Light-triggered photodynamic nanomedicines for overcoming localized therapeutic efficacy in cancer treatment

In-vitro immune-modulation of triple-negative breast cancer through targeting miR-30a-5p/MALAT1 axis using nano-PDT combinational approach

BACKGROUND

Triple negative breast cancer (TNBC) is an immunogenic tumor; however, its tumor immune microenvironment (TIME) is densely packed with immune suppressive cytokines and immune checkpoints. The immune-suppressive features of TNBC TIME represent a considerable obstacle to any immunotherapeutic approach. The objective of this study was to develop a multimodal in-vitro strategy to manipulate the TNBC TIME and enhance patients' outcomes by employing carefully tailored hybrid chitosan-lipid Nanoparticles (CLNPs), metformin and chlorin e6 (Ce-6)-mediated PDT, alone or combined. Special focus is directed towards evaluation of the role of the selected treatment agents on the non-coding RNAs (ncRNAs) involved in tuning the immuno-oncogenic profile of TNBC, for instance, the miR-30a-5p/MALAT1 network.

METHODS

This study enrolled 30 BC patients. CLNPs and ce-6-loaded CLNPs with different physicochemical features were synthesized and optimized using ionotropic gelation. The intracellular concentration and effects on MDA-MB-231 cellular viability were investigated. UHPLC was used to quantify ce-6. MDA-MB-231 cells were transfected with miR-30a-5p oligonucleotides and MALAT1 siRNAs using lipofection to investigate the interaction between MIF, PD-L1, TNF-α, IL-10, and the miR-30a-5p/MALAT1 ceRNA network. qRT-PCR was used to evaluate IL-10, TNF-α, and MIF expression levels, whereas flow cytometry was used for PD-L1.

RESULTS

Immunophenotyping of BC biopsies revealed significantly elevated levels of immunosuppressive markers, including IL-10, TNF-α, PD-L1, and MIF in BC biopsies compared to its normal counterparts. Upon patient stratification, it was shown that MIF and IL-10 are upregulated in TNBC patients compared to non-TNBC patients. Nonetheless, immune suppressive biomarkers expression investigated in the current study was generally correlated with signs of poor prognosis. CLNPs with mean particle size ranging from 50-150 nm were obtained. CLNPs exhibited different patterns of intracellular uptake, cytotoxicity and modulation of the immunosuppressive markers based on their physicochemical properties and composition. In particular, CLNP4 in-vitro effectively reduced IL-10, TNF-α, MIF, and PD-L1. Loading of Ce-6 into CLNP4 (Ce6-CLNPs) improved the in-vitro cytotoxic effects via PDT. In addition, PDT with Ce6-CLNP4 enhanced the expression of tumor-suppressive miR-30a-5p and decreased oncogenic lncRNA MALAT1 expression in MDA-MB-231 cells, suggesting a potential for modulating the TNBC immuno-oncogenic profile.

CONCLUSION

This study demonstrated that CLNPs and Ce-6-mediated PDT can modulate several key immunosuppressive factors and the miR-30a-5p/MALAT1 axis in TNBC cells. These findings provide a rationale for further in-vivo investigation of this multimodal therapeutic strategy.

An aggregation-induced emission-active lysosome hijacker: Sabotaging lysosomes to boost photodynamic therapy efficacy and conquer tumor therapeutic resistance

Therapeutic resistance is a major challenge in clinical cancer theranostics, often leading to treatment failure and increased patient mortality. Breaking this therapeutic deadlock, enhancing the efficacy of clinical treatments, and ultimately improving patient survival rates are both highly desirable and significantly challenging goals. Herein, we have developed a new fluorescent luminogen, QM-DMAC, which features aggregation-induced emission (AIE), and exceptional viscosity-responsive properties. The AIE-active QM-DMAC can specifically stain lysosomes in tumor cells, offering a high signal-to-noise ratio and enabling specific visualization of variations in lysosomal viscosity, such as those induced by inflammation or autophagy. Furthermore, QM-DMAC effectively generates reactive oxygen species (ROS) under white light irradiation, which precisely induces ROS-mediated lysosomal membrane permeabilization (LMP) and lysosome rupture. This ultimately causes severe cell damage and restores the sensitivity of tumor cells to radiotherapy and chemotherapy. Thus, QM-DMAC serves as a highly efficient lysosome-targeting photosensitizer and an excellent therapeutic sensitizer. This innovative "lysosome hijacking" strategy significantly maximizes the efficacy of photodynamic therapy, conquering therapeutic resistance and boosting the synergistic therapeutic effect when integrated with conventional radiotherapy or chemotherapy. It provides a novel approach to the design of theranostic agents for clinical cancer theranostics.

Regio-isomerization Optimization Strategy for Photosensitizers: Achieving Ultrahigh Type I Reactive Oxygen Species Generation to Enhance Cancer Photoimmunotherapy

Phototherapy, renowned for its noninvasiveness, is widely employed in tumor treatment. However, the tumor microenvironment is usually hypoxic, with insufficient reactive oxygen species (ROS) production, severely limiting its application. Herein, we introduce a regio-isomerization optimization strategy and have synthesized four regio-isomeric photosensitizers featuring a donor-acceptor (D-A) configuration by tactically varying the linkage sites between D and A. Among them, TAF-3 with excellent photostability has an ultrahigh type I ROS production efficiency (4.79 times that of methylene blue) and a photothermal conversion efficiency of 41.7%. TAF-3 improves the conjugation degree; produces an appropriate intramolecular charge transfer effect, which enhances its optical properties and phototherapeutic efficiency; and promotes a stronger immune cell death effect, reducing postoperative melanoma recurrence by 60%. Overall, the optical attributes of D-A type photosensitizers can be tailored through the precision modulation of regio-isomerization, offering a promising avenue for the advancement of clinical photosensitizers suitable for phototherapy.

Dual‐Responsive PPy‐AIPH@LA Nanoplatform for Synergistic Photothermal and Thermodynamic Therapy of Colorectal Cancer

In this study, we introduce a novel nanoplatform, polypyrrole (PPy)‐2,2′‐Azobis[2‐(2‐imidazolin‐2‐yl)propane] dihydrochloride (AIPH)@lauric acid (LA) (PPy‐AIPH@LA) nanoparticles (NPs), designed to overcome these limitations through synergistic photothermal therapy (PTT) and photodynamic therapy (PDT). This dual‐responsive system incorporates PPy for efficient photothermal conversion, AIPH for thermos‐responsive and oxygen‐independent free radical generation, and LA as a thermally responsive encapsulation layer. The LA coating melts upon 808 nm near‐infrared laser irradiation, releasing AIPH and free radicals to enable precise spatiotemporal activation of therapeutic effects. PPy‐AIPH@LA demonstrates exceptional photothermal conversion efficiency (55.74%) and generates sufficient radicals to enhance PDT efficacy, even in hypoxic tumor microenvironments. In vitro studies revealed concentration‐dependent tumor cell ablation and inhibition of migration, while in vivo experiments showed that the combined PTT‐PDT treatment achieved an impressive 90.7% tumor growth inhibition rate in a mouse colon cancer cells CT‐26 murine model, with no significant systemic toxicity. Molecular analyses further revealed modulations in pathways associated with tumor metabolism, apoptosis, and immune escape, highlighting the comprehensive therapeutic potential of this nanoplatform. These findings underscore the potential of PPy‐AIPH@LA as a safe, effective, and minimally invasive nanotherapeutic platform for combating CRC and other solid tumors.

