A zonal organization of odorant receptor gene expression in the olfactory epithelium

Transcriptional priming and chromatin regulation during stochastic cell fate specification

Stochastic cell fate specification, in which a cell chooses between two or more fates with a set probability, diversifies cell subtypes in development. Although this is a vital process across species, a common mechanism for these cell fate decisions remains elusive. This review examines two well-characterized stochastic cell fate decisions to identify commonalities between their developmental programmes. In the fly eye, two subtypes of R7 photoreceptors are specified by the stochastic ON/OFF expression of a transcription factor, spineless. In the mouse olfactory system, olfactory sensory neurons (OSNs) randomly select to express one copy of an olfactory receptor (OR) gene out of a pool of 2800 alleles. Despite the differences in these sensory systems, both stochastic fate choices rely on the dynamic interplay between transcriptional priming, chromatin regulation and terminal gene expression. The coupling of transcription and chromatin modifications primes gene loci in undifferentiated neurons, enabling later expression during terminal differentiation. Here, we compare these mechanisms, examine broader implications for gene regulation during development and posit key challenges moving forward. This article is part of a discussion meeting issue 'Causes and consequences of stochastic processes in development and disease'.

Simultaneous single-cell three-dimensional genome and gene expression profiling uncovers dynamic enhancer connectivity underlying olfactory receptor choice

The simultaneous measurement of three-dimensional (3D) genome structure and gene expression of individual cells is critical for understanding a genome's structure-function relationship, yet this is challenging for existing methods. Here we present 'Linking mRNA to Chromatin Architecture (LiMCA)', which jointly profiles the 3D genome and transcriptome with exceptional sensitivity and from low-input materials. Combining LiMCA and our high-resolution scATAC-seq assay, METATAC, we successfully characterized chromatin accessibility, as well as paired 3D genome structures and gene expression information, of individual developing olfactory sensory neurons. We expanded the repertoire of known olfactory receptor (OR) enhancers and discovered unexpected rules of their dynamics: OR genes and their enhancers are most accessible during early differentiation. Furthermore, we revealed the dynamic spatial relationship between ORs and enhancers behind stepwise OR expression. These findings offer valuable insights into how 3D connectivity of ORs and enhancers dynamically orchestrate the 'one neuron-one receptor' selection process.

Epigenetic programming of stochastic olfactory receptor choice

The mammalian sense of smell relies upon a vast array of receptor proteins to detect odorant compounds present in the environment. The proper deployment of these receptor proteins in olfactory sensory neurons is orchestrated by a suite of epigenetic processes that remodel the olfactory genes in differentiating neuronal progenitors. The goal of this review is to elucidate the central role of gene regulatory processes acting in neuronal progenitors of olfactory sensory neurons that lead to a singular expression of an odorant receptor in mature olfactory sensory neurons. We begin by describing the principal features of odorant receptor gene expression in mature olfactory sensory neurons. Next, we delineate our current understanding of how these features emerge from multiple gene regulatory mechanisms acting in neuronal progenitors. Finally, we close by discussing the key gaps in our understanding of how these regulatory mechanisms work and how they interact with each other over the course of differentiation.

Molecular mechanisms of differentiation and class choice of olfactory sensory neurons

The sense of smell is intricately linked to essential animal behaviors necessary for individual survival and species preservation. During vertebrate evolution, odorant receptors (ORs), responsible for detecting odor molecules, have evolved to adapt to changing environments, transitioning from aquatic to terrestrial habitats and accommodating increasing complex chemical environments. These evolutionary pressures have given rise to the largest gene family in vertebrate genomes. Vertebrate ORs are phylogenetically divided into two major classes; class I and class II. Class I OR genes, initially identified in fish and frog, have persisted across vertebrate species. On the other hand, class II OR genes are unique to terrestrial animals, accounting for ~90% of mammalian OR genes. In mice, each olfactory sensory neuron (OSN) expresses a single functional allele of a single OR gene from either the class I or class II OR repertoire. This one neuron-one receptor rule is established through two sequential steps: specification of OR class and subsequent exclusive OR expression from the corresponding OR class. Consequently, OSNs acquire diverse neuronal identities during the process of OSN differentiation, enabling animals to detect a wide array of odor molecules. This review provides an overview of the OSN differentiation process through which OSN diversity is achieved, primarily using the mouse as a model animal.

Localized Expression of Olfactory Receptor Genes in the Olfactory Organ of Common Minke Whales

Baleen whales (Mysticeti) possess the necessary anatomical structures and genetic elements for olfaction. Nevertheless, the olfactory receptor gene (OR) repertoire has undergone substantial degeneration in the cetacean lineage following the divergence of the Artiodactyla and Cetacea. The functionality of highly degenerated mysticete ORs within their olfactory epithelium remains unknown. In this study, we extracted total RNA from the nasal mucosae of common minke whales (Balaenoptera acutorostrata) to investigate ORs' localized expression. All three sections of the mucosae examined in the nasal chamber displayed comparable histological structure. However, the posterior portion of the frontoturbinal region exhibited notably high OR expression. Neither the olfactory bulb nor the external skin exhibited the expression of these genes. Although this species possesses four intact non-class-2 ORs, all the ORs expressed in the nasal mucosae belong to class-2, implying the loss of aversion to specific odorants. These anatomical and genomic analyses suggest that ORs are still responsible for olfaction within the nasal region of baleen whales, enabling them to detect desirable scents such as prey and potential mating partners.

Opposing, spatially-determined epigenetic forces impose restrictions on stochastic olfactory receptor choice

Olfactory receptor (OR) choice represents an example of genetically hardwired stochasticity, where every olfactory neuron expresses one out of ~2000 OR alleles in the mouse genome in a probabilistic, yet stereotypic fashion. Here, we propose that topographic restrictions in OR expression are established in neuronal progenitors by two opposing forces: polygenic transcription and genomic silencing, both of which are influenced by dorsoventral gradients of transcription factors NFIA, B, and X. Polygenic transcription of OR genes may define spatially constrained OR repertoires, among which one OR allele is selected for singular expression later in development. Heterochromatin assembly and genomic compartmentalization of OR alleles also vary across the axes of the olfactory epithelium and may preferentially eliminate ectopically expressed ORs with more dorsal expression destinations from this 'privileged' repertoire. Our experiments identify early transcription as a potential 'epigenetic' contributor to future developmental patterning and reveal how two spatially responsive probabilistic processes may act in concert to establish deterministic, precise, and reproducible territories of stochastic gene expression.

Fate specification is spatially intermingled across planarian stem cells

Regeneration requires mechanisms for producing a wide array of cell types. Neoblasts are stem cells in the planarian Schmidtea mediterranea that undergo fate specification to produce over 125 adult cell types. Fate specification in neoblasts can be regulated through expression of fate-specific transcription factors. We utilize multiplexed error-robust fluorescence in situ hybridization (MERFISH) and whole-mount FISH to characterize fate choice distribution of stem cells within planarians. Fate choices are often made distant from target tissues and in a highly intermingled manner, with neighboring neoblasts frequently making divergent fate choices for tissues of different location and function. We propose that pattern formation is driven primarily by the migratory assortment of progenitors from mixed and spatially distributed fate-specified stem cells and that fate choice involves stem-cell intrinsic processes.

