through the function of hypoxia-inducible factors. Through the function of these factors, oxygen levels are sensed and regulated in different tissues, starting from their embryonic state to adult development. To be able to mimic this process in a tissue engineering setting, it is important to understand the role and levels of oxygen in each developmental stage, from embryonic stem cell differentiation to organogenesis and morphogenesis. Taking lessons from native tissue microenvironments, researchers have explored approaches to control oxygen tensions such as hemoglobin-based, perfluorocarbon-based, and oxygen-generating biomaterials, within synthetic tissue engineering scaffolds and organoids, with the aim of overcoming insufficient or nonuniform oxygen levels and nutrient supply.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Pritam S Patil
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, University of Akron, Akron, Ohio, USA
| | - Nic D Leipzig
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, University of Akron, Akron, Ohio,
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Khodabukus A, Prabhu N, Wang J, Bursac N. In Vitro Tissue-Engineered Skeletal Muscle Models for Studying Muscle Physiology and Disease. Adv Healthc Mater 2018; 7:e1701498. [PMID: 29696831 PMCID: PMC6105407 DOI: 10.1002/adhm.201701498] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/24/2017] [Revised: 02/18/2018] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Healthy skeletal muscle possesses the extraordinary ability to regenerate in response to small-scale injuries; however, this self-repair capacity becomes overwhelmed with aging, genetic myopathies, and large muscle loss. The failure of small animal models to accurately replicate human muscle disease, injury and to predict clinically-relevant drug responses has driven the development of high fidelity in vitro skeletal muscle models. Herein, the progress made and challenges ahead in engineering biomimetic human skeletal muscle tissues that can recapitulate muscle development, genetic diseases, regeneration, and drug response is discussed. Bioengineering approaches used to improve engineered muscle structure and function as well as the functionality of satellite cells to allow modeling muscle regeneration in vitro are also highlighted. Next, a historical overview on the generation of skeletal muscle cells and tissues from human pluripotent stem cells, and a discussion on the potential of these approaches to model and treat genetic diseases such as Duchenne muscular dystrophy, is provided. Finally, the need to integrate multiorgan microphysiological systems to generate improved drug discovery technologies with the potential to complement or supersede current preclinical animal models of muscle disease is described.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alastair Khodabukus
- Department of Biomedical Engineering Duke University 101 Science Drive, FCIEMAS 1427, Durham, NC 27708-90281, USA
| | - Neel Prabhu
- Department of Biomedical Engineering Duke University 101 Science Drive, FCIEMAS 1427, Durham, NC 27708-90281, USA
| | - Jason Wang
- Department of Biomedical Engineering Duke University 101 Science Drive, FCIEMAS 1427, Durham, NC 27708-90281, USA
| | - Nenad Bursac
- Department of Biomedical Engineering Duke University 101 Science Drive, FCIEMAS 1427, Durham, NC 27708-90281, USA
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Daoud J, Heileman K, Shapka S, Rosenberg L, Tabrizian M. Dielectric spectroscopy for monitoring human pancreatic islet differentiation within cell-seeded scaffolds in a perfusion bioreactor system. Analyst 2016; 140:6295-305. [PMID: 26280028 DOI: 10.1039/c5an00525f] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Abstract
The long-term in vitro culture and differentiation of human pancreatic islets is still hindered by the inability to emulate a suitable microenvironment mimicking physiological extracellular matrix (ECM) support and nutrient/oxygen perfusion. This is further amplified by the current lack of a non-invasive and rapid monitoring system to readily evaluate cellular processes. In this study, we realized a viable method for non-invasively monitoring isolated human pancreatic islets in vitro. Islets are induced to dedifferentiate into proliferative duct-like structures (DLS) in preparation for potential and subsequent re-differentiation into functional islet-like structures (ILS) in a process reminiscent of islet regeneration strategies. This long-term in vitro process is conducted within a three-dimensional microenvironment involving islets embedded in an optimized ECM gel supported by microfabricated three-dimensional scaffolds. The islet-scaffold is then housed and continuously perfused within chambers of a bioreactor platform. The process in its entirety is monitored through dielectric spectroscopy measurements, yielding an accurate representation of cellular morphology, functionality, and volume fraction. This non-invasive and real-time monitoring tool can be further manipulated to elucidate important information about the optimized cellular microenvironment required for maintaining long-term culture and achieve efficient differentiation for islet regeneration.
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Affiliation(s)
- J Daoud
- Biomedical Engineering Department, McGill University, 3775 University Street, Montreal, Quebec H3A 2B4, Canada.
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Cheng CS, Davis BNJ, Madden L, Bursac N, Truskey GA. Physiology and metabolism of tissue-engineered skeletal muscle. Exp Biol Med (Maywood) 2014; 239:1203-14. [PMID: 24912506 DOI: 10.1177/1535370214538589] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Skeletal muscle is a major target for tissue engineering, given its relative size in the body, fraction of cardiac output that passes through muscle beds, as well as its key role in energy metabolism and diabetes, and the need for therapies for muscle diseases such as muscular dystrophy and sarcopenia. To date, most studies with tissue-engineered skeletal muscle have utilized murine and rat cell sources. On the other hand, successful engineering of functional human muscle would enable different applications including improved methods for preclinical testing of drugs and therapies. Some of the requirements for engineering functional skeletal muscle include expression of adult forms of muscle proteins, comparable contractile forces to those produced by native muscle, and physiological force-length and force-frequency relations. This review discusses the various strategies and challenges associated with these requirements, specific applications with cultured human myoblasts, and future directions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cindy S Cheng
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Duke University, Durham, NC 27708, USA
| | - Brittany N J Davis
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Duke University, Durham, NC 27708, USA
| | - Lauran Madden
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Duke University, Durham, NC 27708, USA
| | - Nenad Bursac
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Duke University, Durham, NC 27708, USA
| | - George A Truskey
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Duke University, Durham, NC 27708, USA
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13
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Use of flow, electrical, and mechanical stimulation to promote engineering of striated muscles. Ann Biomed Eng 2013; 42:1391-405. [PMID: 24366526 DOI: 10.1007/s10439-013-0966-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 65] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/24/2013] [Accepted: 12/18/2013] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
The field of tissue engineering involves design of high-fidelity tissue substitutes for predictive experimental assays in vitro and cell-based regenerative therapies in vivo. Design of striated muscle tissues, such as cardiac and skeletal muscle, has been particularly challenging due to a high metabolic demand and complex cellular organization and electromechanical function of the native tissues. Successful engineering of highly functional striated muscles may thus require creation of biomimetic culture conditions involving medium perfusion, electrical and mechanical stimulation. When optimized, these external cues are expected to synergistically and dynamically activate important intracellular signaling pathways leading to accelerated muscle growth and development. This review will discuss the use of different types of tissue culture bioreactors aimed at providing conditions for enhanced structural and functional maturation of engineered striated muscles.
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Rotational transport of islets: the best way for islets to get around? BIOMED RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2013; 2013:975608. [PMID: 24324977 PMCID: PMC3845626 DOI: 10.1155/2013/975608] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/05/2013] [Accepted: 10/21/2013] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Islet transplantation is a valid treatment option for patients suffering from type 1 diabetes mellitus. To assure optimal islet cell quality, specialized islet isolation facilities have been developed. Utilization of such facilities necessitates transportation of islet cells to distant institutions for transplantation. Despite its importance, a clinically feasible solution for the transport of islets has still not been established. We here compare the functionality of isolated islets from C57BL/6 mice directly after the isolation procedure as well as after two simulated transport conditions, static versus rotation. Islet cell quality was assessed using real-time live confocal microscopy. In vivo islet function after syngeneic transplantation was determined by weight and blood sugar measurements as well as by intraperitoneal glucose tolerance tests. Vascularization of islets was documented by fluorescence microscopy and immunohistochemistry. All viability parameters documented comparable cell viability in the rotary group and the group transplanted immediately after isolation. Functional parameters assessed in vivo displayed no significant difference between these two groups. Moreover, vascularization of islets was similar in both groups. In conclusion, rotary culture conditions allows the maintenance of highest islet quality for at least 15 h, which is comparable to that of freshly isolated islets.