Self-Sustained Biophotocatalytic Nano-Organelle Reactors with Programmable DNA Switches for Combating Tumor Metastasis

Metastasis, the leading cause of mortality in cancer patients, presents challenges for conventional photodynamic therapy (PDT) due to its reliance on localized light and oxygen application to tumors. To overcome these limitations, a self-sustained organelle-mimicking nanoreactor is developed here with programmable DNA switches that enables bio-chem-photocatalytic cascade-driven starvation-photodynamic synergistic therapy against tumor metastasis. Emulating the compartmentalization and positional assembly strategies found in living cells, this nano-organelle reactor allows quantitative co-compartmentalization of multiple functional modules for the designed self-illuminating chemiexcited PDT system. Within the space-confined nanoreactor, biofuel glucose is converted to hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) which enhances luminol-based chemiluminescence (CL), consequently driving the generation of photochemical singlet oxygen (1O2) via chemiluminescence resonance energy transfer. Meanwhile, hemoglobin functions as a synchronized oxygen supplier for both glucose oxidation and PDT, while also exhibiting peroxidase-like activity to produce hydroxyl radicals (·OH). Crucially, the nanoreactor keeps switching off in normal tissues, with on-demand activation in tumors through toehold-mediated strand displacement. These findings demonstrate that this nanoreactor, which is self-sufficient in light and oxygen and precise in striking tumors, presents a promising paradigm for managing highly metastatic cancers.

Cell-Penetrating Peptide Like Anti-Programmed Cell Death-Ligand 1 Peptide Conjugate-Based Self-Assembled Nanoparticles for Immunogenic Photodynamic Therapy

The tumor-specific efficacy of the most current anticancer therapeutic agents, including antibody-drug conjugates (ADCs), oligonucleotides, and photosensitizers, is constrained by limitations such as poor cell penetration and low drug delivery. In this study, we addressed these challenges by developing, a positively charged, amphiphilic Chlorin e6 (Ce6)-conjugated, cell-penetrating anti-PD-L1 peptide nanomedicine (CPPD1) with enhanced cell and tissue permeability. The CPPD1 molecule, a bioconjugate of a hydrophobic photosensitizer and strongly positively charged programmed cell death-ligand 1 (PD-L1) binding cell-penetrating peptide (CPP), is capable of self-assembling into nanoparticles with an average size of 199 nm in aqueous solution without the need for any carriers. These carrier-free nanoparticles possess the ability to penetrate the cell membrane of cancer cells and target tumors expressing PD-L1 on their surface. Notably, CPPD1 nanoparticles effectively blocked programmed cell death-1 (PD-1)/PD-L1 interactions and reduced PD-L1 expression via lysosomal degradation. They also demonstrated the responsiveness of CPPD1 nanoparticles in photodynamic therapy (PDT) to a 635 nm laser, leading to the generation of ROS, and induction of various immunogenic cell deaths (ICD). Highly penetrating CPPD1 nanoparticles could immunogenically modulate the microenvironment of CT26 cancer and were also effective in treating abscopal metastatic tumors, addressing major limitations of traditional PDT.

Light-Driven Green-Fabricated Artificial Intelligence-Enabled Micro/Nanorobots for Multimodal Phototherapeutic Management of Bladder Cancer

Combination therapy based on precise phototherapies combined with immune modulation provides successful antitumor effects. In this study, a combination therapy is designed based on phototactic, photosynthetic, and phototherapeutic Chlamydomonas Reinhardtii (CHL)-glycol chitosan (GCS)-polypyrrole (PPy) nanoparticle (NP)-enhanced immunity combined with the tumor microenvironment turnover of cytotoxic T cells and M1/M2 macrophages, which is based on photothermal GCS-PPy NPs decorated onto the phototactic and photosynthetic CHL. Phototherapy based on CHL-GCS-PPy NPs alleviates hypoxia and modulates the tumor immune microenvironment, which induces tumor cell death. In particular, the precise antitumor immune response and potent immune memory induced by combining self-navigated phototherapies significantly alleviate the progression of bladder cancer in C57BL/6 mice and effectively inhibit bladder tumor growth. Furthermore, they also potentially prevent tumor recurrence, which provides a promising therapeutic strategy for clinical tumor therapy.

Recent advances in reactive oxygen species (ROS)-responsive drug delivery systems for photodynamic therapy of cancer

Reactive oxygen species (ROS)-responsive drug delivery systems (DDSs) have garnered significant attention in cancer research because of their potential for precise spatiotemporal drug release tailored to high ROS levels within tumors. Despite the challenges posed by ROS distribution heterogeneity and endogenous supply constraints, this review highlights the strategic alliance of ROS-responsive DDSs with photodynamic therapy (PDT), enabling selective drug delivery and leveraging PDT-induced ROS for enhanced therapeutic efficacy. This review delves into the biological importance of ROS in cancer progression and treatment. We elucidate in detail the operational mechanisms of ROS-responsive linkers, including thioether, thioketal, selenide, diselencide, telluride and aryl boronic acids/esters, as well as the latest developments in ROS-responsive nanomedicines that integrate with PDT strategies. These insights are intended to inspire the design of innovative ROS-responsive nanocarriers for enhanced cancer PDT.

Polymorphic Supramolecular Therapeutic Platforms with Precise Dye/Drug Ratio to Perform Synergistic Chemo-Photo Anti-Tumor Therapy and Long-Term Immune Protection

Malignant tumor has become one of the hellish killers threatening the health of people around the world, its diagnosis and treatment has become the concerns of public. However, the optimal therapeutic dose, undesired side-effect, and long-term immune activation were key and bottleneck problems in tumor treatment. Herein, different batches of supramolecular therapeutic platforms, including vesicles, spherical nanoparticles, and cylindrical nanorods, with precise ratios of dye to drug (1:2) and multiple stimulus responsiveness were constructed by host-guest complexation between cyanine-camptothecin conjugates (IR780-CPT2) and β-cyclodextrin (β-CD) pendent hydrophilic copolymers. The reduction responsiveness, near-infrared photothermal conversion and singlet oxygen (1O2) generation performances endowed these platforms excellent cancer cells killing effect in both of in vitro cellular experiments and in vivo mice models. More importantly, without affecting the weight of mice, the maturation of dendritic cells, proliferation of T cells, up-regulation of high mobility group protein B1, and reduction of immunosuppressive regulatory T cells were detected after employing a synergistic chemo-photo therapy, demonstrating the body's immune effect was successfully activated. Thus, during the treatment of primary tumor, the distal tumor was also inhibited. We believe this work could provide a distinctive way to fabricate supramolecular theranostic platforms with different morphologies and improve antitumor and antimetastasis capabilities.

