Linalool attenuates oxidative stress and mitochondrial dysfunction mediated by glutamate and NMDA toxicity

Influence of tannin-rich extract from commercial Acacia mearnsii and gallocatechin on ovine cryopreserved semen viability

The objective of this study was to evaluate the effect of a tannin-rich extract from commercial Acacia mearnsii (MTE_0), and gallocatechin, a flavonoid compound derived from Acacia mearnsii, on the long-term viability and motility of cryopreserved ovine semen. Six fresh ejaculates obtained from six adult merino rams twice per week for three weeks were allocated to five aliquots (0, 12.5, 25, 50, and 100 µM gallocatechin added into the Optidyl™ extender) before cooling and cryopreservation. Effects of MTE_0 and gallocatechin on post-thawed motility characteristics were analyzed using computer-assisted semen analysis (CASA), and viability (LIVE/DEAD® kit, Molecular Invitrogen, Waltham, MA), oxidative stress (2,7-dichlorodihydrofluorescein diacetate (H2DCFDA, Thermo Fisher®, Waltham, MA)) for reactive oxygen species (ROS), mitochondrial membrane potential (JC-1 MitoTracker, Molecular Invitrogen, Waltham, MA), acrosomal integrity (lectin PNA), and capacitation using merocyanine 540 (M540) and YO-PRO-1 dyes in flow cytometry. Data were analyzed using one-way ANOVA (IBM SPSS 21.0 for Windows, Armonk, NY). Gallocatechin at 25 µM positively affected (p ≤ .001) kinematic parameters including average path velocity (VAP), progressive velocity (VSL), and beat cross frequency (BCF) of cryopreserved semen. Similarly, gallocatechin at 25 µM- improved sperm motility (live 21.99 ± 2.06%), reduced ROS levels (26.45 ± 1.10%), and mitigated premature capacitation (viable and stable 20.08 ± 1.48%) compared to other treatments. Gallocatechin addition to semen resulted in a significant (p ≤ .001) positive effect compared with the MTE_0 extract. It is concluded that gallocatechin inclusion at 25 µM significantly reduces semen deterioration following cryopreservation. This study is the first to introduce gallocatechin as an efficient antioxidant additive to ovine semen to improve its quality during storage. Our findings will help improve post-thaw ovine semen quality and longevity. Future studies to elucidate the mechanism of anti-oxidative stress action of gallocatechin and its derivatives on semen motility and longevity are recommended.

Phenylpropanoids of Eleutherococcus senticosus (Rupr. & maxim.) maxim. Alleviate oxidative stress in Alzheimer's disease in vitro and in vivo models by regulating Mst1 and affecting the Nrf2/Sirt3 pathway

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a common neurodegenerative disorder, and oxidative stress plays a significant role in its progression. Owing to its nourishing effects, Eleutherococcus senticosus (Rupr. & maxim.) maxim. (ES) has gained widespread popularity globally as a functional food and long-term consumption has been shown to enhance memory. The phenylpropanoid components extracted from Eleutherococcus senticosus (Rupr. & maxim.) maxim. (ESP) exhibit a diverse array of bioactivities and are commonly employed in the treatment of central nervous system (CNS) disorders. Nonetheless, the exact mechanisms by which ESP alleviates oxidative stress in AD models require further investigation. Therefore, this study utilized SAMP8 mice as models for AD and employed L-glutamate (L-Glu)-induced HT22 cells to establish an in vitro AD model. The effects of ESP on cognitive function were evaluated using the Morris water maze (MWM) test. Additionally, various techniques such as pathology, immunofluorescence staining (IF), ROS staining, cellular thermal shift assay (CETSA), Mst1 inhibitor analysis, and western blotting (WB) were conducted to further investigate the pharmacological efficacy and potential molecular mechanisms of ESP. In vivo, ESP was found to improve cognitive function in SAMP8 mice and alleviate AD-like pathological features. In vitro, ESP reduced intracellular ROS levels. Mechanistically, CETSA analysis confirmed the binding affinity between ESP and Mst1, demonstrated that ESP modulated the Mst1 signaling pathway to mitigate oxidative stress and decrease ROS levels. These findings suggested that ESP holded significant potential for developing therapeutic strategies for AD.