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Gardel LS, Serra LA, Reis RL, Gomes ME. Use of perfusion bioreactors and large animal models for long bone tissue engineering. TISSUE ENGINEERING PART B-REVIEWS 2013; 20:126-46. [PMID: 23924374 DOI: 10.1089/ten.teb.2013.0010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Tissue engineering and regenerative medicine (TERM) strategies for generation of new bone tissue includes the combined use of autologous or heterologous mesenchymal stem cells (MSC) and three-dimensional (3D) scaffold materials serving as structural support for the cells, that develop into tissue-like substitutes under appropriate in vitro culture conditions. This approach is very important due to the limitations and risks associated with autologous, as well as allogenic bone grafiting procedures currently used. However, the cultivation of osteoprogenitor cells in 3D scaffolds presents several challenges, such as the efficient transport of nutrient and oxygen and removal of waste products from the cells in the interior of the scaffold. In this context, perfusion bioreactor systems are key components for bone TERM, as many recent studies have shown that such systems can provide dynamic environments with enhanced diffusion of nutrients and therefore, perfusion can be used to generate grafts of clinically relevant sizes and shapes. Nevertheless, to determine whether a developed tissue-like substitute conforms to the requirements of biocompatibility, mechanical stability and safety, it must undergo rigorous testing both in vitro and in vivo. Results from in vitro studies can be difficult to extrapolate to the in vivo situation, and for this reason, the use of animal models is often an essential step in the testing of orthopedic implants before clinical use in humans. This review provides an overview of the concepts, advantages, and challenges associated with different types of perfusion bioreactor systems, particularly focusing on systems that may enable the generation of critical size tissue engineered constructs. Furthermore, this review discusses some of the most frequently used animal models, such as sheep and goats, to study the in vivo functionality of bone implant materials, in critical size defects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Leandro S Gardel
- 1 3B's Research Group-Biomaterials, Biodegradables and Biomimetics, University of Minho , Headquarters of the European Institute of Excellence on Tissue Engineering and Regenerative Medicine, Guimarães, Portugal
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Lee PHU, Vandenburgh HH. Skeletal muscle atrophy in bioengineered skeletal muscle: a new model system. Tissue Eng Part A 2013; 19:2147-55. [PMID: 23574457 DOI: 10.1089/ten.tea.2012.0597] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Skeletal muscle atrophy has been well characterized in various animal models, and while certain pathways that lead to disuse atrophy and its associated functional deficits have been well studied, available drugs to counteract these deficiencies are limited. An ex vivo tissue-engineered skeletal muscle offers a unique opportunity to study skeletal muscle physiology in a controlled in vitro setting. Primary mouse myoblasts isolated from adult muscle were tissue engineered into bioartificial muscles (BAMs) containing hundreds of aligned postmitotic muscle fibers expressing sarcomeric proteins. When electrically stimulated, BAMs generated measureable active forces within 2-3 days of formation. The maximum isometric tetanic force (Po) increased for ∼3 weeks to 2587±502 μN/BAM and was maintained at this level for greater than 80 days. When BAMs were reduced in length by 25% to 50%, muscle atrophy occurred in as little as 6 days. Length reduction resulted in significant decreases in Po (50.4%), mean myofiber cross-sectional area (21.7%), total protein synthesis rate (22.0%), and noncollagenous protein content (6.9%). No significant changes occurred in either the total metabolic activity or protein degradation rates. This study is the first in vitro demonstration that length reduction alone can induce skeletal muscle atrophy, and establishes a novel in vitro model for the study of skeletal muscle atrophy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peter H U Lee
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, The Warren Alpert Medical School of Brown University and The Miriam Hospital, Providence, Rhode Island, USA.
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17
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Montagne K, Huang H, Ohara K, Matsumoto K, Mizuno A, Ohta K, Sakai Y. Use of liposome encapsulated hemoglobin as an oxygen carrier for fetal and adult rat liver cell culture. J Biosci Bioeng 2011; 112:485-90. [PMID: 21813323 DOI: 10.1016/j.jbiosc.2011.07.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/28/2011] [Revised: 07/04/2011] [Accepted: 07/05/2011] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Engineering liver tissue constructs with sufficient cell mass for transplantation implies culturing large numbers of hepatocytes in a reduced volume; however, providing sufficient oxygen to dense cell cultures is still not feasible using only conventional culture medium. Liposome-encapsulated hemoglobin (LEH), an oxygen-carrying blood substitute originally designed for short-term perfusion, may be a good candidate as an oxygen carrier to cultured liver cells. In this study, we investigated the feasibility of maintaining long term hepatocyte cultures using LEH. Primary fetal and adult rat liver cells were directly exposed to LEH for 6 to 14 days in static culture or in a perfused flat plate bioreactor. The functions and viability of adult rat hepatocytes exposed to LEH were not adversely affected in static monolayer culture and were even improved in the bioreactor. However, some cytotoxicity of LEH was observed with fetal rat liver cells after 4 days of culture. LEH, though a suitable oxygen carrier for long-term culture of mature hepatocytes, is not suitable in its present form for perfusing fetal hepatocyte cultures in direct contact with the liposomes; either the LEH will have to be made less toxic or a more sophisticated bioreactor that prevents the direct contact between hepatocytes and perfusates will have to be designed if fetal cells are to be used for liver tissue engineering.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kevin Montagne
- LIMMS/CNRS-IIS UMI 2820, Institute of Industrial Science, University of Tokyo, 4-6-1 Komaba, Meguro-ku, Tokyo 153-8505, Japan.
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18
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Pathi B, Kinsey ST, Locke BR. Influence of reaction and diffusion on spatial organization of mitochondria and effectiveness factors in skeletal muscle cell design. Biotechnol Bioeng 2011; 108:1912-24. [PMID: 21351070 DOI: 10.1002/bit.23112] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/19/2010] [Revised: 02/09/2011] [Accepted: 02/16/2011] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Abstract
A mathematical model is developed to analyze the influence of chemical reaction and diffusion processes on the intracellular organization of mitochondria in skeletal muscle cells. The mathematical modeling approach uses a reaction-diffusion analysis of oxygen, ATP, and ADP involved in energy metabolism and mitochondrial function as governed by oxygen supply, volume fraction of mitochondria, and rates of reaction. Superimposed upon and coupled to the continuum species material balances is a cellular automata (CA) approach governing mitochondrial life cycles in response to the metabolic state of the cell. The effectiveness factor (η), defined as the ratio of reaction rate in the system with finite rates of diffusion to those in the absence of any diffusion limitation is used to assess diffusional constraints in muscle cells. The model shows the dramatic effects that the governing parameters have on the mitochondrial cycle of life and death and how these effects lead to changes in the distribution patterns of mitochondria observed experimentally. The model results showed good agreement with experimental results on mitochondrial distributions in mammalian muscle fibers. The η increases as the mitochondrial population is redistributed toward the fiber periphery in response to a decreased availability of oxygen. Modification of the CA parameters so that the mitochondrial lifecycle is more sensitive to the oxygen concentration caused larger mitochondrial shifts to the edge of the cell with smaller changes in oxygen concentration, and thus also lead to increased values of η. The present study shows that variation in oxygen supply, muscle activity and mitochondrial ATP supply influence the η and are the important parameters that can cause diffusion limitations. In order to prevent diffusion constraints, the cell resorts to shifts in their mitochondrial population towards the cell periphery, thus increasing η.