Targeting the tumor microenvironment with biomaterials for enhanced immunotherapeutic efficacy

The tumor microenvironment (TME) is a complex system characterized by low oxygen, low pH, high pressure, and numerous growth factors and protein hydrolases that regulate a wide range of biological behaviors in the tumor and have a profound impact on cancer progression. Immunotherapy is an innovative approach to cancer treatment that activates the immune system, resulting in the spontaneous killing of tumor cells. However, the therapeutic efficacy of these clinically approved cancer immunotherapies (e.g., immune checkpoint blocker (ICB) therapies and chimeric antigen receptor (CAR) T-cell therapies) is far from satisfactory due to the presence of immunosuppressive TMEs created in part by tumor hypoxia, acidity, high levels of reactive oxygen species (ROS), and a dense extracellular matrix (ECM). With continuous advances in materials science and drug-delivery technologies, biomaterials hold considerable potential for targeting the TME. This article reviews the advances in biomaterial-based targeting of the TME to advance our current understanding on the role of biomaterials in enhancing tumor immunity. In addition, the strategies for remodeling the TME offer enticing advantages; however, the represent a double-edged sword. In the process of reshaping the TME, the risk of tumor growth, infiltration, and distant metastasis may increase.

Nanomaterial-based regulation of redox metabolism for enhancing cancer therapy

Altered redox metabolism is one of the hallmarks of tumor cells, which not only contributes to tumor proliferation, metastasis, and immune evasion, but also has great relevance to therapeutic resistance. Therefore, regulation of redox metabolism of tumor cells has been proposed as an attractive therapeutic strategy to inhibit tumor growth and reverse therapeutic resistance. In this respect, nanomedicines have exhibited significant therapeutic advantages as intensively reported in recent studies. In this review, we would like to summarize the latest advances in nanomaterial-assisted strategies for redox metabolic regulation therapy, with a focus on the regulation of redox metabolism-related metabolite levels, enzyme activity, and signaling pathways. In the end, future expectations and challenges of such emerging strategies have been discussed, hoping to enlighten and promote their further development for meeting the various demands of advanced cancer therapies. It is highly expected that these therapeutic strategies based on redox metabolism regulation will play a more important role in the field of nanomedicine.

Photodynamic therapy with NIR-II probes: review on state-of-the-art tools and strategies

In 2022 10% of the world's population was aged 65+, and by 2100 this segment is expected to hit 25%. These demographic changes place considerable pressure over healthcare systems worldwide, which results in an urgent need for accurate, inexpensive and non-invasive ways to treat cancers, a family of diseases correlated with age. Among the therapeutic tools that gained important attention in this context, photodynamic therapies (PDT), which use photosensitizers to produce cytotoxic substances for selectively destroying tumor cells and tissues under light irradiation, profile as important players for next-generation nanomedicine. However, the development of clinical applications is progressing at slow pace, due to still pending bottlenecks, such as the limited tissue penetration of the excitation light, and insufficient targeting performance of the therapeutic probes to fully avoid damage to normal cells and tissues. The penetration depth of long-wavelength near infrared (NIR) light is significantly higher than that of short-wavelength UV and visible light, and thus NIR light in the second window (NIR-II) is acknowledged as the preferred phototherapeutic means for eliminating deep-seated tumors, given the higher maximum permissible exposure, reduced phototoxicity and low autofluorescence, among others. Upon collective multidisciplinary efforts of experts in materials science, medicine and biology, multifunctional NIR-II inorganic or organic photosensitizers have been widely developed. This review overviews the current state-of-the art on NIR-II-activated photosensitizers and their applications for the treatment of deep tumors. We also place focus on recent efforts that combine NIR-II activated PDT with other complementary therapeutic routes such as photothermal therapy, chemotherapy, immunotherapy, starvation, and gas therapies. Finally, we discuss still pending challenges and problems of PDT and provide a series of perspectives that we find useful for further extending the state-of-the art on NIR-II-triggered PDT.

Recent advances in nanoagents delivery system-based phototherapy for osteosarcoma treatment

Osteosarcoma (OS) is a prevalent and highly malignant bone tumor, characterized by its aggressive nature, invasiveness, and rapid progression, contributing to a high mortality rate, particularly among adolescents. Traditional treatment modalities, including surgical resection, radiotherapy, and chemotherapy, face significant challenges, especially in addressing chemotherapy resistance and managing postoperative recurrence and metastasis. Phototherapy (PT), encompassing photodynamic therapy (PDT) and photothermal therapy (PTT), offers unique advantages such as low toxicity, minimal drug resistance, selective destruction, and temporal control, making it a promising approach for the clinical treatment of various malignant tumors. Constructing multifunctional delivery systems presents an opportunity to effectively combine tumor PDT, PTT, and chemotherapy, creating a synergistic anti-tumor effect. This review aims to consolidate the progress in the application of novel delivery system-mediated phototherapy in osteosarcoma. By summarizing advancements in this field, the objective is to propose a rational combination therapy involving targeted delivery systems and phototherapy for tumors, thereby expanding treatment options and enhancing the prognosis for osteosarcoma patients. In conclusion, the integration of innovative delivery systems with phototherapy represents a promising avenue in osteosarcoma treatment, offering a comprehensive approach to overcome challenges associated with conventional treatments and improve patient outcomes.

Copper-Consuming Nanoplatform for Alleviating Hypoxia and Overcoming Resistance to Sonodynamic Therapy of Breast Cancer

Sonodynamic therapy (SDT) is a promising treatment modality for breast cancer; however, its effectiveness is often impeded by the hypoxic tumor microenvironment owing to an insufficient oxygen supply in the solid tumors. To overcome this challenge, we elaborately developed a 4T1 tumor-targeted multifunctional nanoagent by integrating both dendrimer-structured copper chelating agents and organic sonosensitizers (IR820) into a biotin-modified nanoliposome via a microfluidic-assisted self-assembly. In particular, the aforementioned copper chelating agent was constructed by introducing multiple xanthate groups into a dendrimer polymer, which showed a significant selectivity for the consumption of the intracellular copper levels. Based on this, the nanoliposome-based therapeutic not only disrupted the activity of the mitochondrial complex IV to directly inhibit the tumor cell proliferation but also suppressed the resistance to the SDT via inhibition of the oxygen consumption for cellular respiration. Both in vitro and in vivo studies confirmed that the designed nanoagents exhibit a synergistic tumor inhibition effect of copper consumption and IR820-mediated SDT. Taken together, this approach establishes a proof-of-concept for the construction of a copper-ion-modulated nanomedicine to significantly enhance the efficiency of oxygen-dependent cancer treatments.

Hydroxyethyl starch conjugates co-assembled nanoparticles promote photodynamic therapy and antitumor immunity by inhibiting antioxidant systems

Photodynamic therapy (PDT) can produce high levels of reactive oxygen species (ROS) to kill tumor cells and induce antitumor immunity. However, intracellular antioxidant systems, including glutathione (GSH) system and thioredoxin (Trx) system, limit the accumulation of ROS, resulting in compromised PDT and insufficient immune stimulation. Herein, we designed a nanomedicine PtHPs co-loading photosensitizer pyropheophorbide a (PPa) and cisplatin prodrug Pt-COOH(IV) (Pt (IV)) based on hydroxyethyl starch (HES) to inhibit both GSH and Trx antioxidant systems and achieve potent PDT as well as antitumor immune responses. Specifically, HES-PPa and HES-Pt were obtained by coupling HES with PPa and Pt (IV), and assembled into nanoparticle PtHPs by emulsification method to achieve the purpose of co-delivery of PPa and Pt (IV). PtHPs improved PPa photostability while retaining PPa photodynamic properties. In vitro experiments showed that PtHPs reduced GSH, inhibited Trx system and had better cell-killing effect and ROS generation ability. Subcutaneous tumor models showed that PtHPs had good safety and tumor inhibition effect. Bilateral tumor models suggested that PtHPs promoted the release of damage-associated molecular patterns and the maturation of dendritic cells, induced T cell-mediated immune responses, and thus suppressed the growth of both primary and distal tumors. This study reports a novel platinum-based nanomedicine and provides a new strategy for boosting PDT therapy-mediated antitumor immunity by overcoming intrinsic antioxidant systems.