Memantine abrogates testicular dysfunction induced by risperidone in rats with a potential role of ERK1/2-Nrf2-caspase-3 signaling pathway

Psychosis is usually a substantial global burden with a prevalence of 0.4-2%. On the other hand, 50 million people are suffering from dementia, with dementia-related psychosis affecting approximately 25% of them. The current experiment aimed to investigate the effect of the anti-dementia drug memantine (MEM) on testicular damage and insulin resistance induced by the chronic administration of risperidone (RIS) in rats. Six groups of Wistar albino rats were designated as follows: control, MEM-5 (rats received MEM at 5 mg/kg/day, orally, for 4 weeks), MEM-10 (rats received MEM at 10 mg/kg/day, orally, for 4 weeks), RIS (rats were administered RIS at 2.5 mg/kg/day, orally, for 4 weeks), RIS + MEM-5 (rats received MEM at 5 mg/kg/day, orally, co-administered with RIS as in the RIS group for 4 weeks), and RIS + MEM-10 (rats received MEM at 10 mg/kg/day, orally, co-administered with RIS as in the RIS group for 4 weeks). The duration of the study was 28 days. Serum testosterone, resistin, and adiponectin concentrations were determined. The homeostatic model assessment of insulin resistance (HOMA-IR) was also evaluated. Oxidative stress, inflammatory markers, and immunoblotting of ERK1/2, and Nrf2 were quantified in testicular tissue together with histopathological evaluation and a caspase-3 immunohistochemical study. MEM co-administration increased adiponectin, serum testosterone, GSH, SOD, CAT, and Nrf2 expression while decreasing HOMA-IR, resistin, MDA, NOx, ERK1/2, IL-6, TNF-α, NFĸB, and caspase-3 expression. Furthermore, MEM ameliorated all measured parameters and histopathological changes that occurred in the RIS group in a dose-dependent manner. The primary outcomes were attained by attenuating oxidative stress, inflammation, and apoptosis in the testis caused by chronic RIS administration via regulation of the ERK1/2-Nrf2 signaling pathway. Targeting the ERK1/2-Nrf2 pathway is a potential strategy for addressing testicular injury.

Plant-Derived Monoterpene Therapies in Parkinson's Disease Models: Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

Monoterpenes (MTs) are plants' secondary metabolites and major components of essential oils (EOs), widely used in the pharmaceutical industry. However, its neuroprotective effects, particularly in Parkinson's disease (PD) have not been fully demonstrated. PD is a progressive neurological disorder marked by dopaminergic neuron loss in the substantia nigra, motor symptoms being the most reported ones. This review evaluates the evidence supporting the use of MTs as potential neuroprotective agents. PubMed, SCOPUS, Google Scholar, and ScienceDirect databases were searched for articles on MTs in murine models with any type of administration. The PRISMA guidelines were followed. After screening 405 records, 32 were included in the systematic review and 30 were included in the meta-analysis. Fifteen MTs, commonly found in EOs, were identified as potential therapeutic agents for PD. The meta-analysis revealed that MTs administration improved motor performance, increased tyrosine hydroxylase levels, reduced oxidative stress markers (malondialdehyde) and proinflammatory cytokines (IL-6, IL-1, TNF-α), and enhanced antioxidant enzymes (catalase, superoxide dismutase) in parkinsonian animals. The antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties of MTs appear to be key mechanisms in mitigating dopaminergic neurodegeneration. However, further clinical research is essential to translate these findings into practical applications.