Opposing, spatially-determined epigenetic forces impose restrictions on stochastic olfactory receptor choice

Olfactory receptor (OR) choice represents an example of genetically hardwired stochasticity, where every olfactory neuron expresses one out of ~2000 OR alleles in a probabilistic, yet stereotypic fashion. Here, we propose that topographic restrictions in OR expression are established in neuronal progenitors by two opposing forces: polygenic transcription and genomic silencing, both of which are influenced by dorsoventral gradients of transcription factors NFIA, B, and X. Polygenic transcription of OR genes may define spatially constrained OR repertoires, among which one OR allele is selected for singular expression later in development. Heterochromatin assembly and genomic compartmentalization of OR alleles also vary across the axes of the olfactory epithelium and may preferentially eliminate ectopically expressed ORs with more dorsal expression destinations from this "privileged" repertoire. Our experiments identify early transcription as a potential "epigenetic" contributor to future developmental patterning and reveal how two spatially responsive probabilistic processes may act in concert to establish deterministic, precise, and reproducible territories of stochastic gene expression.

Model of Neuromorphic Odorant-Recognition Network

We propose a new model for a neuromorphic olfactory analyzer based on memristive synapses. The model comprises a layer of receptive neurons that perceive various odors and a layer of "decoder" neurons that recognize these odors. It is demonstrated that connecting these layers with memristive synapses enables the training of the "decoder" layer to recognize two types of odorants of varying concentrations. In the absence of such synapses, the layer of "decoder" neurons does not exhibit specificity in recognizing odorants. The recognition of the 'odorant' occurs through the neural activity of a group of decoder neurons that have acquired specificity for the odorant in the learning process. The proposed phenomenological model showcases the potential use of a memristive synapse in practical odorant recognition applications.

Domestic cat nose functions as a highly efficient coiled parallel gas chromatograph

The peripheral structures of mammalian sensory organs often serve to support their functionality, such as alignment of hair cells to the mechanical properties of the inner ear. Here, we examined the structure-function relationship for mammalian olfaction by creating an anatomically accurate computational nasal model for the domestic cat (Felis catus) based on high resolution microCT and sequential histological sections. Our results showed a distinct separation of respiratory and olfactory flow regimes, featuring a high-speed dorsal medial stream that increases odor delivery speed and efficiency to the ethmoid olfactory region without compromising the filtration and conditioning purpose of the nose. These results corroborated previous findings in other mammalian species, which implicates a common theme to deal with the physical size limitation of the head that confines the nasal airway from increasing in length infinitely as a straight tube. We thus hypothesized that these ethmoid olfactory channels function as parallel coiled chromatograph channels, and further showed that the theoretical plate number, a widely-used indicator of gas chromatograph efficiency, is more than 100 times higher in the cat nose than an "amphibian-like" straight channel fitting the similar skull space, at restful breathing state. The parallel feature also reduces airflow speed within each coil, which is critical to achieve the high plate number, while feeding collectively from the high-speed dorsal medial stream so that total odor sampling speed is not sacrificed. The occurrence of ethmoid turbinates is an important step in the evolution of mammalian species that correlates to their expansive olfactory function and brain development. Our findings reveal novel mechanisms on how such structure may facilitate better olfactory performance, furthering our understanding of the successful adaptation of mammalian species, including F. catus, a popular pet, to diverse environments.

Olfactory Function and Olfactory Disorders

The sense of smell is important. This became especially clear to patients with infection-related olfactory loss during the SARS-CoV-2 pandemic. We react, for example, to the body odors of other humans. The sense of smell warns us of danger, and it allows us to perceive flavors when eating and drinking. In essence, this means quality of life. Therefore, anosmia must be taken seriously. Although olfactory receptor neurons are characterized by regenerative capacity, anosmia is relatively common with about 5 % of anosmic people in the general population. Olfactory disorders are classified according to their causes (e. g., infections of the upper respiratory tract, traumatic brain injury, chronic rhinosinusitis, age) with the resulting different therapeutic options and prognoses. Thorough history taking is therefore important. A wide variety of tools are available for diagnosis, ranging from short screening tests and detailed multidimensional test procedures to electrophysiological and imaging methods. Thus, quantitative olfactory disorders are easily assessable and traceable. For qualitative olfactory disorders such as parosmia, however, no objectifying diagnostic procedures are currently available. Therapeutic options for olfactory disorders are limited. Nevertheless, there are effective options consisting of olfactory training as well as various additive drug therapies. The consultation and the competent discussion with the patients are of major importance.

The Roles of Transient Receptor Potential Vanilloid 1 and 4 in Olfactory Regeneration

Olfactory disorders, which are closely related to cognitive deterioration, can be caused by several factors, including infections, such as COVID-19; aging; and environmental chemicals. Injured olfactory receptor neurons (ORNs) regenerate after birth, but it is unclear which receptors and sensors are involved in ORN regeneration. Recently, there has been great focus on the involvement of transient receptor potential vanilloid (TRPV) channels, which are nociceptors expressed on sensory nerves during the healing of damaged tissues. The localization of TRPV in the olfactory nervous system has been reported in the past, but its function there are unclear. Here, we investigated how TRPV1 and TRPV4 channels are involved in ORN regeneration. TRPV1 knockout (KO), TRPV4 KO, and wild-type (WT) mice were used to model methimazole-induced olfactory dysfunction. The regeneration of ORNs was evaluated using olfactory behavior, histologic examination, and measurement of growth factors. Both TRPV1 and TRPV4 were found to be expressed in the olfactory epithelium (OE). TRPV1, in particular, existed near ORN axons. TRPV4 was marginally expressed in the basal layer of the OE. The proliferation of ORN progenitor cells was reduced in TRPV1 KO mice, which delayed ORN regeneration and the improvement of olfactory behavior. Postinjury OE thickness improved faster in TRPV4 KO mice than WT mice but without acceleration of ORN maturation. The nerve growth factor and transforming growth factor ß levels in TRPV1 KO mice were similar to those in WT mice, and the transforming growth factor ß level was higher than TRPV4 KO mice. TRPV1 was involved in stimulating the proliferation of progenitor cells. TRPV4 modulated their proliferation and maturation. ORN regeneration was regulated by the interaction between TRPV1 and TRPV4. However, in this study, TRPV4 involvement was limited compared with TRPV1. To our knowledge, this is the first study to demonstrate the involvement of TRPV1 and TRPV4 in OE regeneration.