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Affiliation(s)
- B Pathi
- Department of Chemical and Biomedical Engineering, Florida State University, FAMU-FSU College of Engineering, 2525 Pottsdamer Street, Tallahassee, Florida 32310, USA
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19
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Dasika SK, Kinsey ST, Locke BR. Reaction-diffusion constraints in living tissue: effectiveness factors in skeletal muscle design. Biotechnol Bioeng 2011; 108:104-15. [PMID: 20824674 DOI: 10.1002/bit.22926] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
A mathematical model was developed to analyze the effects of intracellular diffusion of O(2) and high-energy phosphate metabolites on aerobic energy metabolism in skeletal muscle. We tested the hypotheses that in a range of muscle fibers from different species (1) aerobic metabolism was not diffusion limited and (2) that fibers had a combination of rate and fiber size that placed them at the brink of substantial diffusion limitation. A simplified chemical reaction rate law for mitochondrial oxidative phosphorylation was developed utilizing a published detailed model of isolated mitochondrial function. This rate law was then used as a boundary condition in a reaction-diffusion model that was further simplified using the volume averaging method and solved to determine the rates of oxidative phosphorylation as functions of the volume fraction of mitochondria, the size of the muscle cell, and the amount of oxygen delivered by the capillaries. The effectiveness factor, which is the ratio of reaction rate in the system with finite rates of diffusion to those in the absence of any diffusion limitations, defined the regions where intracellular diffusion of metabolites and O(2) may limit aerobic metabolism in both very small, highly oxidative fibers as well as in larger fibers with lower aerobic capacity. Comparison of model analysis with experimental data revealed that none of the fibers was strongly limited by diffusion, as expected. However, while some fibers were near substantial diffusion limitation, most were well within the domain of reaction control of aerobic metabolic rate. This may constitute a safety factor in muscle that provides a level of protection from diffusion constraints under conditions such as hypoxia.
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Affiliation(s)
- S K Dasika
- Department of Chemical and Biomedical Engineering, Florida State University, FAMU-FSU College of Engineering, 2525 Pottsdamer Street, Tallahassee, Florida 32310, USA
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20
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Daoud J, Rosenberg L, Tabrizian M. Pancreatic Islet Culture and Preservation Strategies: Advances, Challenges, and Future Outlook. Cell Transplant 2010; 19:1523-35. [DOI: 10.3727/096368910x515872] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Postisolation islet survival is a critical step for achieving successful and efficient islet transplantation. This involves the optimization of islet culture in order to prolong survival and functionality in vitro. Many studies have focused on different strategies to culture pancreatic islets in vitro through manipulation of culture media, surface modified substrates, and the use of various techniques such as encapsulation, embedding, scaffold, and bioreactor culture strategies. This review aims to present and discuss the different methodologies employed to optimize pancreatic islet culture in vitro as well as address their respective advantages and drawbacks.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jamal Daoud
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Faculty of Medicine, McGill University, Montreal, QC, Canada
| | - Lawrence Rosenberg
- Department of Surgery, Faculty of Medicine, McGill University, Montreal, QC, Canada
| | - Maryam Tabrizian
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Faculty of Medicine, McGill University, Montreal, QC, Canada
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21
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Salvi JD, Lim JY, Donahue HJ. Finite element analyses of fluid flow conditions in cell culture. Tissue Eng Part C Methods 2010; 16:661-70. [PMID: 19778171 DOI: 10.1089/ten.tec.2009.0159] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Numerous studies in tissue engineering and biomechanics use fluid flow stimulation, both unidirectional and oscillatory, to analyze the effects of shear stresses on cell behavior. However, it has typically been assumed that these shear stresses are uniform and that cell and substrate properties do not adversely affect these assumptions. With the increasing utilization of fluid flow in cell biology, it would be beneficial to determine the validity of various experimental protocols. Because it is difficult to determine the velocity profiles and shear stresses empirically, we used the finite element method (FEM). Using FEM, we determined the effects of cell confluence on fluid flow, the effects of cell height on the uniformity of shear stresses, apparent shear stresses exhibited by cells cultured on various substrates, and the effects of oscillatory fluid flow relative to the unidirectional flow. FEM analyses could successfully analyze flow patterns over cells for various cell confluence and shape and substrate characteristics. Our data suggest the benefits of the utilization of oscillatory fluid flow and the use of substrates that stimulate cell spreading in the distribution of more uniform shear stresses across the surface of cells. Also we demonstrated that the cells cultured on nanotopographies were exposed to greater apparent shear stresses than cells on flat controls when using the same fluid flow conditions. FEM thus provides an excellent tool for the development of experimental protocols and the design of bioreactor systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joshua D Salvi
- Department of Bioengineering, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, USA
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22
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Han X, Qiu L, Zhang Y, Kong Q, Wang H, Wang H, Li H, Duan C, Wang Y, Song Y, Wang C. Transplantation of Sertoli-Islet Cell Aggregates Formed by Microgravity: Prolonged Survival in Diabetic Rats. Exp Biol Med (Maywood) 2009; 234:595-603. [PMID: 19244542 DOI: 10.3181/0812-rm-359] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Transplantation of pancreatic islets is a potentially attractive treatment for type I diabetes. We generated the transplantable, tissue-like aggregates composed of Sertoli cells and islets in rotating wall vessel bioreactors, SICA (Sertoli-islet cell aggregates), to improve their biological function in vitro and in vivo. The isolated islet equivalent and Sertoli cells were purified from Wistar rats and cocultured for 5 days in bioreactor to generate SICA. The SICA, islets aggregates, and fresh isolated islets were transplanted under the kidney capsule of diabetic Sprague-Dawley (SD) rats, respectively. The functions of different grafts were ascertained by blood glucose level measurements and an in vivo glucose tolerance test. In response to elevated glucose, insulin secretion from SICA was 1.4-fold higher ( P < 0.05, n = 5) than islet aggregates cultured alone. Of the rats that received SICA, 90% (9/10) remained normoglycemic at 60 days post-transplantation, and the survival significantly increased compared with recipients bearing homotypic islets aggregates or freshly isolated islets. The former responded similarly with healthy rats to the glucose tolerance test. Our results support the usefulness of SICA for the treatment of type 1 diabetes without any immunosuppressive agents.