Microbe-material hybrids for therapeutic applications

As natural living substances, microorganisms have emerged as useful resources in medicine for creating microbe-material hybrids ranging from nano to macro dimensions. The engineering of microbe-involved nanomedicine capitalizes on the distinctive physiological attributes of microbes, particularly their intrinsic "living" properties such as hypoxia tendency and oxygen production capabilities. Exploiting these remarkable characteristics in combination with other functional materials or molecules enables synergistic enhancements that hold tremendous promise for improved drug delivery, site-specific therapy, and enhanced monitoring of treatment outcomes, presenting substantial opportunities for amplifying the efficacy of disease treatments. This comprehensive review outlines the microorganisms and microbial derivatives used in biomedicine and their specific advantages for therapeutic application. In addition, we delineate the fundamental strategies and mechanisms employed for constructing microbe-material hybrids. The diverse biomedical applications of the constructed microbe-material hybrids, encompassing bioimaging, anti-tumor, anti-bacteria, anti-inflammation and other diseases therapy are exhaustively illustrated. We also discuss the current challenges and prospects associated with the clinical translation of microbe-material hybrid platforms. Therefore, the unique versatility and potential exhibited by microbe-material hybrids position them as promising candidates for the development of next-generation nanomedicine and biomaterials with unique theranostic properties and functionalities.

Russell Mechanism-Mediated Cancer Therapy: A Minireview

The Russell mechanism, proposed by Russell, is a cyclic mechanism for the formation of linear tetroxide intermediates, which can spontaneously produce cytotoxic singlet oxygen (1O2) independent of oxygen, suggesting its anticancer potential. Compared with other mainstream anticancer strategies, the Russell mechanism employed for killing cancer cells does not require external energy input, harsh pH condition, and sufficient oxygen. However, up till now, the applications of Russell mechanism in antitumor therapy have been relatively rare, and there is almost no summary of the Russell mechanism in the cancer therapy field. This minireview introduces the different metal elements-based Russell mechanisms and the relevant research progress in Russell mechanism-based cancer therapy in recent years. At the same time, we briefly discussed the current challenges and future development regarding the applications of Russell mechanism. It is hoped that this review can further expand the research of Russell Mechanism in the biomedical field, and inspire researchers to extend its application fields to antibacterial, antiinflammatory, and wound healing uses.

Oxygen Vacancy Piezoelectric Nanosheets Constructed by a Photoetching Strategy for Ultrasound "Unlocked" Tumor Synergistic Therapy

Piezoelectric dynamic therapy (PzDT) is an effective method of tumor treatment by using piezoelectric polarization to generate reactive oxygen species. In this paper, two-dimensional Cu-doped BiOCl nanosheets with surface vacancies are produced by the photoetching strategy. Under ultrasound, a built-in electric field is generated to promote the electron and hole separation. The separated carriers achieve O2 reduction and GSH oxidation, inducing oxidative stress. The bandgap of BiOCl is narrowed by introducing surface oxygen vacancies, which act as charge traps and facilitate the electron and hole separation. Meanwhile, Cu doping induces chemodynamic therapy and depletes GSH via the transformation from Cu(II) to Cu(I). Both in vivo and in vitro results confirmed that oxidative stress can be enhanced by exogenous ultrasound stimulation, which can cause severe damage to tumor cells. This work emphasizes the efficient strategy of doping engineering and defect engineering for US-activated PzDT under exogenous stimulation.

Expanded ROS Generation and Hypoxia Reversal: Excipient-free Self-assembled Nanotheranostics for Enhanced Cancer Photodynamic Immunotherapy

The efficacy of photodynamic therapy (PDT)-related cancer therapies is significantly restricted by two irreconcilable obstacles, i.e., low reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation capability and hypoxia which constrains the immune response. Herein, this work develops a self-assembled clinical photosensitizer indocyanine green (ICG) and the HSP90 inhibitor 17-dimethylaminoethylamino-17-demethoxygeldanamycin (17-DMAG) nanoparticles (ISDN) without any excipient. This work discovers that the hydrophobic interaction forces between ICG and 17-DMAG promote the photostability of ICG and its intersystem crossing (ISC) process, thereby improving the ROS quantum yield from 0.112 to 0.46. Augmented ROS generation enhances PDT efficacy and further enhances immunogenic cell death (ICD) effects. 17-DMAG inhibits the HSP90/hypoxia-inducible factor 1α (HIF-1α) axis to dramatically reverse the immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment caused by PDT-aggravated hypoxia. In a mouse model of pancreatic cancer, ISDN markedly improve cytotoxic T lymphocyte infiltration and MHC I and MHC II activation, demonstrating the superior ICD effects in situ tumor and the powerful systematic antitumor immunity generation, eventually achieving vigorous antitumor and recurrence resistance. This study proposes an unsophisticated and versatile strategy to significantly improve PDT efficacy for enhancing systemic antitumor immunity and potentially extending it to multiple cancers.

Hybrid adipocyte-derived exosome nano platform for potent chemo-phototherapy in targeted hepatocellular carcinoma

The high prevalence and severity of hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) present a significant menace to human health. Despite the significant advancements in nanotechnology-driven antineoplastic agents, there remains a conspicuous gap in the development of targeted chemotherapeutic agents specifically designed for HCC. Consequently, there is an urgent need to explore potent drug delivery systems for effective HCC treatment. Here we have exploited the interplay between HCC and adipocyte to engineer a hybrid adipocyte-derived exosome platform, serving as a versatile vehicle to specifically target HCC and exsert potent antitumor effect. A lipid-like prodrug of docetaxel (DSTG) with a reactive oxygen species (ROS)-cleavable linker, and a lipid-conjugated photosensitizer (PPLA), spontaneously co-assemble into nanoparticles, functioning as the lipid cores of the hybrid exosomes (HEMPs and NEMPs). These nanoparticles are further encapsuled within adipocyte-derived exosome membranes, enhancing their affinity towards HCC cancer cells. As such, cancer cell uptakes of hybrid exosomes are increased up to 5.73-fold compared to lipid core nanoparticles. Our in vitro and in vivo experiments have demonstrated that HEMPs not only enhance the bioactivity of the prodrug and extend its circulation in the bloodstream but also effectively inhibit tumor growth by selectively targeting hepatocellular carcinoma tumor cells. Self-facilitated synergistic drug release subsequently promoting antitumor efficacy, inducing significant inhibition of tumor growth with minimal side effects. Our findings herald a promising direction for the development of targeted HCC therapeutics.