Identity, lineage and fates of a temporally distinct progenitor population in the embryonic olfactory epithelium

We defined a temporally and transcriptionally divergent precursor cohort in the medial olfactory epithelium (OE) shortly after it differentiates as a distinct tissue at mid-gestation in the mouse. This temporally distinct population of Ascl1+ cells in the dorsomedial OE is segregated from Meis1+/Pax7+ progenitors in the lateral OE, and does not appear to be generated by Pax7+ lateral OE precursors. The medial Ascl1+ precursors do not yield a substantial number of early-generated ORNs. Instead, they first generate additional proliferative precursors as well as a distinct population of frontonasal mesenchymal cells associated with the migratory mass that surrounds the nascent olfactory nerve. Parallel to these in vivo distinctions, isolated medial versus lateral OE precursors in vitro retain distinct proliferative capacities and modes of division that reflect their in vivo identities. At later fetal stages, these early dorsomedial Ascl1+ precursors cells generate spatially restricted subsets of ORNs as well as other non-neuronal cell classes. Accordingly, the initial compliment of ORNs and other OE cell types is derived from at least two distinct early precursor populations: lateral Meis1/Pax7+ precursors that generate primarily early ORNs, and a temporally, spatially, and transcriptionally distinct subset of medial Ascl1+ precursors that initially generate additional OE progenitors and apparent migratory mass cells before yielding a subset of ORNs and likely supporting cell classes.

Target-Captured mRNA from Murine Olfactory Bulb

The external world is perceived via sensory receptors arranged in highly organized systems according to functional strategies, which in turn reflect features of critical importance to both the sense and the animal. Thus describing the receptor organization and functional strategies of olfaction, the sense of smell, is crucial for a concrete understanding of the fundamental principles of the system's architecture. Sensory processing in olfactory systems is organized across olfactory bulb (OB) glomeruli, wherein axons of peripheral sensory neurons expressing the same olfactory receptor (OR) co-terminate to transmit receptor-specific activity to mitral/tufted cells, projection neurons in the olfactory bulb. Understanding how receptors map to glomeruli is therefore critical to understanding olfaction.Here we describe a method to enrich low-abundant OR mRNAs from the mouse OB for spatial transcriptomics to generate high-throughput mapping of receptors to glomeruli [2]. Our method combines sequential sectioning along the anteroposterior, dorsoventral, and mediolateral axes with target capture enrichment sequencing to overcome low-abundance target expression. This strategy spatially mapped 86% of olfactory receptors across the olfactory bulb and uncovered a relationship between olfactory receptor sequence and glomerular position.

Genome-Wide RNA Tomography in the Mouse Whole Olfactory Mucosa

Spatial transcriptomics allows for the genome-wide profiling of topographic gene expression patterns within a tissue of interest. Here, we describe our methodology to generate high-quality RNA-seq libraries from cryosections from fresh frozen mouse whole olfactory mucosae. This methodology can be extended to virtually any vertebrate organ or tissue sample.

Netrins and Netrin Receptors are Essential for Normal Targeting of Sensory Axons in the Zebrafish Olfactory Bulb

Olfactory sensory neurons that express related odorant receptors specifically target large identifiable neuropils called protoglomeruli when they first reach the olfactory bulb in the zebrafish. This crude odorant receptor-related mapping is further refined as odorant receptor-specific glomeruli segregate from protoglomeruli later in development. Netrins are a prominent class of axon guidance molecules whose contribution to olfactory circuit formation is poorly studied. Morpholino knock down experiments have suggested that Netrin/Dcc signaling is involved in normal protoglomerular targeting. Here we extend these findings with more detailed characterization and modeling of netrin expression, and by examining protoglomerular targeting in mutant lines fornetrin1a (ntn1a), netrin1b (ntn1b), and their receptorsunc5b,dcc, andneo1a. We confirm thatntn1a,ntn1b, anddccare required for normal protoglomerular guidance of a subset of olfactory sensory neurons that are labeled with the Tg(or111-7:IRES:Gal4) transgene. We also observe errors in the targeting of these axons inunc5bmutants, but not inneo1a mutants. Our findings are consistent with ntn1a andntn1bacting primarily as attractants for olfactory sensory neurons targeting the central zone protoglomerulus.

SARS-CoV-2 infection of sustentacular cells disrupts olfactory signaling pathways

Loss of olfactory function has been commonly reported in SARS-CoV-2 infections. Recovery from anosmia is not well understood. Previous studies showed that sustentacular cells, and occasionally olfactory sensory neurons (OSNs) in the olfactory epithelium (OE), are infected in SARS-CoV-2-infected patients and experimental animals. Here, we show that SARS-CoV-2 infection of sustentacular cells induces inflammation characterized by infiltration of myeloid cells to the olfactory epithelium and variably increased expression of proinflammatory cytokines. We observed widespread damage to, and loss of cilia on, OSNs, accompanied by downregulation of olfactory receptors and signal transduction molecules involved in olfaction. A consequence of OSN dysfunction was a reduction in the number of neurons in the olfactory bulb expressing tyrosine hydroxylase, consistent with reduced synaptic input. Resolution of the infection, inflammation, and olfactory dysfunction occurred over 3-4 weeks following infection in most but not all animals. We also observed similar patterns of OE infection and anosmia/hyposmia in mice infected with other human coronaviruses such as SARS-CoV and MERS-CoV. Together, these results define the downstream effects of sustentacular cell infection and provide insight into olfactory dysfunction in COVID-19-associated anosmia.

A multivesicular body-like organelle mediates stimulus-regulated trafficking of olfactory ciliary transduction proteins

Stimulus transduction in cilia of olfactory sensory neurons is mediated by odorant receptors, Gαolf, adenylate cyclase-3, cyclic nucleotide-gated and chloride ion channels. Mechanisms regulating trafficking and localization of these proteins in the dendrite are unknown. By lectin/immunofluorescence staining and in vivo correlative light-electron microscopy (CLEM), we identify a retinitis pigmentosa-2 (RP2), ESCRT-0 and synaptophysin-containing multivesicular organelle that is not part of generic recycling/degradative/exosome pathways. The organelle's intraluminal vesicles contain the olfactory transduction proteins except for Golf subunits Gγ13 and Gβ1. Instead, Gβ1 colocalizes with RP2 on the organelle's outer membrane. The organelle accumulates in response to stimulus deprivation, while odor stimuli or adenylate cyclase activation cause outer membrane disintegration, release of intraluminal vesicles, and RP2/Gβ1 translocation to the base of olfactory cilia. Together, these findings reveal the existence of a dendritic organelle that mediates both stimulus-regulated storage of olfactory ciliary transduction proteins and membrane-delimited sorting important for G protein heterotrimerization.