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MESH Headings
- Animals
- Cell Separation
- Cells, Cultured
- Diabetes Mellitus, Experimental/pathology
- Diabetes Mellitus, Experimental/physiopathology
- Diabetes Mellitus, Experimental/therapy
- Diabetes Mellitus, Type 1/pathology
- Diabetes Mellitus, Type 1/physiopathology
- Diabetes Mellitus, Type 1/therapy
- Glucose Tolerance Test
- Islets of Langerhans/ultrastructure
- Islets of Langerhans Transplantation
- Male
- Rats
- Rats, Sprague-Dawley
- Rats, Wistar
- Sertoli Cells/transplantation
- Sertoli Cells/ultrastructure
- Transplantation, Homologous
- Weightlessness
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaoming Han
- Department of Tissue Engineering, Beijing Institute of Basic Medical Sciences and Tissue Engineering Research Center, Academy of Military Medical Sciences, 27 Taiping Road, Beijing 100850, PR China
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23
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Tissue Culture Models. MOLECULAR PATHOLOGY LIBRARY 2009. [PMCID: PMC7122392 DOI: 10.1007/978-0-387-89626-7_18] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
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24
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Dennis RG, Smith B, Philp A, Donnelly K, Baar K. Bioreactors for guiding muscle tissue growth and development. ADVANCES IN BIOCHEMICAL ENGINEERING/BIOTECHNOLOGY 2009; 112:39-79. [PMID: 19290497 DOI: 10.1007/978-3-540-69357-4_3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Muscle tissue bioreactors are devices which are employed to guide and monitor the development of engineered muscle tissue. These devices have a modern history that can be traced back more than a century, because the key elements of muscle tissue bioreactors have been studied for a very long time. These include barrier isolation and culture of cells, tissues and organs after isolation from a host organism; the provision of various stimuli intended to promote growth and maintain the muscle, such as electrical and mechanical stimulation; and the provision of a perfusate such as culture media or blood derived substances. An accurate appraisal of our current progress in the development of muscle bioreactors can only be made in the context of the history of this endeavor. Modern efforts tend to focus more upon the use of computer control and the application of mechanical strain as a stimulus, as well as substrate surface modifications to induce cellular organization at the early stages of culture of isolated muscle cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- R G Dennis
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, USA
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25
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Cyclic Mechanical Preconditioning Improves Engineered Muscle Contraction. Tissue Eng Part A 2008; 14:473-82. [DOI: 10.1089/tea.2007.0104] [Citation(s) in RCA: 151] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
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26
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Dennis RG, Smith B, Philp A, Donnelly K, Baar K. Bioreactors for Guiding Muscle Tissue Growth and Development. ADVANCES IN BIOCHEMICAL ENGINEERING/BIOTECHNOLOGY 2008. [DOI: 10.1007/10_2008_2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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27
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Stepkowski SM, Phan T, Zhang H, Bilinski S, Kloc M, Qi Y, Katz SM, Rutzky LP. Immature Syngeneic Dendritic Cells Potentiate Tolerance to Pancreatic Islet Allografts Depleted of Donor Dendritic Cells in Microgravity Culture Condition. Transplantation 2006; 82:1756-63. [PMID: 17198272 DOI: 10.1097/01.tp.0000250732.30273.9b] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Previously we showed that pancreatic islets cultured for seven days in rotating bioreactors survived for >100 days in allogeneic recipients without immunosuppression. This survival coincided with almost complete elimination of "passenger" donor dendritic cells (DCs). Herein, we examined the necessity of DCs in the generation of CD4+ CD25+ T regulatory (Treg) cells. METHODS Allogeneic fresh islets or islets cultured for three days in bioreactors were transplanted to streptozotocin-induced diabetic Balb/c(stat4 -/-) as well as signal transducers and activators of transcription (Stat)4-deficient Balb/c(stat6 -/-) or Balb/c(stat4 -/-) mice. Some Balb/c recipients of fresh islet allografts were also treated with a tolerogenic protocol of anti-CD40 Ligand MR1 mAb and CTLA4Ig. RESULTS Islet allografts cultured for three days in bioreactors survived >100 days in all Balb/c(stat4 -/-) recipients and in 56% of Balb/c(stat6 -/-) recipients, but in none of the Balb/c recipients; the same recipients rejected fresh islet allografts. Purified T cells from long-term surviving Balb/c(stat4 -/-) recipients failed to transfer tolerance to SCID recipients of donor-type fresh islet allografts. In contrast, MR1/CTLA4Ig therapy induced tolerance to fresh islet allografts and their T cells adoptively transferred tolerance. When Balb/c or Balb/c(stat4 -/-) recipients of bioreactor-cultured islets were injected intravenously with immature syngeneic DCs, they became tolerant and developed potent alloantigen-specific CD4+ CD25+ Treg cells expressing Foxp3. CONCLUSION Allogeneic islets depleted of donor DCs by culture in bioreactors have almost twofold better acceptance in Balb/c(stat4 -/-) than in Balb/c(stat6 -/-) mice, but lack Treg cells. Additional injection of host immature DCs improves tolerance in Balb/c and Balb/c(stat4 -/-) recipients by inducing potent CD4+ CD25+ Treg cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stanislaw M Stepkowski
- Division of Immunology and Organ Transplantation, University of Texas Medical School at Houston, Houston, TX 77030, USA.
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28
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Chen HC, Hu YC. Bioreactors for tissue engineering. Biotechnol Lett 2006; 28:1415-23. [PMID: 16955350 DOI: 10.1007/s10529-006-9111-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 146] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/08/2006] [Accepted: 05/15/2006] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
Bioreactors are essential in tissue engineering, not only because they provide an in vitro environment mimicking in vivo conditions for the growth of tissue substitutes, but also because they enable systematic studies of the responses of living tissues to various mechanical and biochemical cues. The basic principles of bioreactor design are reviewed, the bioreactors commonly used for the tissue engineering of cartilage, bone and cardiovascular systems are assessed in terms of their performance and usefulness. Several novel bioreactor types are also reviewed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Huang-Chi Chen
- Department of Chemical Engineering, National Tsing Hua University, Hsinchu 300, Taiwan
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29
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Shansky J, Creswick B, Lee P, Wang X, Vandenburgh H. Paracrine Release of Insulin-Like Growth Factor 1 from a Bioengineered Tissue Stimulates Skeletal Muscle Growth in Vitro. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2006; 12:1833-41. [PMID: 16889513 DOI: 10.1089/ten.2006.12.1833] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Bioengineered tissues transduced to secrete recombinant proteins may serve as a long-term delivery vehicle for therapeutic proteins when implanted in vivo. Insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF1) is an anabolic growth factor for skeletal muscle that can stimulate myoblast proliferation and myofiber hypertrophy. To determine whether the release of IGF1 from an engineered bioartificial skeletal muscle (BAM) could stimulate the growth of skeletal muscle in a paracrine manner, we established an in vitro perfusion system for genetically engineered IGF1 BAMs. BAMs were bioengineered from C2C12 murine myoblasts stably transduced with a retroviral vector to synthesize and secrete IGF1 (C2-IGF1 BAMs). C2-IGF1 BAMs or nontransduced control C2 BAMs were cocultured with avian BAMS (ABAMs) in constantly perfused biochambers. During 11 days of perfusion, IGF1 levels in the C2-IGF1 BAM perfusion medium increased linearly from 1 to 20 ng/mL. The ABAMs maintained in biochambers with the C2-IGF1 BAMs had significantly more myofibers (69%, p < 0.005) and larger myofiber cross-sectional areas (40%, p < 0.001) compared to those cocultured with control C2 BAMs. These studies show that levels of IGF1 secreted from the C2-IGF1 BAMs are sufficient to produce an anabolic paracrine effect on nongenetically engineered BAMs, and the in vitro perfusion system provides a model for screening proteins effective in stimulating localized skeletal muscle growth.