A NRF2 Regulated and the Immunosuppressive Microenvironment Reversed Nanoplatform for Cholangiocarcinoma Photodynamic-Gas Therapy

Photodynamic therapy (PDT) is a minimally invasive and controllable local cancer treatment for cholangiocarcinoma (CCA). However, the efficacy of PDT is hindered by intratumoral hypoxia and the presence of an antioxidant microenvironment. To address these limitations, combining PDT with gas therapy may be a promising strategy to enhance tumor oxygenation. Moreover, the augmentation of oxidative damage induced by PDT and gas therapy can be achieved by inhibiting NRF2, a core regulatory molecule involved in the antioxidant response. In this study, an integrated nanotherapeutic platform called CMArg@Lip, incorporating PDT and gas therapies using ROS-responsive liposomes encapsulating the photosensitizer Ce6, the NO gas-generating agent L-arginine, and the NRF2 inhibitor ML385, is successfully developed. The utilization of CMArg@Lip effectively deals with challenges posed by tumor hypoxia and antioxidant microenvironment, resulting in elevated levels of oxidative damage and subsequent induction of ferroptosis in CCA. Additionally, these findings suggest that CMArg@Lip exhibits notable immunomodulatory effects, including the promotion of immunogenic cell death and facilitation of dendritic cell maturation. Furthermore, it contributes to the anti-tumor function of cytotoxic T lymphocytes through the downregulation of PD-L1 expression in tumor cells and the activation of the STING signaling pathway in myeloid-derived suppressor cells, thereby reprogramming the immunosuppressive microenvironment via various mechanisms.

Versatile chondroitin sulfate-based nanoplatform for chemo-photodynamic therapy against triple-negative breast cancer

Versatile nanoplatform equipped with chemo-photodynamic therapeutic attributes play an important role in improving the effectiveness of tumor treatments. Herein, we developed multifunctional nanoparticles based on chondroitin sulfate A (CSA) for the targeted delivery of chlorin e6 (Ce6) and doxorubicin (DOX), in a combined chemo-photodynamic therapy against triple-negative breast cancer. CSA was chosen for its hydrophilic properties and its affinity to CD44 receptor-overexpressed tumor cells. The CSA-ss-Ce6 (CSSC) conjugate was synthesized utilizing a disulfide linker. Subsequently, DOX-loaded CSSC (CSSC-D) nanoparticles were fabricated, showcasing a nearly spherical shape with an average particle size of 267 nm. In the CSSC-D nanoparticles, the chemically attached Ce6 constituted 1.53 %, while the physically encapsulated DOX accounted for 8.11 %. Both CSSC-D and CSSC nanoparticles demonstrated a reduction-sensitive release of DOX or Ce6 in vitro. Under near-infrared (NIR) laser irradiation, CSSC-D showed the enhanced generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS), improving cytotoxic effects against triple-negative breast cancer 4T1 and MDA-MB-231 cells. Remarkably, the CSSC-D with NIR exhibited the most potent tumor growth inhibition in comparison to other groups in the 4T1-bearing Balb/c mice model. Overall, this CSSC-D nanoplatform shows significant promise as a powerful tool for a synergetic approach in chemo-photodynamic therapy in triple-negative breast cancer.

Research progress of organic photothermal agents delivery and synergistic therapy systems

Cancer is currently one of the leading causes of mortality worldwide. Due to the inevitable shortcomings of conventional treatments, photothermal therapy (PTT) has attracted great attention as an emerging and non-invasive cancer treatment method. Photothermal agents (PTAs) is a necessary component of PTT to play its role. It accumulates at the tumor site through appropriate methods and converts the absorbed light energy into heat energy effectively under near-infrared light irradiation, thus increasing the temperature of the tumor area and facilitating ablation of the tumor cells. Compared to inorganic photothermal agents, which have limitations such as non-degradability and potential long-term toxicity in vivo, organic photothermal agents exhibit excellent biocompatibility and biodegradability, thus showing promising prospects for the application of PTT in cancer treatment. And these organic photothermal agents can also be engineered into nanoparticles to improve their water solubility, extend their circulation time in vivo, and specifically target tumors. Moreover, further combination of PTT with other treatment methods can effectively enhance the efficacy of cancer treatment and alleviate the side effects associated with single treatments. This article briefly introduces several common types of organic photothermal agents and their nanoparticles, and reviews the applications of PTT based on organic photothermal agents in combination with chemotherapy, photodynamic therapy, chemodynamic therapy, immunotherapy, and multimodal combination therapy for tumor treatment, which expands the ideas and methods in the field of tumor treatment.

A NIR-driven green affording-oxygen microrobot for targeted photodynamic therapy of tumors

Photodynamic therapy (PDT) is a light-activated local treatment modality that has promising potential in cancer therapy. However, ineffective delivery of photosensitizers and hypoxia in the tumor microenvironment severely restrict the therapeutic efficacy of PDT. Herein, phototactic Chlorella (C) is utilized to carry photosensitizer-encapsulated nanoparticles to develop a near-infrared (NIR) driven green affording-oxygen microrobot system (CurNPs-C) for enhanced PDT. Photosensitizer (curcumin, Cur) loaded nanoparticles are first synthesized and then covalently attached to C through amide bonds. An in vitro study demonstrates that the developed CurNPs-C exhibits continuous oxygen generation and desirable phototaxis under NIR treatment. After intravenous injection, the initial 660 nm laser irradiation successfully induces the active migration of CurNPs-C to tumor sites for higher accumulation. Upon the second 660 nm laser treatment, CurNPs-C produces abundant oxygen, which in turn induces the natural product Cur to generate more reactive oxygen species (ROS) that significantly inhibit the growth of tumors in 4T1 tumor-bearing mice. This contribution showcases the ability of a light-driven green affording-oxygen microrobot to exhibit targeting capacity and O2 generation for enhancing photodynamic therapy.

Multimodal Imaging-Guided Photoimmunotherapy of Pancreatic Cancer by Organosilica Nanomedicine

Immune checkpoint blockade (ICB) treatments have contributed to substantial clinical progress. However, challenges persist, including inefficient drug delivery and penetration into deep tumor areas, inadequate response to ICB treatments, and potential risk of inflammation due to over-activation of immune cells and uncontrolled release of cytokines following immunotherapy. In response, this study, for the first time, presents a multimodal imaging-guided organosilica nanomedicine (DCCGP) for photoimmunotherapy of pancreatic cancer. The novel DCCGP nanoplatform integrates fluorescence, magnetic resonance, and real-time infrared photothermal imaging, thereby enhancing diagnostic precision and treatment efficacy for pancreatic cancer. In addition, the incorporated copper sulfide nanoparticles (CuS NPs) lead to improved tumor penetration and provide external regulation of immunotherapy via photothermal stimulation. The synergistic immunotherapy effect is realized through the photothermal behavior of CuS NPs, inducing immunogenic cell death and relieving the immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment. Coupling photothermal stimulation with αPD-L1-induced ICB, the platform amplifies the clearance efficiency of tumor cells, achieving an optimized synergistic photoimmunotherapy effect. This study offers a promising strategy for the clinical application of ICB-based combined immunotherapy and presents valuable insights for applications of organosilica in precise tumor immunotherapy and theranostics.