Developmental history modulates adult olfactory behavioral preferences via regulation of chemoreceptor expression in Caenorhabditiselegans

Developmental experiences play critical roles in shaping adult physiology and behavior. We and others previously showed that adult Caenorhabditiselegans which transiently experienced dauer arrest during development (postdauer) exhibit distinct gene expression profiles as compared to control adults which bypassed the dauer stage. In particular, the expression patterns of subsets of chemoreceptor genes are markedly altered in postdauer adults. Whether altered chemoreceptor levels drive behavioral plasticity in postdauer adults is unknown. Here, we show that postdauer adults exhibit enhanced attraction to a panel of food-related attractive volatile odorants including the bacterially produced chemical diacetyl. Diacetyl-evoked responses in the AWA olfactory neuron pair are increased in both dauer larvae and postdauer adults, and we find that these increased responses are correlated with upregulation of the diacetyl receptor ODR-10 in AWA likely via both transcriptional and posttranscriptional mechanisms. We show that transcriptional upregulation of odr-10 expression in dauer larvae is in part mediated by the DAF-16 FOXO transcription factor. Via transcriptional profiling of sorted populations of AWA neurons from control and postdauer animals, we further show that the expression of a subset of additional chemoreceptor genes in AWA is regulated similarly to odr-10 in postdauer animals. Our results suggest that developmental experiences may be encoded at the level of olfactory receptor regulation, and provide a simple mechanism by which C. elegans is able to precisely modulate its behavioral preferences as a function of its current and past experiences.

Emerging roles of olfactory receptors in glucose metabolism

Olfactory receptors (ORs) are widely expressed in extra-nasal tissues, where they participate in the regulation of divergent physiological processes. An increasing body of evidence over the past decade has revealed important regulatory roles for extra-nasal ORs in glucose metabolism. Recently, nonodorant endogenous ligands of ORs with metabolic significance have been identified, implying the therapeutic potential of ORs in the treatment of metabolic diseases, such as diabetes and obesity. In this review, we summarize current understanding of the expression patterns and functions of ORs in key tissues involved in glucose metabolism modulation, describe odorant and endogenous OR ligands, explain the biased signaling downstream of ORs, and outline OR therapeutic potential.

MRI tractography reveals the human olfactory nerve map connecting the olfactory epithelium and olfactory bulb

The olfactory nerve map describes the topographical neural connections between the olfactory epithelium in the nasal cavity and the olfactory bulb. Previous studies have constructed the olfactory nerve maps of rodents using histological analyses or transgenic animal models to investigate olfactory nerve pathways. However, the human olfactory nerve map remains unknown. Here, we demonstrate that high-field magnetic resonance imaging and diffusion tensor tractography can be used to visualize olfactory sensory neurons while maintaining their three-dimensional structures. This technique allowed us to evaluate the olfactory sensory neuron projections from the nasal cavities to the olfactory bulbs and visualize the olfactory nerve maps of humans, marmosets and mice. The olfactory nerve maps revealed that the dorsal-ventral and medial-lateral axes were preserved between the olfactory epithelium and olfactory bulb in all three species. Further development of this technique might allow it to be used clinically to facilitate the diagnosis of olfactory dysfunction.

Combined high-field MRI and DTI analyses in post-mortem mouse, marmoset, and human samples provide insight into the neural connections between nasal cavities and olfactory bulbs.

Decoding the olfactory map through targeted transcriptomics links murine olfactory receptors to glomeruli

Sensory processing in olfactory systems is organized across olfactory bulb glomeruli, wherein axons of peripheral sensory neurons expressing the same olfactory receptor co-terminate to transmit receptor-specific activity to central neurons. Understanding how receptors map to glomeruli is therefore critical to understanding olfaction. High-throughput spatial transcriptomics is a rapidly advancing field, but low-abundance olfactory receptor expression within glomeruli has previously precluded high-throughput mapping of receptors to glomeruli in the mouse. Here we combined sequential sectioning along the anteroposterior, dorsoventral, and mediolateral axes with target capture enrichment sequencing to overcome low-abundance target expression. This strategy allowed us to spatially map 86% of olfactory receptors across the olfactory bulb and uncover a relationship between OR sequence and glomerular position.

Spatial organization of olfactory receptor gene choice in the complete V1R-related ORA family of zebrafish

The vertebrate sense of smell employs four main receptor families for detection of odors, among them the V1R/ORA family, which is unusually small and highly conserved in teleost fish. Zebrafish possess just seven ORA receptors, enabling a comprehensive analysis of the expression patterns of the entire family. The olfactory organ of zebrafish is representative for teleosts, cup-shaped, with lamella covered with sensory epithelium protruding into the cup from a median raphe. We have performed quantitative in situ hybridization on complete series of horizontal cryostat sections of adult zebrafish olfactory organ, and have analysed the location of ora-expressing cells in three dimensions, radial diameter, laminar height, and height-within-the-organ. We report broadly overlapping, but distinctly different distributions for all ora genes, even for ora3a and ora3b, the most recent gene duplication. Preferred positions in different dimensions are independent of each other. This spatial logic is very similar to previous reports for the much larger families of odorant receptor (or) and V2R-related olfC genes in zebrafish. Preferred positions for ora genes tend to be more central and more apical than those we observed for these other two families, consistent with expression in non-canonical sensory neuron types.

Artificial olfactory sensor technology that mimics the olfactory mechanism: a comprehensive review

Artificial olfactory sensors that recognize patterns transmitted by olfactory receptors are emerging as a technology for monitoring volatile organic compounds. Advances in statistical processing methods and data processing technology have made it possible to classify patterns in sensor arrays. Moreover, biomimetic olfactory recognition sensors in the form of pattern recognition have been developed. Deep learning and artificial intelligence technologies have enabled the classification of pattern data from more sensor arrays, and improved artificial olfactory sensor technology is being developed with the introduction of artificial neural networks. An example of an artificial olfactory sensor is the electronic nose. It is an array of various types of sensors, such as metal oxides, electrochemical sensors, surface acoustic waves, quartz crystal microbalances, organic dyes, colorimetric sensors, conductive polymers, and mass spectrometers. It can be tailored depending on the operating environment and the performance requirements of the artificial olfactory sensor. This review compiles artificial olfactory sensor technology based on olfactory mechanisms. We introduce the mechanisms of artificial olfactory sensors and examples used in food quality and stability assessment, environmental monitoring, and diagnostics. Although current artificial olfactory sensor technology has several limitations and there is limited commercialization owing to reliability and standardization issues, there is considerable potential for developing this technology. Artificial olfactory sensors are expected to be widely used in advanced pattern recognition and learning technologies, along with advanced sensor technology in the future.

Temporally dynamic antagonism between transcription and chromatin compaction controls stochastic photoreceptor specification in flies

Stochastic mechanisms diversify cell fates during development. How cells randomly choose between two or more fates remains poorly understood. In the Drosophila eye, the random mosaic of two R7 photoreceptor subtypes is determined by expression of the transcription factor Spineless (Ss). We investigated how cis-regulatory elements and trans factors regulate nascent transcriptional activity and chromatin compaction at the ss gene locus during R7 development. The ss locus is in a compact state in undifferentiated cells. An early enhancer drives transcription in all R7 precursors, and the locus opens. In differentiating cells, transcription ceases and the ss locus stochastically remains open or compacts. In SsON R7s, ss is open and competent for activation by a late enhancer, whereas in SsOFF R7s, ss is compact, and repression prevents expression. Our results suggest that a temporally dynamic antagonism, in which transcription drives large-scale decompaction and then compaction represses transcription, controls stochastic fate specification.