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Affiliation(s)
- Janet Shansky
- Department of Pathology, Brown Medical School/Miriam Hospital, Providence, Rhode Island 02906, USA
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30
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Fuchs JR, Nasseri BA, Vacanti JP, Fauza DO. Postnatal myocardial augmentation with skeletal myoblast–based fetal tissue engineering. Surgery 2006; 140:100-7. [PMID: 16857447 DOI: 10.1016/j.surg.2006.01.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/11/2005] [Revised: 09/29/2005] [Accepted: 01/27/2006] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Cardiac anomalies constitute the most common birth defects, many of which involve variable myocardial deficiencies. Therapeutic options for structural myocardial repair remain limited in the neonatal population. This study was aimed at determining whether engineered fetal muscle constructs undergo milieu-dependent transdifferentiation after cardiac implantation, thus becoming a potential means to increase/support myocardial mass after birth. METHODS Myoblasts were isolated from skeletal muscle specimens harvested from fetal lambs, labeled by transduction with a retrovirus-expressing green fluorescent protein, expanded in vitro, and then seeded onto collagen hydrogels. After birth, animals underwent autologous implantation of the engineered constructs (n = 8) onto the myocardium as an onlay patch. Between 4 and 30 weeks postoperatively, implants were harvested for multiple analyses. RESULTS Fetal and postnatal survival rates were 89% and 100%, respectively. Labeled cells were identified within the implants at all time points by immunohistochemical staining for green fluorescent protein. At 24 and 30 weeks postimplantation, donor cells double-stained for green fluorescent protein and Troponin I, while losing skeletal (type II) myosin expression. CONCLUSIONS Fetal skeletal myoblasts engraft in native myocardium up to 30 weeks after postnatal, autologous implantation as components of engineered onlay patches. These cells also display evidence of time-dependent transdifferentiation toward a cardiomyocyte-like lineage. Further analysis of fetal skeletal myoblast-based constructs for the repair of congenital myocardial defects is warranted.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julie R Fuchs
- Harvard Center for Minimally Invasive Surgery, Boston, Mass, USA
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31
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Borschel GH, Dow DE, Dennis RG, Brown DL. Tissue-Engineered Axially Vascularized Contractile Skeletal Muscle. Plast Reconstr Surg 2006; 117:2235-42. [PMID: 16772923 DOI: 10.1097/01.prs.0000224295.54073.49] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND As tissue-engineered muscle constructs increase in scale, their size is limited by the need for a vascular supply. In this work, the authors demonstrate a method of producing three-dimensional contractile skeletal muscles in vivo by incorporating an axial vascular pedicle. METHODS Primary myoblast cultures were generated from adult F344 rat soleus muscle. The cells were suspended in a fibrinogen hydrogel contained within cylindrical silicone chambers, and situated around the femoral vessels in isogeneic adult recipient rats. The constructs were allowed to incubate in vivo for 3 weeks, at which point they were explanted and subjected to isometric force measurements and histologic evaluation. RESULTS The resulting three-dimensional engineered skeletal muscle constructs produced longitudinal contractile force when electrically stimulated. Length-tension, force-voltage, and force-frequency relationships were similar to those found in developing skeletal muscle. Desmin staining demonstrated that individual myoblasts had undergone fusion to form multinucleated myotubes. Von Willebrand staining showed that the local environment within the chamber was richly angiogenic, and capillaries had grown into and throughout the constructs from the femoral artery and vein. CONCLUSIONS Three-dimensional, vascularized skeletal muscle can be engineered in vivo. The resulting tissues have histologic and functional properties consistent with native skeletal muscle.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gregory H Borschel
- Section of Plastic Surgery and Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, USA
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32
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Korossis S, Bolland F, Ingham E, Fisher J, Kearney J, Southgate J. Review: Tissue Engineering of the Urinary Bladder: Considering Structure-Function Relationships and the Role of Mechanotransduction. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2006; 12:635-44. [PMID: 16674279 DOI: 10.1089/ten.2006.12.635] [Citation(s) in RCA: 76] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
A variety of conditions encountered in urology result in bladder dysfunction and the need for bioengineered tissue substitutes. Traditionally, a number of synthetic materials and natural matrices have been used in experimental and clinical settings. However, the production of functional bladder tissue replacements remains elusive. The urinary bladder sustains considerable structural deformation during its normal function and represents an ideal model tissue in which to study the effects of biomechanical simulation on tissue morphogenesis, differentiation, and function. However, the actual role of mechanical forces within the bladder has received little attention. A strategy in which in vitro-generated tissue constructs are conditioned by exposure to the same mechanical forces as they would encounter in vivo could potentially be used both in the development of functional tissue replacements and to further study the role of biomechanical signalling. The purpose of this review is to examine the role and structure-function relationship of the urinary bladder and, through consultation of the literature available on mechanotransduction and tissue engineering of alternative tissues, to determine the factors that need to be considered when biomechanically engineering a functional bladder.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sotiris Korossis
- Biomedical Engineering Research Centre, School of Mechanical Engineering, University of Leeds, Leeds, United Kingdom
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33
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Hill E, Boontheekul T, Mooney DJ. Regulating activation of transplanted cells controls tissue regeneration. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2006; 103:2494-9. [PMID: 16477029 PMCID: PMC1413770 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.0506004103] [Citation(s) in RCA: 134] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/15/2005] [Indexed: 02/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Current approaches to tissue regeneration are limited by the death of most transplanted cells and/or resultant poor integration of transplanted cells with host tissue. We hypothesized that transplanting progenitor cells within synthetic microenvironments that maintain viability, prevent terminal differentiation, and promote outward migration would significantly enhance their repopulation and regeneration of damaged host tissue. This hypothesis was addressed in the context of muscle regeneration by transplanting satellite cells to muscle laceration sites on a delivery vehicle releasing factors that induce cell activation and migration (hepatocyte growth factor and fibroblast growth factor 2) or transplantation on materials lacking factor release. Controls included direct cell injection into muscle, the implantation of blank scaffolds, and scaffolds releasing factors without cells. Injected cells demonstrated a limited repopulation of damaged muscle and led to a slight improvement in muscle regeneration, as expected. Delivery of cells on scaffolds that did not promote migration resulted in no improvement in muscle regeneration. Strikingly, delivery of cells on scaffolds that promoted myoblast activation and migration led to extensive repopulation of host muscle tissue and increased the regeneration of muscle fibers at the wound and the mass of the injured muscle. This previously undescribed strategy for cell transplantation significantly enhances muscle regeneration from transplanted cells and may be broadly applicable to the various tissues and organ systems in which provision and instruction of a cell population competent to participate in regeneration may be clinically useful.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elliott Hill
- Departments of *Biologic and Materials Sciences and
| | - Tanyarut Boontheekul
- Chemical Engineering, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109; and
- Division of Engineering and Applied Sciences, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA 02138
| | - David J. Mooney
- Division of Engineering and Applied Sciences, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA 02138
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Abstract
Tissue engineering is a discipline of great promise. In some areas, such as the cornea, tissues engineered in the laboratory are already in clinical use. In other areas, where the tissue architecture is more complex, there are a number of obstacles to manoeuvre before clinically relevant tissues can be produced. However, even in areas where clinically relevant tissues are decades away, the tissues being produced at the moment provide powerful new models to aid the understanding of complex physiological processes. This article provides a personal view of the role of tissue engineering in advancing our understanding of physiology, with specific attention being paid to musculoskeletal tissues.
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Affiliation(s)
- Keith Baar
- Division of Molecular Physiology, University of Dundee, MSI/WTB Dow Street, Dundee DD1 5EH, UK.
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Radisic M, Deen W, Langer R, Vunjak-Novakovic G. Mathematical model of oxygen distribution in engineered cardiac tissue with parallel channel array perfused with culture medium containing oxygen carriers. Am J Physiol Heart Circ Physiol 2005; 288:H1278-89. [PMID: 15539422 DOI: 10.1152/ajpheart.00787.2004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 207] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
A steady-state model of oxygen distribution in a cardiac tissue construct with a parallel channel array was developed and solved for a set of parameters using the finite element method and commercial software (FEMLAB). The effects of an oxygen carrier [Oxygent; 32% volume perfluorocarbon (PFC) emulsion] were evaluated. The parallel channel array mimics the in vivo capillary tissue bed, and the PFC emulsion has a similar role as the natural oxygen carrier hemoglobin in increasing total oxygen content. The construct was divided into an array of cylindrical domains with a channel in the center and tissue space surrounding the channel. In the channel, the main modes of mass transfer were axial convection and radial diffusion. In the tissue region, mass transfer was by axial and radial diffusion, and the consumption of oxygen was by Michaelis-Menten kinetics. Neumann boundary conditions were imposed at the channel centerline and the half distance between the domains. Supplementation of culture medium by PFC emulsion improved mass transport by increasing convective term and effective diffusivity of culture medium. The model was first implemented for the following set of experimentally obtained parameters: construct thickness of 0.2 cm, channel diameter of 330 μm, channel center-to-center spacingof 700 μm, and average linear velocity per channel of 0.049 cm/s, in conjunction with PFC supplemented and unsupplemented culture medium. Subsequently, the model was used to define favorable scaffold geometry and flow conditions necessary to cultivate cardiac constructs of high cell density (108 cells/ml) and clinically relevant thickness (0.5 cm). In future work, the model can be utilized as a tool for optimization of scaffold geometry and flow conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Milica Radisic