Synergistic Phototherapy-Molecular Targeted Therapy Combined with Tumor Exosome Nanoparticles for Oral Squamous Cell Carcinoma Treatment

Oral squamous cell carcinoma (OSCC) contributes to more than 90% of all oral malignancies, yet the performance of traditional treatments is impeded by limited therapeutic effects and substantial side effects. In this work, we report a combinational treatment strategy based on tumor exosome-based nanoparticles co-formulating a photosensitizer (Indocyanine green) and a tyrosine kinase inhibitor (Gefitinib) (IG@EXOs) for boosting antitumor efficiency against OSCC through synergistic phototherapy-molecular targeted therapy. The IG@EXOs generate distinct photothermal/photodynamic effects through enhanced photothermal conversion efficiency and ROS generation, respectively. In vivo, the IG@EXOs efficiently accumulate in the tumor and penetrate deeply to the center of the tumor due to passive and homologous targeting. The phototherapy effects of IG@EXOs not only directly induce potent cancer cell damage but also promote the release and cytoplasmic translocation of Gefitinib for achieving significant inhibition of cell proliferation and tumor angiogenesis, eventually resulting in efficient tumor ablation and lymphatic metastasis inhibition through the synergistic phototherapy-molecular targeted therapy. We envision that the encouraging performances of IG@EXOs against cancer pave a new avenue for their future application in clinical OSCC treatment.

Rationally Integrated Precise ER-Targeted and Oxygen-Compensated Photodynamic Immunostimulant for Immunogenicity-Boosted Tumor Therapy

Notwithstanding that immunotherapy has made eminent clinical breakthroughs, activating the immunogenicity and breaking the immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment (ITME) remains tempting yet challenging. Herein, a customized-designed immunostimulant is engineered for attenuating ITME and eliciting an immune response to address this challenge head-on. This immunostimulant is equipped with dual silica layers coated upconversion nanoparticles (UCNPs) as nanocarriers modified with endoplasmic reticulum (ER)-targeted molecular N-p-Tosylglycine, in which the dense silica for chlorin e6 (Ce6) and the glutathione (GSH)-responsive degradable silica for loading resveratrol (RES) - (UCSMRER ). On the one hand, this precise ER-targeted photodynamic therapy (PDT) can generate reactive oxygen species (ROS) in situ under the 980 nm laser irradiation, which not only induced severe cell death directly but also caused intense ER stress-based immunogenic cell death (ICD). On the other hand, tumor hypoxia aggravated by the PDT is alleviated by RES released on-demand, which reduced oxygen consumption by impairing the mitochondrial electron transport chain (ETC). This integrated precise ER-targeted and oxygen-compensated strategy maximized the PDT effect and potentiated ICD-associated immunotherapy, which availed to attenuate ITME, activate tumor immunogenicity, and further magnify the anti-tumor effect. This innovative concept about PDT and immunotherapy sheds light on cancer-related clinical application.

The nano-revolution in the diagnosis and treatment of endometriosis

Endometriosis is a painful gynecological disease with a high prevalence, affecting millions of women worldwide. Innovative, non-invasive treatments, and new patient follow-up strategies are needed to deal with the harmful social and economic effects. In this scenario, considering the recent, very promising results already reported in the literature, a commitment to new research in the field of nanomedicine is urgently needed. Study findings clearly show the potential of this approach in both the diagnostic and therapeutic phases of endometriosis. Here, we offer a brief review of the recent exciting and effective applications of nanomedicine in both the diagnosis and therapy of endometriosis. Special emphasis will be placed on the emerging theranostic application of nanoproducts, and the combination of phototherapy and nanotechnology as new therapeutic modalities for endometriosis. The review will also provide interested readers with a guide to the selection process and parameters to consider when designing research into this type of approach.

Metal-Phenolic Networks for Chronic Wounds Therapy

Chronic wounds are recalcitrant complications of a variety of diseases, with pathologic features including bacterial infection, persistent inflammation, and proliferation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) levels in the wound microenvironment. Currently, the use of antimicrobial drugs, debridement, hyperbaric oxygen therapy, and other methods in clinical for chronic wound treatment is prone to problems such as bacterial resistance, wound expansion, and even exacerbation. In recent years, researchers have proposed many novel materials for the treatment of chronic wounds targeting the disease characteristics, among which metal-phenolic networks (MPNs) are supramolecular network structures that utilize multivalent metal ions and natural polyphenols complexed through ligand bonds. They have a flexible and versatile combination of structural forms and a variety of formations (nanoparticles, coatings, hydrogels, etc.) that can be constructed. Functionally, MPNs combine the chemocatalytic and bactericidal properties of metal ions as well as the anti-inflammatory and antioxidant properties of polyphenol compounds. Together with the excellent properties of rapid synthesis and negligible cytotoxicity, MPNs have attracted researchers' great attention in biomedical fields such as anti-tumor, anti-bacterial, and anti-inflammatory. This paper will focus on the composition of MPNs, the mechanisms of MPNs for the treatment of chronic wounds, and the application of MPNs in novel chronic wound therapies.

Local Drug Delivery Techniques for Triggering Immunogenic Cell Death

Immunogenic cell death (ICD), a dying state of the cells, encompasses the changes in the conformations of cell surface and the release of damage-associated molecular patterns, which could initiate an adaptive immune response by stimulating the dendritic cells to present antigens to T cells. Advancements in biomaterials, nanomedicine, and micro- and nano-technologies have facilitated the development of effective ICD inducers, but the potential toxicity of these vesicles encountered in drug delivery via intravenous administration hampers their further application. As alternatives, the local drug delivery systems have gained emerging attention due to their ability to prolong the retention of high payloads at the lesions, sequester drugs from harsh environments, overcome biological barriers to exert optimal efficacy, and minimize potential side effects to guarantee bio-safety. Herein, a brief overview of the local drug delivery techniques used for ICD inducers is provided, explaining how these techniques broaden, alter, and enhance the therapeutic capability while circumventing systemic toxicity at the same time. The historical context and prominent examples of the local administration of ICD inducers are introduced. The complexities, potential pitfalls, and opportunities for local drug delivery techniques in cancer immunotherapy are also discussed.

Synergistic chemo-photo anticancer therapy by using reversible Diels-Alder dynamic covalent bond mediated polyprodrug amphiphiles and immunoactivation investigation

Highly efficient endocytosis and multi-approach integrated therapeutic tactics are important factors in oncotherapy. With the aid of thermally reversible furan-maleimide dynamic covalent bonds and the "polyprodrug amphiphiles" concept, thermo- and reduction-responsive PEG(-COOH)Fu/MI(-SS-)CPT copolymers were fabricated by the Diels-Alder (D-A) coupling of hydrophilic Fu(-COOH)-PEG and hydrophobic MI(-SS-)-CPT building blocks. The copolymers could self-assemble to form composite nanoparticles with a photothermal conversion reagent (IR780) and maintain excellent stability. In the in vitro simulated environments, the composite nanoparticles could detach Fu(-COOH)-PEG chains by a retro-D-A reaction upon near-infrared light (NIR) irradiation and reduce the size to facilitate endocytosis. Once in the intracellular environment, glutathione (GSH) could trigger a cascade reaction to release active CPT drugs to achieve chemotherapy, which could be further promoted by NIR light induced photothermal therapy. The in vivo mouse tumor model experiments demonstrated that these nanoparticles had an excellent therapeutic effect on solid tumors and inhibited their recurrence. Not only that, the synergistic chemical and optical therapy induced body immune response was also systematically evaluated; the maturation of dendritic cells, the proliferation of T cells, the increase of high mobility group box protein 1, and the decrease of immunosuppressive regulatory T cells confirmed that such synergistic therapy could effectively provide immune protection to the body. We believe such in situ generation of small-sized therapeutic units brought by a dynamically reversible D-A reaction could expand the pathway to design next generation drug delivery systems possessing superior design philosophy and excellent practice effects compared to currently available ones.