Longitudinal imaging of individual olfactory sensory neurons in situ

Olfactory sensory neurons are found deep within the nasal cavity at a spatially restricted sheet of sensory epithelium. Due to their location behind the nasal turbinates, accessing these cells for physiological measurements in living animals is challenging, and until recently, not possible. As a further complication, damage to the overlying bone on the dorsal surface of the snout disrupts the negative pressure distribution throughout the nasal cavities, which fundamentally alters how odorants are delivered to the sensory epithelium and the inherent mechanosensory properties of olfactory sensory neurons in live animals. The approach described here circumvents these limitations and allows for optical access to olfactory sensory neurons in mice across time scales ranging from days to months.

Physiological roles of hydrogen sulfide in mammalian cells, tissues and organs

H2S belongs to the class of molecules known as gasotransmitters, which also includes nitric oxide (NO) and carbon monoxide (CO). Three enzymes are recognized as endogenous sources of H2S in various cells and tissues: cystathionine g-lyase (CSE), cystathionine β-synthase (CBS) and 3-mercaptopyruvate sulfurtransferase (3-MST). The current article reviews the regulation of these enzymes as well as the pathways of their enzymatic and non-enzymatic degradation and elimination. The multiple interactions of H2S with other labile endogenous molecules (e.g. NO) and reactive oxygen species are also outlined. The various biological targets and signaling pathways are discussed, with special reference to H2S and oxidative posttranscriptional modification of proteins, the effect of H2S on channels and intracellular second messenger pathways, the regulation of gene transcription and translation and the regulation of cellular bioenergetics and metabolism. The pharmacological and molecular tools currently available to study H2S physiology are also reviewed, including their utility and limitations. In subsequent sections, the role of H2S in the regulation of various physiological and cellular functions is reviewed. The physiological role of H2S in various cell types and organ systems are overviewed. Finally, the role of H2S in the regulation of various organ functions is discussed as well as the characteristic bell-shaped biphasic effects of H2S. In addition, key pathophysiological aspects, debated areas, and future research and translational areas are identified A wide array of significant roles of H2S in the physiological regulation of all organ functions emerges from this review.

Maximal Dependence Capturing as a Principle of Sensory Processing

Sensory inputs conveying information about the environment are often noisy and incomplete, yet the brain can achieve remarkable consistency in recognizing objects. Presumably, transforming the varying input patterns into invariant object representations is pivotal for this cognitive robustness. In the classic hierarchical representation framework, early stages of sensory processing utilize independent components of environmental stimuli to ensure efficient information transmission. Representations in subsequent stages are based on increasingly complex receptive fields along a hierarchical network. This framework accurately captures the input structures; however, it is challenging to achieve invariance in representing different appearances of objects. Here we assess theoretical and experimental inconsistencies of the current framework. In its place, we propose that individual neurons encode objects by following the principle of maximal dependence capturing (MDC), which compels each neuron to capture the structural components that contain maximal information about specific objects. We implement the proposition in a computational framework incorporating dimension expansion and sparse coding, which achieves consistent representations of object identities under occlusion, corruption, or high noise conditions. The framework neither requires learning the corrupted forms nor comprises deep network layers. Moreover, it explains various receptive field properties of neurons. Thus, MDC provides a unifying principle for sensory processing.

A 3D transcriptomics atlas of the mouse nose sheds light on the anatomical logic of smell

The sense of smell helps us navigate the environment, but its molecular architecture and underlying logic remain understudied. The spatial location of odorant receptor genes (Olfrs) in the nose is thought to be independent of the structural diversity of the odorants they detect. Using spatial transcriptomics, we create a genome-wide 3D atlas of the mouse olfactory mucosa (OM). Topographic maps of genes differentially expressed in space reveal that both Olfrs and non-Olfrs are distributed in a continuous and overlapping fashion over at least five broad zones in the OM. The spatial locations of Olfrs correlate with the mucus solubility of the odorants they recognize, providing direct evidence for the chromatographic theory of olfaction. This resource resolves the molecular architecture of the mouse OM and will inform future studies on mechanisms underlying Olfr gene choice, axonal pathfinding, patterning of the nervous system, and basic logic for the peripheral representation of smell.

The sorption/chromatography hypothesis of olfactory discrimination: The rise, fall, and rebirth of a Phoenix

Herein, I discuss the enduring mystery of the receptor layout in the vertebrate olfactory system. Since the awarding of the 2004 Nobel Prize to Axel and Buck for their discovery of the gene family that encodes olfactory receptors, our field has enjoyed a golden era. Despite this Renaissance, an answer to one of the most fundamental questions for any sensory system-what is the anatomical logic of its receptor array?-eludes us, still, for olfaction! Indeed, the only widely debated hypothesis, finding its origins in the musing of another Nobel laureate Sir Edgar Adrian, has it that the vertebrate nose organizes its receptors according to the "sorptive" properties of their ligands. This idea, known as the "sorption" or "chromatography" hypothesis, enjoys considerable support despite being controversial. Here, I review the history of the hypothesis-its rises and falls-and discuss the latest data and future prospects for this perennial idea whose history I liken to the mythical Phoenix.

Loss of Neuropilin2a/b or Sema3fa alters olfactory sensory axon dynamics and protoglomerular targeting

BACKGROUND

Olfactory Sensory Neuron (OSN) axons project from the zebrafish olfactory epithelium to reproducible intermediate target locations in the olfactory bulb called protoglomeruli at early stages in development. Two classes of OSNs expressing either OMP or TRPC2 exclusively target distinct, complementary protoglomeruli. Using RNAseq, we identified axon guidance receptors nrp2a and nrp2b, and their ligand sema3fa, as potential guidance factors that are differentially expressed between these two classes of OSNs.

METHODS

To investigate their role in OSN axon guidance, we assessed the protoglomerular targeting fidelity of OSNs labeled by OMP:RFP and TRPC2:Venus transgenes in nrp2a, nrp2b, or sema3fa mutants. We used double mutant and genetic interaction experiments to interrogate the relationship between the three genes. We used live time-lapse imaging to compare the dynamic behaviors of OSN growth cones during protoglomerular targeting in heterozygous and mutant larvae.

RESULTS

The fidelity of protoglomerular targeting of TRPC2-class OSNs is degraded in nrp2a, nrp2b, or sema3fa mutants, as axons misproject into OMP-specific protoglomeruli and other ectopic locations in the bulb. These misprojections are further enhanced in nrp2a;nrp2b double mutants suggesting that nrp2s work at least partially in parallel in the same guidance process. Results from genetic interaction experiments are consistent with sema3fa acting in the same biological pathway as both nrp2a and nrp2b. Live time-lapse imaging was used to examine the dynamic behavior of TRPC2-class growth cones in nrp2a mutants compared to heterozygous siblings. Some TRPC2-class growth cones ectopically enter the dorsal-medial region of the bulb in both groups, but in fully mutant embryos, they are less likely to correct the error through retraction. The same result was observed when TRPC2-class growth cone behavior was compared between sema3fa heterozygous and sema3fa mutant larvae.