Mitigating cyclophosphamide-induced hepatorenal toxicity: Linalool's role in modulating oxidative stress, inflammation, and apoptosis

Cyclophosphamide (CP) is associated with detrimental side effect including hepatic and renal toxicities. Linalool (LIN), acyclic monoterpene alcohol, is acquired from several plants' essential oils. Rats were disseminated into four groups. Group 1: Normal and Cyclophosphamide (CP) groups in which rats were given normal saline or CP intraperitoneally (200 mg/kg, ip on 12nd). Group 3 and 4 (LIN 50 + CP and LIN 100 + CP) groups in which rats were administered LIN (50 or 100 mg/kg) orally for 14 days and CP (200 mg/kg, ip on 12nd). Assessment of hepatic and renal function tests and histopathological examination were performed. Oxidative stress indicators, inflammatory mediators, and apoptosis markers in hepatic and renal homogenates were assessed. JAK2/STAT3/NFκB gene expression was measured. The network pharmacology study suggests JAK2 as one the targets so molecular docking of LIN against JAK2 was accomplished. LIN administration with CP resulted in a significant reduction in liver function test including ALT, AST, LDL, bilirubin, and γGTT1 and in renal function markers including BUN, creatinine, uric acid, Kim-1, NGAL, and CysC. Also, LIN increases in antioxidant ability via enhancing GST, GSH-Px, GSH-R, SOD, and catalase as well as a declining NO, MDA levels. Furthermore, LIN significantly diminished JAK2/STAT3/NFκB gene expressions with subsequent reduction in the inflammatory markers including TNF-α, MPO, ICAM-1, IL-6, and IL-1β levels and the apoptotic markers Bax and cleavage caspase-3 and 9. LIN protected the hepatic and renal tissues from ROS damage and mitigated JAK2/STAT3/NFκB with subsequent anti-inflammatory and anti-apoptotic properties.

Mito-Apocynin Protects Against Kainic Acid-Induced Excitotoxicity by Ameliorating Mitochondrial Impairment

Neurodegenerative diseases represent significant global health challenges, with rising incidence rates. A substantial body of evidence indicates that excitotoxicity may be a critical target in the context of these diseases. However, effective pharmacological interventions aimed at mitigating excitotoxicity remain elusive. This study aimed to elucidate the neuroprotective effects and mechanisms of the mitochondrion-targeted NOX inhibitor, mito-apocynin, in the context of kainic acid (KA)-induced excitotoxicity. Our findings demonstrate that KA disrupts mitochondrial morphology, leading to impaired energy metabolism and mitochondrial dysfunction. Western blotting experiments revealed that KA compromises mitochondrial quality control. Additionally, Nissl staining and CCK8 assays indicated that mito-apocynin (administered at 75 μg/kg in vivo and 1 μM in vitro) significantly reduced neuronal death resulting from KA-induced excitotoxic damage in both in vivo and in vitro models. Furthermore, mito-apocynin improved neurobehavioral deficits induced by KA and mitigated mitochondrial dysfunction observed in vitro. Notably, mito-apocynin significantly reversed the KA-induced increase in NOX4 levels within the striatal mitochondria, reduced the ratio of phosphorylated DRP1 (Ser616) to total DRP1, and enhanced the expression of PGC-1α, PINK1, and Parkin proteins throughout the total striatum. In summary, mito-apocynin alleviates oxidative stress, preserves normal mitochondrial function and energy metabolism, and promotes mitochondrial quality control by modulating NOX expression in mitochondria, thereby reducing KA-induced excitotoxic damage.

Isoespintanol Isolated from Oxandra cf. xylopioides (Annonaceae) Leaves Ameliorates Pancreatic Dysfunction and Improves Insulin Sensitivity in Murine Model of Fructose-Induced Prediabetes