Nano-Econazole Enhanced PD-L1 Checkpoint Blockade for Synergistic Antitumor Immunotherapy against Pancreatic Ductal Adenocarcinoma

Insufficienct T lymphocyte infiltration and unresponsiveness to immune checkpoint blockade therapy are still major difficulties for the clinical treatment of pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC). Although econazole has shown promise in inhibiting PDAC growth, its poor bioavailability and water solubility limit its potential as a clinical therapy for PDAC. Furthermore, the synergistic role of econazole and biliverdin in immune checkpoint blockade therapy in PDAC remains elusive and challenging. Herein, a chemo-phototherapy nanoplatform is designed by which econazole and biliverdin can be co-assembled (defined as FBE NPs), which significantly improve the poor water solubility of econazole and enhance the efficacy of PD-L1 checkpoint blockade therapy against PDAC. Mechanistically, econazole and biliverdin are directly released into the acidic cancer microenvironment, to activate immunogenic cell death via biliverdin-induced PTT/PDT and boost the immunotherapeutic response of PD-L1 blockade. In addition, econazole simultaneously enhances PD-L1 expression to sensitize anti-PD-L1 therapy, leading to suppression of distant tumors, long-term immune memory effects, improved dendritic cell maturation, and tumor infiltration of CD8⁺ T lymphocytes. The combined FBE NPs and α-PDL1 show synergistic antitumor efficacy. Collectively, FBE NPs show excellent biosafety and antitumor efficacy by combining chemo-phototherapy with PD-L1 blockade, which has promising potential in a precision medicine approach as a PDAC treatment strategy.

Autophagy Regulation Using Multimodal Chlorin e6-Loaded Polysilsesquioxane Nanoparticles to Improve Photodynamic Therapy

Photodynamic therapy (PDT) is a promising anticancer noninvasive technique that relies on the generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS). Unfortunately, PDT still has many limitations, including the resistance developed by cancer cells to the cytotoxic effect of ROS. Autophagy, which is a stress response mechanism, has been reported as a cellular pathway that reduces cell death following PDT. Recent studies have demonstrated that PDT in combination with other therapies can eliminate anticancer resistance. However, combination therapy is usually challenged by the differences in the pharmacokinetics of the drugs. Nanomaterials are excellent delivery systems for the efficient codelivery of two or more therapeutic agents. In this work, we report on the use of polysilsesquioxane (PSilQ) nanoparticles for the codelivery of chlorin-e6 (Ce6) and an autophagy inhibitor for early- or late-stage autophagy. Our results, obtained from a reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation assay and apoptosis and autophagy flux analyses, demonstrate that the reduced autophagy flux mediated by the combination approach afforded an increase in the phototherapeutic efficacy of Ce6-PSilQ nanoparticles. We envision that the promising results in the use of multimodal Ce6-PSilQ material as a codelivery system against cancer pave the way for its future application with other clinically relevant combinations.

Visualization of Phototherapy Evolution by Optical Imaging

Phototherapy, including photodynamic therapy (PDT) and photothermal therapy (PTT), is a non-invasive and effective approach used for cancer treatment, in which phototherapeutic agents are irradiated with an appropriate light source to produce cytotoxic reactive oxygen species (ROS) or heat to ablate cancer cells. Unfortunately, traditional phototherapy lacks a facile imaging method to monitor the therapeutic process and efficiency in real time, usually leading to severe side effects due to high levels of ROS and hyperthermia. To realize precise cancer treatment methods, it is highly desired to develop phototherapeutic agents possessing an imaging ability to evaluate the therapeutic process and efficacy in real time during cancer phototherapy. Recently, a series of self-reporting phototherapeutic agents were reported to monitor PDT and PTT processes by combining optical imaging technologies with phototherapy. Due to the real-time feedback provided by optical imaging technology, therapeutic responses or dynamic changes in the tumor microenvironment could be evaluated in a timely manner, thereby achieving personalized precision treatment and minimizing toxic side effects. In this review, we focus on the advances in the development of self-reporting phototherapeutic agents for a cancer phototherapy evaluation based on optical imaging technology to realize precision cancer treatments. Additionally, we propose the current challenges and future directions of self-reporting agents for precision medicine.

Recent Progress in Photodynamic Immunotherapy with Metal-Based Photosensitizers

Cancer ranks as a leading cause of death. There is an urgent need to develop minimally invasive methods to eradicate tumors and prevent their recurrence. As a light-driven modality, photodynamic therapy takes advantage of high tumor selectivity and low normal tissue damage. However, it shows poor potential for preventing tumor recurrence. Immunotherapy is currently being used as an alternative treatment for the control of malignant diseases. Although immunotherapy can establish long-time immune memory and efficiently protects treated patients from cancer relapse, its clinical efficacy is limited by the minority of patients' responding rate. Recently, photodynamic immunotherapy, which utilizes photosensitizers as an immunotherapy trigger to exert synergistic effects of photodynamic therapy and tumor immunotherapy, has attracted considerable interest. Like all the newly proposed treatments, there is still room for improvement. In this mini review, the progress in photodynamic immunotherapy with metal-based photosensitizers is summarized. It is hoped that this review can give a broad update on photodynamic immunotherapy and inspire readers.

Self-delivery photodynamic-hypoxia alleviating nanomedicine synergizes with anti-PD-L1 for cancer immunotherapy

The low level of T-lymphocyte infiltration in tumor is a key issue in cancer immunotherapy. Stimulating anti-tumor immune responses and improving the tumor microenvironment are essential for enhancing anti-PD-L1 immunotherapy. Herein, atovaquone (ATO), protoporphyrin IX (PpIX), and stabilizer (ATO/PpIX NPs) were constructed to self-assemble with hydrophobic interaction and passively targeted to tumor for the first time. The studies have indicated that PpIX-mediated photodynamic induction of immunogenic cell death combined with relieving tumor hypoxia by ATO, leading to maturation of dendritic cells, polarization of M2-type tumor-associated macrophages (TAMs) towards M1-type TAMs, infiltration of cytotoxic T lymphocytes, reduction of regulatory T cells, release of pro-inflammatory cytokines, resulting in an effective anti-tumor immune response synergized with anti-PD-L1 against primary tumor and pulmonary metastasis. Taken together, the combined nanoplatform may be a promising strategy to enhance cancer immunotherapy.

A Review of Advanced Multifunctional Magnetic Nanostructures for Cancer Diagnosis and Therapy Integrated into an Artificial Intelligence Approach

The new era of nanomedicine offers significant opportunities for cancer diagnostics and treatment. Magnetic nanoplatforms could be highly effective tools for cancer diagnosis and treatment in the future. Due to their tunable morphologies and superior properties, multifunctional magnetic nanomaterials and their hybrid nanostructures can be designed as specific carriers of drugs, imaging agents, and magnetic theranostics. Multifunctional magnetic nanostructures are promising theranostic agents due to their ability to diagnose and combine therapies. This review provides a comprehensive overview of the development of advanced multifunctional magnetic nanostructures combining magnetic and optical properties, providing photoresponsive magnetic platforms for promising medical applications. Moreover, this review discusses various innovative developments using multifunctional magnetic nanostructures, including drug delivery, cancer treatment, tumor-specific ligands that deliver chemotherapeutics or hormonal agents, magnetic resonance imaging, and tissue engineering. Additionally, artificial intelligence (AI) can be used to optimize material properties in cancer diagnosis and treatment, based on predicted interactions with drugs, cell membranes, vasculature, biological fluid, and the immune system to enhance the effectiveness of therapeutic agents. Furthermore, this review provides an overview of AI approaches used to assess the practical utility of multifunctional magnetic nanostructures for cancer diagnosis and treatment. Finally, the review presents the current knowledge and perspectives on hybrid magnetic systems as cancer treatment tools with AI models.