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, USA
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Neumann T, Hauschka SD, Sanders JE. Tissue engineering of skeletal muscle using polymer fiber arrays. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2004; 9:995-1003. [PMID: 14633383 DOI: 10.1089/107632703322495637] [Citation(s) in RCA: 79] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
Abstract
The purpose of this study was to assess a new scaffold design for muscle tissue engineering: arrays of parallel-oriented polymer microfibers. First, C2C12 skeletal myoblasts were seeded onto single, laminin-coated polypropylene fibers and their growth and alignment were characterized. With the aim of creating skeletal muscle sheets, it was then investigated whether cell layers of single fibers merged when in close proximity to neighboring fibers. The optimal fiber spacing needed to achieve cell alignment with the lowest possible content of scaffold material was established. Further, it was assessed whether such a cell sheet became contractile and whether it survived in vitro for extended periods of time. C2C12 cells, cultured on fibers 10 to 15 microm in diameter, formed up to 50-microm-thick layers of longitudinally aligned cells. Four different groups based on fiber spacing (30 to 35, 50 to 55, 70 to 75, and 90 to 95 microm) were evaluated. Complete cell sheets formed between fibers that were spaced 55 microm apart or less; larger spacing led to no or incomplete sheets. C2C12 cells, seeded onto a 10 x 20 mm fiber array, formed a contractile cell sheet that was maintained in vitro for 70 days. Larger, three-dimensional structures might be created by arranging fibers in several layers or by stacking cellular sheets.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thomas Neumann
- Department of Bioengineering, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington 98195-7962, USA
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Borschel GH, Dennis RG, Kuzon WM. Contractile Skeletal Muscle Tissue-Engineered on an Acellular Scaffold. Plast Reconstr Surg 2004; 113:595-602; discussion 603-4. [PMID: 14758222 DOI: 10.1097/01.prs.0000101064.62289.2f] [Citation(s) in RCA: 115] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
For the reconstructive surgeon, tissue-engineered skeletal muscle may offer reduced donor-site morbidity and an unlimited supply of tissue. Using an acellularized mouse extensor digitorum longus muscle as a scaffold, the authors produced engineered skeletal muscle capable of generating longitudinal force. Eight extensor digitorum longus muscles from adult mice were made acellular using a protocol developed in the authors' laboratory. The acellular muscles were then placed in a bath of 20% fetal bovine serum in Dulbecco's modified Eagle's medium and 100 U/ml penicillin for 1 week at room temperature. C2C12 myoblasts were injected into the acellular muscle matrix using a 26-gauge needle and a 100-microl syringe. The resulting constructs were placed in growth medium for 1 week at 37 degrees C under 5% carbon dioxide, with media changes every 48 hours. The constructs were then placed in differentiation medium for 1 week, with media changes every 48 hours. Isometric contractile force testing of the constructs demonstrated production of longitudinal contractile force on electrical stimulation. A length-tension, or Starling, relationship was observed. Light and electron microscopy studies demonstrated recapitulation of some of the normal histologic features of developing skeletal muscle.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gregory H Borschel
- Department of Mechanical and Engineering, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor 48109, USA
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38
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Freed LE, Vunjak-Novakovic G. Spaceflight bioreactor studies of cells and tissues. ADVANCES IN SPACE BIOLOGY AND MEDICINE 2003; 8:177-95. [PMID: 12951697 DOI: 10.1016/s1569-2574(02)08019-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/17/2023]
Abstract
Studies of the fundamental role of gravity in the development and function of biological organisms are a central component of the human exploration of space. Microgravity affects numerous physical phenomena relevant to biological research, including the hydrostatic pressure in fluid filled vesicles, sedimentation of organelles, and buoyancy-driven convection of flow and heat. These physical phenomena can in turn directly and indirectly affect cellular morphology, metabolism, locomotion, secretion of extracellular matrix and soluble signals, and assembly into functional tissues. Studies aimed at distinguishing specific effects of gravity on biological systems require the ability to: (i) control and systematically vary gravity, e.g. by utilizing the microgravity environment of space in conjunction with an in-flight centrifuge; and (ii) maintain constant all other factors in the immediate environment, including in particular concentrations and exchange rates of biochemical species and hydrodynamic shear. The latter criteria imply the need for gravity-independent mechanisms to provide for mass transport between the cells and their environment. Available flight hardware has largely determined the experimental design and scientific objectives of spaceflight cell and tissue culture studies carried out to date. Simple culture vessels have yielded important quantitative data, and helped establish in vitro models of cell locomotion, growth and differentiation in various mammalian cell types including embryonic lung cells [6], lymphocytes [2,8], and renal cells [7,31]. Studies done using bacterial cells established the first correlations between gravity-dependent factors such as cell settling velocity and diffusional distance and the respective cell responses [12]. The development of advanced bioreactors for microgravity cell and tissue culture and for tissue engineering has benefited both research areas and provided relevant in vitro model systems for studies of astronaut well-being (loss of muscle and skeletal tissues [15-17]) and gene- and cell-level responses to the mechanical environment [13,14,18]. All five of the spaceflight bioreactor studies described above utilized three-dimensional cell culture systems in which the cells were associated with biodegradable polymer scaffolds [17], collagen gel [16], or microcarrier beads [13-15,18] in order to promote the expression of differentiated cell function. In four of the five spaceflight bioreactor studies [15-18], cells were cultured in perfused vessels (cartridges or rotating bioreactors) within recirculating loops designed to maintain medium composition within target ranges by a combination of gas exchange and fresh medium supply. Future spaceflight studies of cells and tissues are likely to involve a three-dimensional culture system, to promote cellular differentiation, and perfusion with or without rotation, to provide a gravity-independent mechanism for fluid mixing and mass transport. Previous spaceflight studies have guided the ongoing development of NASA flight hardware for the ISS (e.g. the EDU-2 and the CCU). This next generation of hardware will have extended operational capabilities including on-line microscopy, in-line sensors for the monitoring and control of metabolic parameters, modular design for replicate cultures, and, perhaps most importantly of all, compatibility with the ISS centrifuge. The latter will permit in-flight, 1 g control cultures, and thereby allow the experimental variable to be gravity itself rather than the more general "spaceflight environment". Technical limitations of spaceflight studies (e.g. allowable size, mass, and power) continue to motivate a creative approach to system design and to result in "spin-off" technologies (e.g. the STLV) for ground-based cell and tissue culture research. The increasing scientific and medical relevance of this work is evidenced by the growing number of publications in which advanced bioreactors are used for in vitro studies in physiologically relevant cell and tissue models.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lisa E Freed
- Division of Health Sciences and Technology, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA, USA
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Fuchs JR, Pomerantseva I, Ochoa ER, Vacanti JP, Fauza DO. Fetal tissue engineering: in vitro analysis of muscle constructs. J Pediatr Surg 2003; 38:1348-53. [PMID: 14523818 DOI: 10.1016/s0022-3468(03)00394-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND/PURPOSE This study was aimed at examining the impact of different tissue engineering techniques on fetal muscle construct architecture. METHODS Myoblasts from ovine specimens of fetal skeletal muscle were expanded in culture and their growth rates determined. Cells were seeded at different densities onto 3 scaffold types, namely polyglycolic acid (PGA) treated with poly-l-lactic acid (PLLA), a composite of PGA with poly-4-hydroxybutyrate (P4HB), and a collagen hydrogel. Constructs were maintained in a bioreactor and submitted to histologic, scanning electron microscopy, and DNA analyses at different time-points. Statistical analysis was by the likelihood ratio and paired Student's t tests (P <.05). RESULTS Fetal myoblasts proliferated at faster rates than expected from neonatal cells. Cell attachment was enhanced in the PGA/PLLA matrix and collagen hydrogel when compared with the PGA/P4HB composite. Necrosis was observed at the center of all constructs, directly proportional to cell seeding density and time in the bioreactor. CONCLUSIONS Fetal myoblasts can be expanded rapidly in culture and attach well to PGA/PLLA, as well as collagen hydrogel but less optimally to PGA/P4HB. Excessive cell seeding density and bioreactor time may worsen final construct architecture. These findings should be considered during in vivo trials of muscle replacement by engineered fetal constructs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julie R Fuchs
- Harvard Center for Minimally Invasive Surgery, Harvard Medical School, Center for the Integration of Medicine and Innovative Technologies, Massachusetts General Hospital; and Children's Hospital, Boston, MA 02115, USA
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Abstract
Muscle has the ability to take up and express engineered genes and, because it is a post-mitotic tissue, their half-life of expression is prolonged. Although muscle is not regarded as a secretory tissue, in many cases, the gene products enter the systemic circulation. The possibility exists, therefore, of using this approach to alter levels of endocrine and paracrine factors. As a therapeutic procedure, this method has an advantage over the administration of the peptide/protein, which has a relatively short half-life and requires repeated injections. Engineered genes in plasmid or viral vectors under the control of a muscle-specific regulatory sequence may be introduced by intramuscular injection or by the introduction of transfected myoblasts. The latter is also being used in bioreactors to produce medicinal proteins/peptides in vitro as these offer some advantages over bacterial expression systems. However, for gene therapy purposes, there are still safety issues to be addressed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Geoffrey Goldspink
- Basic Medical Sciences and Department of Surgery, Royal Free and University College Medical School, Royal Free Campus, University of London, London, UK.