In rats, a fructose-rich diet triggers endocrine-metabolic disturbances similar to those present in human prediabetes. We evaluated the protective effect of isoespintanol, a monoterpene isolated from Oxandra cf. xylopioides (Annonaceae), on pancreatic islet. Rats were kept for three weeks with a standard commercial diet and tap water (C), plus 10% fructose (F), or F plus isoespintanol (I; 10 mg/kg, i.p.). Glycemia, triglyceridemia, total cholesterol, HDL-cholesterol, insulin resistance index (IRX), and glucose tolerance tests were determined. Glucose-stimulated insulin secretion (GSIS) and gene expression of insulin signalling mediators (insulin receptor -IR-, IRS1/2, PI3K), oxidative stress (SOD-2, GPx, GSR, 3'-nitrotyrosine), inflammation (TNF-α, IL-1β, PAI-1), mitochondrial function (Bcl-2, mtTFA, PGC-1α), and apoptosis markers were evaluated in pancreatic islets. The F group increased triglyceridemia, non-HDL-cholesterol, and IRX, and decreased HDL-cholesterol and impaired glucose tolerance, with alterations reversed by isoespintanol administration (p < 0.05). Isoespintanol normalized higher GSIS recorded in the F group. F decreased mRNA levels of insulin signalling mediators and mitochondrial function markers, and increased the expression of inflammatory, apoptotic, and oxidative stress markers, alterations that were significantly reversed by isoespintanol. Current results suggest that isoespintanol improved insular oxidative stress and inflammation by affecting the IR-PI3K pathway, which plays a pivotal role in insulin resistance development, underlying its therapeutic potential for the prevention of type 2 diabetes before its onset (prediabetes).

The antioxidant role of aromatic plant extracts in managing neurodegenerative diseases: A comprehensive review

Neurodegenerative diseases (NDDs) are a class of cognitive and motor disorders including Alzheimer's disease (AD), Parkinson's disease (PD), Huntington's disease (HD), Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis (ALS), and others. They are caused by lesions in cells and tissues of the central nervous system, resulting in corresponding dysfunctions and consequent decline in cognitive and motor functions. Neural tissues are extremely vulnerable to oxidative stress, which plays critical biological roles in NDDs. Aromatic compounds are found extensively in natural plants and have substantial effects of anti-oxidative stress damage, which not only have a wide range of research applications in cosmetics, foods, etc., but are also frequently utilized in the treatment of various central nervous system diseases. This review summarizes the relevant oxidative stress mechanisms in NDDs (AD, PD, HD, and ALS) and reviews aromatic compounds such as polyphenols, terpenoids, and flavonoids that can be used in the management of neurodegenerative diseases, as well as their specific mechanisms of antioxidant action. This review will serve as a reference for future experimental studies on neurodegenerative illnesses while also offering fresh insights into clinical therapy.

PKR Inhibitor C16 Regulates HIV-gp120 Induced Neuronal Injury and Cognitive Impairment in Vivo and in Vitro Models

To study the neuronal protective effect and its potential mechanism of C16 against gp120-induced cognitive impairment in vitro and in vivo. The NORT method was used to evaluate the short-term memory abilities of rats, the morphological changes in hippocampus were observed by Nissl staining. Cell viability and damage degree were detected by MTT and LDH. The cell living/apoptosis status of PC12 cells was determined by AO/EB double staining and the relative mRNA expressions of PKR, IRE1α, JNK, GRP78, and CHOP were detected by RT-qPCR. In comparison with the gp120 + Memantine and gp120 + C16 groups, the rats in the gp120 group showed a significantly decreased discrimination index (P < 0.001), with disordered CA1 region cells and reduced neuron numbers. AO/EB double staining revealed morphological changes in the gp120 and NMDA groups, while cells in the gp120 + C16 and NMDA + C16 groups resembled the control group. And C16 can significantly down-regulate the mRNA expression levels of PKR, IRE1α, JNK, GRP78, and CHOP. (P < 0.05). C16 can reduce the cognitive impairment stimulated by gp120 or NMDA, the protective mechanism may be correlated with inhibiting the upregulation of PKR/IRE1α/JNK pathway and suppressing apoptosis induced by downstream proteins GRP78 and CHOP.