CONCLUSIONS

Our results suggest that nrp2a and nrp2b expressed in TRPC2-class OSNs help prevent their mixing with axon projections in OMP-specific protoglomeruli, and further, that sema3fa helps to exclude TRPC2-class axons by repulsion from the dorsal-medial bulb.

Transcriptional repression in stochastic gene expression, patterning, and cell fate specification

Development is often driven by signaling and lineage-specific cues, yielding highly uniform and reproducible outcomes. Development also involves mechanisms that generate noise in gene expression and random patterns across tissues. Cells sometimes randomly choose between two or more cell fates in a mechanism called stochastic cell fate specification. This process diversifies cell types in otherwise homogenous tissues. Stochastic mechanisms have been extensively studied in prokaryotes where noisy gene activation plays a pivotal role in controlling cell fates. In eukaryotes, transcriptional repression stochastically limits gene expression to generate random patterns and specify cell fates. Here, we review our current understanding of repressive mechanisms that produce random patterns of gene expression and cell fates in flies, plants, mice, and humans.

Encoding Taste: From Receptors to Perception

Taste information is encoded in the gustatory nervous system much as in other sensory systems, with notable exceptions. The concept of adequate stimulus is common to all sensory modalities, from somatosensory to auditory, visual, and so forth. That is, sensory cells normally respond only to one particular form of stimulation, the adequate stimulus, such as photons (photoreceptors in the visual system), odors (olfactory sensory neurons in the olfactory system), noxious heat (nociceptors in the somatosensory system), etc. Peripheral sensory receptors transduce the stimulus into membrane potential changes transmitted to the brain in the form of trains of action potentials. How information concerning different aspects of the stimulus such as quality, intensity, and duration are encoded in the trains of action potentials is hotly debated in the field of taste. At one extreme is the notion of labeled line/spatial coding - information for each different taste quality (sweet, salty, sour, etc.) is transmitted along a parallel but separate series of neurons (a "line") that project to focal clusters ("spaces") of neurons in the gustatory cortex. These clusters are distinct for each taste quality. Opposing this are concepts of population/combinatorial coding and temporal coding, where taste information is encrypted by groups of neurons (circuits) and patterns of impulses within these neuronal circuits. Key to population/combinatorial and temporal coding is that impulse activity in an individual neuron does not provide unambiguous information about the taste stimulus. Only populations of neurons and their impulse firing pattern yield that information.

Evolving the olfactory system with machine learning

The convergent evolution of the fly and mouse olfactory system led us to ask whether the anatomic connectivity and functional logic of olfactory circuits would evolve in artificial neural networks trained to perform olfactory tasks. Artificial networks trained to classify odor identity recapitulate the connectivity inherent in the olfactory system. Input units are driven by a single receptor type, and units driven by the same receptor converge to form a glomerulus. Glomeruli exhibit sparse, unstructured connectivity onto a larger expansion layer of Kenyon cells. When trained to both classify odor identity and to impart innate valence onto odors, the network develops independent pathways for identity and valence classification. Thus, the defining features of fly and mouse olfactory systems also evolved in artificial neural networks trained to perform olfactory tasks. This implies that convergent evolution reflects an underlying logic rather than shared developmental principles.

Differences in olfactory habituation between orthonasal and retronasal pathways

The odorant arrives at nasal olfactory epithelium ortho- and retronasally. This experiment aimed to study the potential different olfactory habituation in orthonasal and retronasal pathways. 68 subjects were stimulated by constant airflow with an odor (50% phenethyl alcohol, PEA or 5% n-butyl acetate, BA) presented ortho- or retronasally. Participants rated the perceived odor intensity (0-10 points) per minute until the odor sensation disappeared. We also investigated the cross-habituation: when the subjects achieved full habituation, continue to rate odor intensity in a different pathway after instantly switching the odor stimulation pathway. The olfactory habituation curve was drawn. The differences of ratings between the orthonasal and retronasal olfaction at different time points and between male and female subjects were analyzed. The two odor intensity ratings decreased as the time extended, share the same "fast followed by slow" type. The ratings of orthonasal olfaction decreased faster than that of retronasal. The intensity rating of PEA of male retronasal approach was lower than that of female at the 5th min (p = 0.018). When orthonasal full habituation achieved, there was significant difference between the intensity ratings and the initial ratings of the retronasal stimulation pathway (p < 0.0001), and vice versa. We found obvious habituation as well as cross-habituation in both orthonasal and retronasal olfaction. The habituation of orthonasal olfaction was faster than that of retronasal olfaction. These different habituations were related to the gender.

Neural network features distinguish chemosensory stimuli in Caenorhabditis elegans

Nervous systems extract and process information from the environment to alter animal behavior and physiology. Despite progress in understanding how different stimuli are represented by changes in neuronal activity, less is known about how they affect broader neural network properties. We developed a framework for using graph-theoretic features of neural network activity to predict ecologically relevant stimulus properties, in particular stimulus identity. We used the transparent nematode, Caenorhabditis elegans, with its small nervous system to define neural network features associated with various chemosensory stimuli. We first immobilized animals using a microfluidic device and exposed their noses to chemical stimuli while monitoring changes in neural activity of more than 50 neurons in the head region. We found that graph-theoretic features, which capture patterns of interactions between neurons, are modulated by stimulus identity. Further, we show that a simple machine learning classifier trained using graph-theoretic features alone, or in combination with neural activity features, can accurately predict salt stimulus. Moreover, by focusing on putative causal interactions between neurons, the graph-theoretic features were almost twice as predictive as the neural activity features. These results reveal that stimulus identity modulates the broad, network-level organization of the nervous system, and that graph theory can be used to characterize these changes.

Animals use their nervous systems to detect and respond to changes in their external environment. A central challenge in computational neuroscience is to determine how specific properties of these stimuli affect interactions between neurons. While most studies have focused on the neurons in the sensory periphery, recent advances allow us to probe how the rest of the nervous system responds to sensory stimulation. We recorded activity of neurons within the C. elegans head region while the animal was exposed to various chemosensory stimuli. We then used computational methods to identify various stimuli by analyzing neural activity. Specifically, we used a combination of population-level activity statistics (e.g., average, standard deviation, frequency-based measures) and graph-theoretic features of functional network structure (e.g., transitivity, which is the existence of strongly connected triplets of neurons) to accurately predict salt stimulus. Our method is general and can be used across species, particularly in instances where the identities of individual neurons are unknown. These results also suggest that neural activity downstream of the sensory periphery contains a signature of changes in the environment.​

Prolactin-sensitive olfactory sensory neurons regulate male preference in female mice by modulating responses to chemosensory cues

Chemosensory cues detected in the nose need to be integrated with the hormonal status to trigger appropriate behaviors, but the neural circuits linking the olfactory and the endocrine system are insufficiently understood. Here, we characterize olfactory sensory neurons in the murine nose that respond to the pituitary hormone prolactin. Deletion of prolactin receptor in these cells results in impaired detection of social odors and blunts male preference in females. The prolactin-responsive olfactory sensory neurons exhibit a distinctive projection pattern to the brain that is similar across different individuals and express a limited subset of chemosensory receptors. Prolactin modulates the responses within these neurons to discrete chemosensory cues contained in male urine, providing a mechanism by which the hormonal status can be directly linked with distinct olfactory cues to generate appropriate behavioral responses.