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41
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Cheema U, Yang SY, Mudera V, Goldspink GG, Brown RA. 3-D in vitro model of early skeletal muscle development. CELL MOTILITY AND THE CYTOSKELETON 2003; 54:226-36. [PMID: 12589681 DOI: 10.1002/cm.10095] [Citation(s) in RCA: 94] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
An understanding of the mechanical and mechano-molecular responses that occur during the differentiation of mouse C2C12 [corrected] myoblasts in 3-D culture is critical for understanding growth, which is important for progress towards producing a tissue-engineered muscle construct. We have established the main differences in force generation between skeletal myoblasts, dermal fibroblasts, and smooth muscle cells in a 3-D culture model in which cells contract a collagen gel construct. This model was developed to provide a reproducible 3-D muscle organoid in which differences in force generation could be measured, as the skeletal myoblasts fused to form myotubes within a collagen gel. Maintenance of the 3-D culture under sustained uni-axial tension, was found to promote fusion of myoblasts to form aligned multi-nucleate myotubes. Gene expression of both Insulin Like Growth Factor (IGF-1 Ea) and an isoform of IGF-1 Ea, Mechano-growth factor (IGF-1 Eb, also termed MGF), was monitored in this differentiating collagen construct over the time course of fusion and maturation (0-7 days). This identified a transient surge in both IGF-1 and MGF expression on day 3 of the developing construct. This peak of IGF-1 and MGF expression, just prior to differentiation, was consistent with the idea that IGF-1 stimulates differentiation through a Myogenin pathway [Florini et al., 1991: Mol. Endocrinol. 5:718-724]. MGF gene expression was increased 77-fold on day 3, compared to a 36-fold increase with IGF-1 on day 3. This indicates an important role for MGF in either differentiation or, more likely, a response to mechanical or tensional cues.
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Affiliation(s)
- U Cheema
- Tissue Repair and Engineering Centre, University College London, RFUCMS, Institute of Orthopaedics, RNOH, Stanmore, Middlesex, United Kingdom
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42
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Rutzky LP, Bilinski S, Kloc M, Phan T, Zhang H, Katz SM, Stepkowski SM. Microgravity culture condition reduces immunogenicity and improves function of pancreatic islets1. Transplantation 2002; 74:13-21. [PMID: 12134093 DOI: 10.1097/00007890-200207150-00004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The failure of pancreatic islet allotransplants observed in almost all clinical attempts is related to poor initial islet function and allograft rejection. To remedy these problems we cultured islets in microgravity conditions to improve their function and to reduce their immunogenicity. METHODS Fresh mouse islets or mouse islets cultured in stationary dishes or microgravity bioreactors were transplanted to streptozotocin-induced diabetic mouse recipients. RESULTS Both allogeneic dish- or bioreactor-cultured islets survived more than 100 days compared with fresh allogeneic islets, which were rejected in less than 15 days. Islet titration studies revealed that 250 fresh or dish-cultured, but only 30 to 120 bioreactor-cultured, islets were necessary to produce euglycemia. Furthermore, glucose tolerance tests showed that bioreactor-cultured islets functioned better compared with fresh and dish-cultured islets on day 30 postgrafting. Immunostaining and transmission electron microscopy (TEM) analyses showed the gradual disappearance of dendritic cells in cultured islets compared with fresh islets. TEM revealed that the ultrastructure of islets from bioreactor, but not dish, appeared healthy and closely resembled fresh islets. Interestingly, TEM and scanning electron microscopy showed that only bioreactor-cultured islets developed unique and multiple nutritional channels between arrays of islet cells. TEM with colloidal lanthanum tracer revealed that only bioreactor islet cell cultures were devoid of tight junctional complexes, which may facilitate channel formation. CONCLUSION Microgravity condition decreases immunogenicity and significantly improves the function of secretory cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lynne P Rutzky
- Division of Immunology and Organ Transplantation, The University of Texas Medical School at Houston, 77030, USA.
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43
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Abstract
Tissue engineering, by necessity, encompasses a wide array of experimental directions and scientific disciplines. In vitro tissue engineering involves the manipulation of cells in vitro, prior to implantation into the in vivo environment. In contrast, in vivo tissue engineering relies on the body's natural ability to regenerate over non-cell-seeded biomaterials. Cells, biomaterials, and controlled incubation conditions all play important roles in the construction and use of modern in vitro systems for tissue engineering. Gene delivery is also an important factor for controlling or supporting the function of engineered cells both in vitro and post implantation, where appropriate. In this review, systems involved in the context of in vitro tissue engineering are addressed, including bioreactors, cell-seeded constructs, cell encapsulation, and gene delivery. Emphasis is placed upon investigations that are more directly linked to the treatment of clinical conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- W T Godbey
- Laboratory for Tissue Engineering, Harvard Medical School/The Children's Hospital, 300 Longwood Avenue, Bldg. #461, Boston, MA 02115, USA
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44
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Carrier RL, Rupnick M, Langer R, Schoen FJ, Freed LE, Vunjak-Novakovic G. Perfusion improves tissue architecture of engineered cardiac muscle. TISSUE ENGINEERING 2002; 8:175-88. [PMID: 12031108 DOI: 10.1089/107632702753724950] [Citation(s) in RCA: 263] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
Abstract
Cardiac muscle with a certain threshold thickness, uniformity of tissue architecture, and functionality would expand the therapeutic options currently available to patients with congenital or acquired cardiac defects. Cardiac constructs cultured in well-mixed medium had an approximately 100-microm-thick peripheral tissue-like region around a relatively cell-free interior, a structure consistent with the presence of concentration gradients within the tissue. We hypothesized that direct perfusion of cultured constructs can reduce diffusional distances for mass transport, improve control of oxygen, pH, nutrients and metabolites in the cell microenvironment, and thereby increase the thickness and spatial uniformity of engineered cardiac muscle. To test this hypothesis, constructs (9.5-mm-diameter, 2-mm-thick discs) based on neonatal rat cardiac myocytes and fibrous polyglycolic acid scaffolds were cultured either directly perfused with medium or in control spinner flasks. Perfusion improved the spatial uniformity of cell distribution and enhanced the expression of cardiac-specific markers, presumably due to the improved control of local microenvironmental conditions within the forming tissue. Medium perfusion could thus be utilized to better mimic the transport conditions within native cardiac muscle and enable in vitro engineering of cardiac constructs with clinically useful thicknesses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rebecca L Carrier
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge 02139, USA
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45
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Abstract
The effects of different types of cell carriers, strategies for cell transfer on carriers, and of several fusion inhibitors on the growth kinetics of primary human myoblasts culture were studied in order to develop a bioprocess suitable for the treatment of Duchenne muscular dystrophy based on the transplantation of unfused cells. Our results indicate that myoblast production is larger on Cytodex 1 and 3 than on polypropylene or polyester fabrics and on a commercial porous macrocarrier. Myoblast growth conditions with Cytodex 1 were further investigated to establish the bioprocess operating conditions. It was found that microcarrier density of 3 g DW l(-1), inoculum density of 2x10(5) cells ml(-1), and continuous agitation speed of 30-rpm result in final myoblast production comparable to static cultures. However, for all the culture conditions used, myoblasts growth kinetics exhibited a lag phase that lasted a minimum of 1 week prior to growth, the end of the lag phase correlating with the appearance of microcarrier aggregates. Based on this observation, we propose that aggregation promotes cell growth by offering a network of very large inter-particular pores that protect cells from mechanical stress. We took advantage of the presence of these aggregates for the scale-up of the culture process. Indeed, using myoblast-loaded microcarrier-aggregates instead of myoblast suspension to inoculate a fresh suspension of microcarriers significantly reduced the duration of the lag phase and allowed the scale-up of the bioprocess at the 500-ml scale. In order to ensure the production of unfused myoblasts, the efficiency of five different fusion inhibitors was investigated. Only calpeptin (9.1 microg ml(-1)) significantly inhibited the fusion of the myoblasts, while TGFbeta (50 ng ml(-1)) and LPA (10 microg ml(-1)) increased myoblasts growth but did not affect fusion, sphingosine (30 microg ml(-1)) induced a 50% death and NMMA (25 microg ml(-1)) had no effect on either growth or fusion. Finally, transplantation trials on severe combined immunodeficient mice showed that microcarrier-cultured human myoblasts grown using the optimized bioprocess resulted in grafts as successful as myoblasts grown in static cultures. The bioprocess, therefore, prove to be suitable for the large-scale production of myoblasts required for muscular dystrophy treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- P Boudreault
- Laboratoire d'optimisation des bioprocédés, Département de génie chimique et, Centre de recherche sur la fonction, la structure et l'ingénierie des protéines, Université Laval, Ste-Foy, QC, G1K 7P4, Canada
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Tresco PA. Tissue engineering strategies for nervous system repair. PROGRESS IN BRAIN RESEARCH 2001; 128:349-63. [PMID: 11105693 DOI: 10.1016/s0079-6123(00)28031-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- P A Tresco
- W.M. Keck Center for Tissue Engineering, Department of Bioengineering, University of Utah, Salt Lake City 84112, USA.