Antioxidant, Anti-Inflammatory, and Anticancer Activities of Five Citrus Peel Essential Oils

Citrus peel essential oil (CPEO) is favored by people for its aromatic scent, while also possessing numerous bioactive compounds that are advantageous to human health. This study evaluated the antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and anticancer activities of CPEOs through cell experiments. The results showed that CPEOs could increase the activity of the antioxidant enzyme system and nonenzymatic defence system in H2O2-treated RAW 264.7 cells by reducing cellular lipid peroxidation. CPEOs also reduced the nitric oxide production induced by lipopolysaccharide treatment in RAW 264.7 cells while decreasing proinflammatory cytokines expression and increasing anti-inflammatory cytokine expression. Wound healing assays, flow cytometry, and quantitative real-time fluorescent quantitative PCR (qRT-PCR) revealed that CPEOs could induce apoptosis in U87 cells through the mitochondrial apoptotic pathway. These findings indicate that CPEOs possess excellent antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and anticancer activity potential, making them suitable for use in functional antioxidant and anti-inflammatory foods and nutritional health products.

Optimization and Chemical Characterization of Extracts Obtained from Ferula persica var. latisecta Aerial Parts and Roots and Their Neuroprotective Evaluation

BACKGROUND/OBJECTIVES

The genus Ferula has been traditionally used for the treatment of various illnesses, but the potential of Ferula persica var. latisecta against different Alzheimer's disease (AD) hallmarks has never been achieved.

METHODS

In this work, a pressurized liquid extraction (PLE) method was optimized to extract F. persica L. aerial parts and roots. Four different solvents (water, ethanol, ethyl acetate (EtAc), and cyclopentyl methyl ether (CPME)) were first tested, and the extraction yield, total phenolic content, reactive oxygen species scavenging capacity, and acetylcholinesterase (AChE) inhibition activity were evaluated.

RESULTS

The results indicated that EtAc and CPME were the best solvents to be used, with the results obtained from the aerial parts being better than those obtained from the root samples. Thereafter, the PLE method was further optimized by combining these solvents in different percentages (100% EtAc, 100% CPME, and 50:50% (v/v) EtAc:CPME) and temperatures (50, 115, and 180 °C). Response surface methodology was then applied to analyze the data, and two optimum extraction conditions were obtained: EtAc:CPME (79:21%) at 180 °C for the aerial parts and 100% CPME at 180 °C for the roots. At these conditions, the total flavonoid content (TFC) and the inhibitory capacities against butyrylcholinesterase (BChE) and lipoxygenase (LOX) enzymes were also evaluated, indicating that the aerial part extracts had higher TFC and LOX inhibitory capacity than the root extracts but lower activity against BChE. The comprehensive LC/GC-MS chemical characterization allowed for the tentative identification of 222 compounds belonging to 66 chemical subclasses, the abundancies of which widely varied depending on the matrix and the extraction conditions used.

CONCLUSIONS

The results obtained together with the application of advanced statistical analysis and molecular docking simulations suggested several sesquiterpenoids, such as selina-3,7(11)-diene, guaiol acetate, α-cyperone, and farnesyl acetate, as the molecules responsible of the in vitro results observed, with good neuroprotective potential against AD.

Effect of (R)-(-)-Linalool on endothelial damage: Sex differences

Oxidative stress and inflammation are responsible for endothelial damage displaying many sex differences. Lipopolysaccharide (LPS) is a pathogenic stimulus that can trigger inflammation, contributing to endothelial dysfunction. Given the scientific evidence on the effectiveness of herbal extracts in managing endothelial dysfunction, we considered the (R)-(-)-Linalool (LIN), an aromatic monoterpene alcohol, as a bioactive phytochemical compound that could prevent and improve endothelial injury. In this study, we evaluated the effect of the LIN on LPS-induced damage in female and male human umbilical vein endothelial cells (FHUVECs and MHUVECs), measuring cell viability, cytokines release (IL-6 and TNF-α), malondialdehyde (MDA), and nitrites. LPS significantly reduced viability both in MHUVECs and FHUVECs. Moreover, LPS increased the IL-6, TNF-α, and MDA level only in FHUVECs if compared to basal value; despite that, LPS reduced nitrites only in MHUVECs. LIN alone did not affect the parameters measured except for an increase in nitrites in FHUVECs. Nevertheless, LIN reduced damage and restored endothelium viability reduced by LPS without a clear sex difference. Under LPS, LIN inhibited IL-6 release and reduced MDA levels only in FHUVECs. The present data confirm the existence of sex differences in the behavior of HUVECs under LPS conditions. The administration of LIN seems to have a more evident effect on FHUVECs after damage induced by LPS. These LIN effects are important to conduct further well-designed studies on the sex-specific use of this compound on vascular endothelial injury.