Olfactory Stimulation Regulates the Birth of Neurons That Express Specific Odorant Receptors

In mammals, olfactory sensory neurons (OSNs) are born throughout life, ostensibly solely to replace damaged OSNs. During differentiation, each OSN precursor “chooses,” out of hundreds of possibilities, a single odorant receptor (OR) gene, which defines the identity of the mature OSN. The relative neurogenesis rates of the hundreds of distinct OSN “subtypes” are thought to be constant, as they are determined by a stochastic process in which each OR is chosen with a fixed probability. Here, using histological, single-cell, and targeted affinity purification approaches, we show that closing one nostril in mice selectively reduces the number of newly generated OSNs of specific subtypes. Moreover, these reductions depend on an animal’s age and/or environment. Stimulation-dependent changes in the number of new OSNs are not attributable to altered rates of cell survival but rather production. Our findings indicate that the relative birth rates of distinct OSN subtypes depend on olfactory experience.

In mammals, the odorant receptor identities of newly generated olfactory sensory neurons are thought to be determined by each progenitor cell’s random choice of a single receptor. Here, van der Linden et al. show that, in mice, the birth rates of neurons expressing a subset of receptors depend on olfactory stimulation.

The role of the odorant receptors in the formation of the sensory map

In the olfactory system, odorant receptors (ORs) expressed at the cell membrane of olfactory sensory neurons detect odorants and direct sensory axons toward precise target locations in the brain, reflected in the presence of olfactory sensory maps. This dual role of ORs is corroborated by their subcellular expression both in cilia, where they bind odorants, and at axon terminals, a location suitable for axon guidance cues. Here, we provide an overview and discuss previous work on the role of ORs in establishing the topographic organization of the olfactory system and recent findings on the mechanisms of activation and function of axonal ORs.

Possible Use of Phytochemicals for Recovery from COVID-19-Induced Anosmia and Ageusia

The year 2020 became the year of the outbreak of coronavirus, SARS-CoV-2, which escalated into a worldwide pandemic and continued into 2021. One of the unique symptoms of the SARS-CoV-2 disease, COVID-19, is the loss of chemical senses, i.e., smell and taste. Smell training is one of the methods used in facilitating recovery of the olfactory sense, and it uses essential oils of lemon, rose, clove, and eucalyptus. These essential oils were not selected based on their chemical constituents. Although scientific studies have shown that they improve recovery, there may be better combinations for facilitating recovery. Many phytochemicals have bioactive properties with anti-inflammatory and anti-viral effects. In this review, we describe the chemical compounds with anti- inflammatory and anti-viral effects, and we list the plants that contain these chemical compounds. We expand the review from terpenes to the less volatile flavonoids in order to propose a combination of essential oils and diets that can be used to develop a new taste training method, as there has been no taste training so far. Finally, we discuss the possible use of these in clinical settings.

Principles of odor coding in vertebrates and artificial chemosensory systems

The biological olfactory system is the sensory system responsible for the detection of the chemical composition of the environment. Several attempts to mimic biological olfactory systems have led to various artificial olfactory systems using different technical approaches. Here we provide a parallel description of biological olfactory systems and their technical counterparts. We start with a presentation of the input to the systems, the stimuli, and treat the interface between the external world and the environment where receptor neurons or artificial chemosensors reside. We then delineate the functions of receptor neurons and chemosensors as well as their overall I-O relationships. Up to this point, our account of the systems goes along similar lines. The next processing steps differ considerably: while in biology the processing step following the receptor neurons is the "integration" and "processing" of receptor neuron outputs in the olfactory bulb, this step has various realizations in electronic noses. For a long period of time, the signal processing stages beyond the olfactory bulb, i.e., the higher olfactory centers were little studied. Only recently there has been a marked growth of studies tackling the information processing in these centers. In electronic noses, a third stage of processing has virtually never been considered. In this review, we provide an up-to-date overview of the current knowledge of both fields and, for the first time, attempt to tie them together. We hope it will be a breeding ground for better information, communication, and data exchange between very related but so far little connected fields.

Cannabinoids Regulate Sensory Processing in Early Olfactory and Visual Neural Circuits

Our sensory systems such as the olfactory and visual systems are the target of neuromodulatory regulation. This neuromodulation starts at the level of sensory receptors and extends into cortical processing. A relatively new group of neuromodulators includes cannabinoids. These form a group of chemical substances that are found in the cannabis plant. Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) and cannabidiol (CBD) are the main cannabinoids. THC acts in the brain and nervous system like the chemical substances that our body produces, the endogenous cannabinoids or endocannabinoids, also nicknamed the brain's own cannabis. While the function of the endocannabinoid system is understood fairly well in limbic structures such as the hippocampus and the amygdala, this signaling system is less well understood in the olfactory pathway and the visual system. Here, we describe and compare endocannabinoids as signaling molecules in the early processing centers of the olfactory and visual system, the olfactory bulb, and the retina, and the relevance of the endocannabinoid system for synaptic plasticity.

Olfactory expression of trace amine-associated receptors requires cooperative cis-acting enhancers

Olfactory sensory neurons express a large family of odorant receptors (ORs) and a small family of trace amine-associated receptors (TAARs). While both families are subject to so-called singular expression (expression of one allele of one gene), the mechanisms underlying TAAR gene choice remain obscure. Here, we report the identification of two conserved sequence elements in the mouse TAAR cluster (T-elements) that are required for TAAR gene expression. We observed that cell-type-specific expression of a TAAR-derived transgene required either T-element. Moreover, deleting either element reduced or abolished expression of a subset of TAAR genes, while deleting both elements abolished olfactory expression of all TAARs in cis with the mutation. The T-elements exhibit several features of known OR enhancers but also contain highly conserved, unique sequence motifs. Our data demonstrate that TAAR gene expression requires two cooperative cis-acting enhancers and suggest that ORs and TAARs share similar mechanisms of singular expression.

Appeasing Pheromones for the Management of Stress and Aggression during Conservation of Wild Canids: Could the Solution Be Right under Our Nose?

Simple Summary

Many canid species are declining globally. It is important to conserve these species that often serve as important predators within ecosystems. Continued human expansion and the resulting habitat fragmentation necessitate conservation interventions, such as translocation, artificial pack formation, and captive breeding programs. However, chronic stress often occurs during these actions, and can result in aggression, and the physiological suppression of immunity and reproduction. Limited options are currently available for stress and aggression management in wild canids. Pheromones provide a promising natural alternative for stress management; an appeasing pheromone has been identified for multiple domestic species and may reduce stress and aggression behaviours. Many pheromones are species-specific, and the appeasing pheromone has been found to have slight compositional changes across species. In this review, the benefits of a dog appeasing pheromone and the need to investigate species-specific derivatives to produce more pronounced and beneficial behavioural and physiological modulation in target species as a conservation tool are examined.