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Dennis RG, Kosnik PE, Gilbert ME, Faulkner JA. Excitability and contractility of skeletal muscle engineered from primary cultures and cell lines. Am J Physiol Cell Physiol 2001; 280:C288-95. [PMID: 11208523 DOI: 10.1152/ajpcell.2001.280.2.c288] [Citation(s) in RCA: 211] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
The purpose of this study was to compare the excitability and contractility of three-dimensional skeletal muscle constructs, termed myooids, engineered from C2C12 myoblast and 10T1/2 fibroblast cell lines, primary muscle cultures from adult C3H mice, and neonatal and adult Sprague-Dawley rats. Myooids were 12 mm long, with diameters of 0.1-1 mm, were excitable by transverse electrical stimulation, and contracted to produce force. After approximately 30 days in culture, myooid cross-sectional area, rheobase, chronaxie, resting baseline force, twitch force, time to peak tension, one-half relaxation time, and peak isometric force were measured. Specific force was calculated by dividing peak isometric force by cross-sectional area. The specific force generated by the myooids was 2-8% of that generated by skeletal muscles of control adult rodents. Myooids engineered from C2C12-10T1/2 cells exhibited greater rheobase, time to peak tension, and one-half relaxation time than myooids engineered from adult rodent cultures, and myooids from C2C12-10T1/2 and neonatal rat cells had greater resting baseline forces than myooids from adult rodent cultures.
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Affiliation(s)
- R G Dennis
- Muscle Mechanics Laboratory, Institute of Gerontology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor 48109-2007, USA.
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48
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Abstract
Soluble factors normally produced by cells of the human body are of increasing importance as potential therapeutic agents. Although considerable progress has been made in understanding the etiology and pathogenesis of disease, in developing animal models and newer experimental therapeutics, few discoveries have been translated into clinically effective ways of delivering the multiple therapeutic agents obtained from living mammalian cells. This review examines the use of transplanted cells as alternatives to conventional delivery systems to deliver a variety of protein based therapeutic agents. The chapter begins with a set of questions to establish the complexity and challenges of this form of drug delivery. The following section focuses the discussion on our understanding of genetic engineering, tissue engineering, and some areas of developmental biology as they relate to the development of this nascent field. Much of the discussion has a neuro/endocrine emphasis. The chapter ends by listing the basic ingredients needed to push the use of transplanted cells toward medical practice and some general comments about future developments.
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Affiliation(s)
- P A Tresco
- Department of Bioengineering, The Keck Center for Tissue Engineering, The Huntsman Cancer Institute, Tissue Engineering Laboratory, University of Utah, 20 South 2030 East, Room 506, 84112 9458, Salt Lake City, UT, USA.
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Vandenburgh H, Chromiak J, Shansky J, Del Tatto M, Lemaire J. Space travel directly induces skeletal muscle atrophy. FASEB J 1999; 13:1031-8. [PMID: 10336885 DOI: 10.1096/fasebj.13.9.1031] [Citation(s) in RCA: 91] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
Space travel causes rapid and pronounced skeletal muscle wasting in humans that reduces their long-term flight capabilities. To develop effective countermeasures, the basis of this atrophy needs to be better understood. Space travel may cause muscle atrophy indirectly by altering circulating levels of factors such as growth hormone, glucocorticoids, and anabolic steroids and/or by a direct effect on the muscle fibers themselves. To determine whether skeletal muscle cells are directly affected by space travel, tissue-cultured avian skeletal muscle cells were tissue engineered into bioartificial muscles and flown in perfusion bioreactors for 9 to 10 days aboard the Space Transportation System (STS, i.e., Space Shuttle). Significant muscle fiber atrophy occurred due to a decrease in protein synthesis rates without alterations in protein degradation. Return of the muscle cells to Earth stimulated protein synthesis rates of both muscle-specific and extracellular matrix proteins relative to ground controls. These results show for the first time that skeletal muscle fibers are directly responsive to space travel and should be a target for countermeasure development.
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Affiliation(s)
- H Vandenburgh
- Department of Pathology, Brown University School of Medicine and The Miriam Hospital, Providence, Rhode Island 02906, USA.
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50
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Powell C, Shansky J, Del Tatto M, Forman DE, Hennessey J, Sullivan K, Zielinski BA, Vandenburgh HH. Tissue-engineered human bioartificial muscles expressing a foreign recombinant protein for gene therapy. Hum Gene Ther 1999; 10:565-77. [PMID: 10094200 DOI: 10.1089/10430349950018643] [Citation(s) in RCA: 72] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Murine skeletal muscle cells transduced with foreign genes and tissue engineered in vitro into bioartificial muscles (BAMs) are capable of long-term delivery of soluble growth factors when implanted into syngeneic mice (Vandenburgh et al., 1996b). With the goal of developing a therapeutic cell-based protein delivery system for humans, similar genetic tissue-engineering techniques were designed for human skeletal muscle stem cells. Stem cell myoblasts were isolated, cloned, and expanded in vitro from biopsied healthy adult (mean age, 42 +/- 2 years), and elderly congestive heart failure patient (mean age, 76 +/- 1 years) skeletal muscle. Total cell yield varied widely between biopsies (50 to 672 per 100 mg of tissue, N = 10), but was not significantly different between the two patient groups. Percent myoblasts per biopsy (73 +/- 6%), number of myoblast doublings prior to senescence in vitro (37 +/- 2), and myoblast doubling time (27 +/- 1 hr) were also not significantly different between the two patient groups. Fusion kinetics of the myoblasts were similar for the two groups after 20-22 doublings (74 +/- 2% myoblast fusion) when the biopsy samples had been expanded to 1 to 2 billion muscle cells, a number acceptable for human gene therapy use. The myoblasts from the two groups could be equally transduced ex vivo with replication-deficient retroviral expression vectors to secrete 0.5 to 2 microg of a foreign protein (recombinant human growth hormone, rhGH)/10(6) cells/day, and tissue engineered into human BAMs containing parallel arrays of differentiated, postmitotic myofibers. This work suggests that autologous human skeletal myoblasts from a potential patient population can be isolated, genetically modified to secrete foreign proteins, and tissue engineered into implantable living protein secretory devices for therapeutic use.
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Affiliation(s)
- C Powell
- Department of Molecular Pharmacology, Physiology, and Biotechnology, Brown University, Providence, RI 02912, USA
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