Neuroprotective Properties of Coriander-Derived Compounds on Neuronal Cell Damage under Oxidative Stress-Induced SH-SY5Y Neuroblastoma and in Silico ADMET Analysis

An imbalance between reactive oxygen species (ROS) production and antioxidant defense driven by oxidative stress and inflammation is a critical factor in the progression of neurodegenerative diseases such as Alzheimer's and Parkinson's. Coriander (Coriandrum sativum L.), a culinary plant in the Apiaceae family, displays various biological activities, including anticancer, antimicrobial, and antioxidant effects. Herein, neuroprotective properties of three major bioactive compounds derived from coriander (i.e., linalool, linalyl acetate, and geranyl acetate) were investigated on hydrogen peroxide-induced SH-SY5Y neuroblastoma cell death by examining cell viability, ROS production, mitochondrial membrane potential, and apoptotic profiles. Moreover, underlying mechanisms of the compounds were determined by measuring intracellular sirtuin 1 (SIRT1) enzyme activity incorporated with molecular docking. The results showed that linalool, linalyl acetate, and geranyl acetate elicited their neuroprotection against oxidative stress via protecting cell death, reducing ROS production, preventing cell apoptosis, and modulating SIRT1 longevity. Additionally, in silico pharmacokinetic predictions indicated that these three compounds are drug-like agents with a high probability of absorption and distribution, as well as minimal potential toxicities. These findings highlighted the potential neuroprotective linalool, linalyl acetate, and geranyl acetate for developing alternative natural compound-based neurodegenerative therapeutics and prevention.

Therapeutic potential of monoterpene molecules acts against 7KCh-mediated oxidative stress and neuroinflammatory amyloidogenic signalling pathways

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a degenerative disorder characterised by amyloid-beta aggregates activated by the accumulation of lipid molecules and their derivatives, especially 7-ketocholesterol (7KCh), an oxidised lipid that plays a great part in the progression of AD. The current therapeutics need bio-potential molecules and their biomedical application preventing 7KCh-induced cytotoxicity. In this study, bornyl acetate (BA) and menthol (ME), the natural monoterpenes were investigated for their neuroprotective effects against 7KCh-induced SH-SY5Y cells and their effects were compared to the standard drug galantamine (GA). 7KCh-induced changes like lipid accumulation, amyloid generation, free radical generation, acetylcholinesterase levels, calcium accumulation and mitochondrial membrane integrity were analysed in SH-SY5Y cells with or without BA and ME treatment. Furthermore, various mediators involved in the amyloidogenic, inflammatory and apoptotic pathways were studied. In our results, the cells induced with 7KCh upon co-treatment with BA and ME significantly reduced lipid accumulation and amyloid generation through toll-like receptor (TLR) 4 suppression and enhanced ATP binding cassette (ABCA) 1-mediated clearance. Co-treatment with BA and ME concurrently regulated oxidative stress, acetylcholinesterase activity, mitochondrial membrane potential and intracellular calcification altered by 7KCh-induced SH-SY5Y cells. Moreover, 7KCh-induced cells showed elevated mRNA levels of misfolded protein markers and apoptotic mediators which were significantly downregulated by BA and ME co-treatment. In addition, the protein expression of amyloidogenic, proinflammatory as well as pro-apoptotic markers was decreased by BA and ME co-treatment in 7KCh-induced cells. Overall, BA and ME mediated inhibition of amyloidogenic activation and cell survival against 7KCh-induced inflammation, thereby preventing the onset and progression of AD in comparison to GA.