Abstract

Thirty-six species of canid exist globally, two are classified as critically endangered, three as endangered, and five as near threatened. Human expansion and the coinciding habitat fragmentation necessitate conservation interventions to mitigate concurrent population deterioration. The current conservation management of wild canids includes animal translocation and artificial pack formation. These actions often cause chronic stress, leading to increased aggression and the suppression of the immune and reproductive systems. Castration and pharmaceutical treatments are currently used to reduce stress and aggression in domestic and captive canids. The undesirable side effects make such treatments inadvisable during conservation management of wild canids. Pheromones are naturally occurring chemical messages that modulate behaviour between conspecifics; as such, they offer a natural alternative for behaviour modification. Animals are able to distinguish between pheromones of closely related species through small compositional differences but are more likely to have greater responses to pheromones from individuals of the same species. Appeasing pheromones have been found to reduce stress- and aggression-related behaviours in domestic species, including dogs. Preliminary evidence suggests that dog appeasing pheromones (DAP) may be effective in wild canids. However, the identification and testing of species-specific derivatives could produce more pronounced and beneficial behavioural and physiological changes in target species. In turn, this could provide a valuable tool to improve the conservation management of many endangered wild canids.

An Evolutionary Microcircuit Approach to the Neural Basis of High Dimensional Sensory Processing in Olfaction

Odor stimuli consist of thousands of possible molecules, each molecule with many different properties, each property a dimension of the stimulus. Processing these high dimensional stimuli would appear to require many stages in the brain to reach odor perception, yet, in mammals, after the sensory receptors this is accomplished through only two regions, the olfactory bulb and olfactory cortex. We take a first step toward a fundamental understanding by identifying the sequence of local operations carried out by microcircuits in the pathway. Parallel research provided strong evidence that processed odor information is spatial representations of odor molecules that constitute odor images in the olfactory bulb and odor objects in olfactory cortex. Paleontology provides a unique advantage with evolutionary insights providing evidence that the basic architecture of the olfactory pathway almost from the start ∼330 million years ago (mya) has included an overwhelming input from olfactory sensory neurons combined with a large olfactory bulb and olfactory cortex to process that input, driven by olfactory receptor gene duplications. We identify a sequence of over 20 microcircuits that are involved, and expand on results of research on several microcircuits that give the best insights thus far into the nature of the high dimensional processing.

The Zonal Organization of Odorant Receptor Gene Choice in the Main Olfactory Epithelium of the Mouse

A mature olfactory sensory neuron (OSN) of the main olfactory epithelium (MOE) typically expresses one allele of one odorant receptor (OR) gene. It is widely thought that the great majority of the 1,141 intact mouse OR genes are expressed in one of four MOE zones (or bands or stripes), which are largely non-overlapping. Here, we develop a multiplex method to map, in 3D and MOE-wide, the expression areas of multiple OR genes in individual, non-genetically modified mice by three-color fluorescence in situ hybridization, semi-automated image segmentation, and 3D reconstruction. We classify the expression areas of 68 OR genes into 9 zones. These zones are highly overlapping and strikingly complex when viewed in 3D reconstructions. There could well be more zones. We propose that zones reflect distinct OSN types that are each restricted in their choice to a subset of the OR gene repertoire.

Programmable Engineering of DNA-AuNP Encoders Integrated Multimodal Coupled Analysis for Precision Discrimination of Multiple Metal Ions

A cross-responsive strategy (CRS) based on gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) through attaching various recognition receptors on the surface of AuNPs for identifying multiple analytes is presented, and the detection throughput and overall identification accuracy are improved. However, the CRS's recognition receptor cannot get comprehensive information from the target analytes limited in number and type, which determines the overall identification accuracy. Therefore, the practicability of the CRS runs into a bottleneck. Herein, we report a programmable DNA-AuNP encoder combined with a multimodal coupled analysis algorithm for high-throughput detection and accurate analysis of multiple metal ions. The programmable DNA-AuNP encoder breaks through the limitation of the recognition receptor's quantity. Furthermore, the multimodal signals from target metal ion-induced DNA-AuNP aggregation are related to and observed in the ultraviolet absorbance spectrum, surface potential, and particle diameter. The multimodal coupled analysis algorithm can reflect comprehensive information on the target analyte more completely. Finally, this study provides a highly generic tool for the cross-responsive strategy.

Spontaneous Afferent Activity Carves Olfactory Circuits

Electrical activity has a key role in shaping neuronal circuits during development. In most sensory modalities, early in development, internally generated spontaneous activity sculpts the initial layout of neuronal wiring. With the maturation of the sense organs, the system relies more on sensory-evoked electrical activity. Stimuli-driven neuronal discharge is required for the transformation of immature circuits in the specific patterns of neuronal connectivity that subserve normal brain function. The olfactory system (OS) differs from this organizational plan. Despite the important role of odorant receptors (ORs) in shaping olfactory topography, odor-evoked activity does not have a prominent role in refining neuronal wiring. On the contrary, afferent spontaneous discharge is required to achieve and maintain the specific diagram of connectivity that defines the topography of the olfactory bulb (OB). Here, we provide an overview of the development of olfactory topography, with a focus on the role of afferent spontaneous discharge in the formation and maintenance of the specific synaptic contacts that result in the topographic organization of the OB.

Intranasal drug delivery: opportunities and toxicologic challenges during drug development

Over the past 10 years, the interest in intranasal drug delivery in pharmaceutical R&D has increased. This review article summarises information on intranasal administration for local and systemic delivery, as well as for CNS indications. Nasal delivery offers many advantages over standard systemic delivery systems, such as its non-invasive character, a fast onset of action and in many cases reduced side effects due to a more targeted delivery. There are still formulation limitations and toxicological aspects to be optimised. Intranasal drug delivery in the field of drug development is an interesting delivery route for the treatment of neurological disorders. Systemic approaches often fail to efficiently supply the CNS with drugs. This review paper describes the anatomical, histological and physiological basis and summarises currently approved drugs for administration via intranasal delivery. Further, the review focuses on toxicological considerations of intranasally applied compounds and discusses formulation aspects that need to be considered for drug development.

The cyclic AMP signaling pathway in the rodent main olfactory system

Odor perception begins with the detection of odorant molecules by the main olfactory epithelium located in the nasal cavity. Odorant molecules bind to and activate a large family of G-protein-coupled odorant receptors and trigger a cAMP-mediated transduction cascade that converts the chemical stimulus into an electrical signal transmitted to the brain. Morever, odorant receptors and cAMP signaling plays a relevant role in olfactory sensory neuron development and axonal targeting to the olfactory bulb. This review will first explore the physiological response of olfactory sensory neurons to odorants and then analyze the different components of cAMP signaling and their different roles in odorant detection and olfactory sensory neuron development.