Nrf2 silencing amplifies DNA photooxidative damage to activate the STING pathway for synergistic tumor immunotherapy

Photodynamic therapy (PDT)-mediated antitumor immune response depends on oxidative stress intensity and subsequent immunogenic cell death (ICD) in tumor cells, yet the inherent antioxidant system restricts reactive oxygen species (ROS)-associated oxidative damage, which is highly correlated with the upregulated nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 (Nrf2) and the downstream products, such as glutathione (GSH). Herein, to overcome this dilemma, we designed a versatile nanoadjuvant (RI@Z-P) to enhance the sensitivity of tumor cells to oxidative stress via Nrf2-specific small interfering RNA (siNrf2). The constructed RI@Z-P could significantly amplify photooxidative stress and achieve robust DNA oxidative damage, activating the stimulator of interferon genes (STING)-dependent immune-sensing to produce interferon-β (IFN-β). Additionally, RI@Z-P together with laser irradiation reinforced tumor immunogenicity by exposing or releasing damage-associated molecular patterns (DAMPs), showing the prominent adjuvant effect for promoting dendritic cell (DC) maturation and T-lymphocyte activation and even alleviating the immunosuppressive microenvironment to some extent.

Implications of hydrogen sulfide in colorectal cancer: Mechanistic insights and diagnostic and therapeutic strategies

Hydrogen sulfide (H2S) is an important signaling molecule in colorectal cancer (CRC). It is produced in the colon by the catalytic synthesis of the colonocytes' enzymatic systems and the release of intestinal microbes, and is oxidatively metabolized in the colonocytes' mitochondria. Both endogenous H2S in colonic epithelial cells and exogenous H2S in intestinal lumen contribute to the onset and progression of CRC. The up-regulation of endogenous synthetases is thought to be the cause of the elevated H2S levels in CRC cells. Different diagnostic probes and combination therapies, as well as tumor treatment approaches through H2S modulation, have been developed in recent years and have become active area of investigation for the diagnosis and treatment of CRC. In this review, we focus on the specific mechanisms of H2S production and oxidative metabolism as well as the function of H2S in the occurrence, progression, diagnosis, and treatment of CRC. We also discuss the present challenges and provide insights into the future research of this burgeoning field.

Combinational antitumor strategies of exosomes as drug carriers: Mini review

Cancer therapies have made tremendous progress in the last decade, but monotherapy still has apparent limitations and lacks therapeutic efficacy. Thus, the simultaneous administration of multiple drugs has been widely explored and has shown better outcomes. Exosomes, deriving from almost all living cells, are natural nanocarriers designed to deliver drugs to tumor sites. Therefore, combinational antitumor therapies based on exosomes, such as engineered exosomes and different combinations of chemotherapeutic agents, therapeutic nucleic acids, photosensitizers, immunotherapy and phytochemicals, have considerable prospects and potential for clinical translation. Here, we summarize current strategies of cancer combination therapy in exosomes and propose opportunities and challenges in the future.

Deformable and Disintegrable Multifunctional Integrated Polyprodrug Amphiphiles for Synergistic Phototherapy and Chemotherapy

Multimodal collaborative therapy has been recognized as one of the more effective means to eliminate tumors in the current biomedicine research field as compared with monotherapy. Among them, by taking advantage of its high-precision and controllability, phototherapy has become a mainstay of treatment. However, physical encapsulation of free photosensitive units within nanocarriers was one of the main implementations, which might inevitably result in the photosensitizer leakage and side effect. For this purpose, a kind of multifunctional integrated polyprodrug amphiphiles, P(PFO-IG-CPT)-PEG, were prepared by reversible addition-fragmentation chain transfer polymerization from polymerizable pentadecafluorooctan monomers, indocyanine green monomers, reduction-responsive camptothecin monomers, and acid-responsive PEG based methacrylate monomers (GMA(-OH/-PEG)). The resultant copolymers could self-assemble into spherical nanoparticles in water, performing size-deformability in acidic conditions and subsequent disintegration in reduction environment as demonstrated by in vitro experiments. Furthermore, an enhanced CPT release ratio and rate from nanoparticles could be achieved by a NIR irradiation due to the hyperthermia induced by the covalently linked IG moieties. Not only that, because of the sufficient O₂ content brought by PFO, the NIR light-triggered generation of ¹O₂ was also detected in cells. With the combination of CPT-guided chemotherapy as well as NIR light-guided photo-thermal and photodynamic therapies, fatal and irreversible damage to cancer cells was observed by cell experiments; the implanted tumor size in the mouse model was obviously shrunk upon receiving multimodal collaborative therapy. We speculate that such fabricated nanodiagnosis and treatment systems could meet the growing emergency for effective drug delivery, programmed and on-demand drug release, and multimodal integrated therapy.

Nanomaterials-Functionalized Hydrogels for the Treatment of Cutaneous Wounds

Hydrogels have been utilized extensively in the field of cutaneous wound treatment. The introduction of nanomaterials (NMs), which are a big category of materials with diverse functionalities, can endow the hydrogels with additional and multiple functions to meet the demand for a comprehensive performance in wound dressings. Therefore, NMs-functionalized hydrogels (NMFHs) as wound dressings have drawn intensive attention recently. Herein, an overview of reports about NMFHs for the treatment of cutaneous wounds in the past five years is provided. Firstly, fabrication strategies, which are mainly divided into physical embedding and chemical synthesis of the NMFHs, are summarized and illustrated. Then, functions of the NMFHs brought by the NMs are reviewed, including hemostasis, antimicrobial activity, conductivity, regulation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) level, and stimulus responsiveness (pH responsiveness, photo-responsiveness, and magnetic responsiveness). Finally, current challenges and future perspectives in this field are discussed with the hope of inspiring additional ideas.

Graphene Quantum Dots Modified Upconversion Nanoparticles for Photodynamic Therapy

Photodynamic therapy (PDT), as a novel technique, has been extensively employed in cancer treatment by utilizing reactive oxygen species (ROS) to kill malignant cells. However, most photosensitizers (PSs) are short of ROS yield and affect the therapeutic effect of PDT. Thus, there is a substantial demand for the development of novel PSs for PDT to advance its clinical translation. In this study, we put forward a new strategy for PS synthesis via modifying graphene quantum dots (GQDs) on the surface of rare-earth elements doped upconversion nanoparticles (UCNPs) to produce UCNPs@GQDs with core-shell structure. This new type of PSs combined the merits of UCNPs and GQDs and produced ROS efficiently under near-infrared light excitation to trigger the PDT process. UCNPs@GQDs exhibited high biocompatibility and obvious concentration-dependent PDT efficiency, shedding light on nanomaterials-based PDT development.