Linalool may have a therapeutic effect on cadmium-induced nephrotoxicity by regulating NF-κB/TNF and GRP78/CHOP signaling pathways

Cadmium (Cd) is an environmental pollutant heavy metal with nephrotoxic effect. One of the primary constituents of essential oils is Linalool (Lin), a monoterpene having a variety of pharmacological properties including antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, and antioxidant effects. The purpose of this study was to ascertain how Lin affected endoplasmic reticulum stress (ERS) and pro-inflammatory mediators in Cd-induced nephrotoxicity. In the experiment, 28 male rats were randomly divided into four equal groups as control (no application), Cd (Cd at a dose of 3 mg/kg for the first 7 days), Cd+Lin (Cd at a dose of 3 mg/kg for the first 7 days and 100 mg/kg/day Lin) and Lin (100 mg/kg/day Lin) (n=7). The experiment was completed on the 15th day after all treatments were performed. Blood serum and kidney tissue samples were used for analyses. Cd-induced histopathological changes, inflammation, oxidative stress, and apoptosis were determined to increase in kidney tissue. However, it was observed that Cd-induced adverse effects in kidney tissue were mainly eliminated by Lin treatment. In conclusion, Lin demonstrated anti-inflammatory, anti-oxidant and anti-apoptotic effects in Cd-induced nephrotoxicity. Therefore, we believe that Lin may represent a high potential therapeutic strategy against renal tissue damage.

Metabolomic profiling integrated with molecular exploring delineates the action of Ligusticum chuanxiong hort. on migraine

INTRODUCTION

Ligusticum chuanxiong hort. (Chuanxiong, CX) is a well-known traditional edible-medicinal herb, especially in brain diseases. However, there is a lack of studies focusing on the action of CX in metabolites of migraine.

HYPOTHESIS/PURPOSE

To investigate the action of the aqueous extract of CX (LCH) on nitroglycerin (NTG)-induced migraine.

METHODS

The effects and mechanisms of LCH on migraine were evaluated in NTG-induced mice and rats. Laser speckle contrast imaging was performed to detect the cerebral blood flow. Metabolomic analysis in serum and mass spectrometry imaging in brain tissue from NTG-induced rats were conducted to explore the metabolites. The techniques including RT-qPCR, immunohistochemistry, and immunofluorescence were employed to estimate the molecular changes.

RESULTS

Totally, 1480 metabolites were identified, among which, 50 and 49 differential metabolites were identified by t-test, fold change, and VIP score for NTG vs. CON and LCH+NTG vs. NTG, respectively. Next, 13 common real difference metabolites were revealed by comparative analysis, and KEGG annotation and enrichment analysis showed that the glutathione (GSH) metabolism pathway played important roles in migraine, whereas the glutamate could be metabolized to γ-glu-cys and converted to GSH. Molecular exploring further confirmed that LCH treatment increased the expression of essential components of GSH synthetase, such as GCLC and GCLM, and elevated the expression levels of Nrf-2 and its downstream targets including HO1 and NQO1. Moreover, the mass spectrometry imaging results found that LCH treatment promoted the synthesis of GSH and the spatial distribution of glucose as well as ATP metabolites to normal levels.

CONCLUSION

To sum up, the present study firstly reveals that LCH plays a therapeutic role for migraine through glucose-glutamate-Nrf-2 axis, which might represent a promising approach in the development of advanced therapeutic strategies for migraine, and the LCH may be an effective drug or dietary supplement for relieving headache.

Effects of Leaf Extracts from Genetic Resource of Capsicum spp. on Neuroprotection and Anti-Neuroinflammation in HT22 and in BV2 Cells

To develop functional varieties of Capsicum spp. leaves, 40 genetic resources were collected and extracted with 30% aqueous-fermented ethanol. We investigated the protective effects of extracts from 40 genetic resources of Capsicum spp. on glutamate-induced HT22 and LPS-induced BV2 cells. The results showed that the five extracts exhibited cell-protective activities. We also investigated the anti-inflammatory effects of these five extracts on LPS-induced BV2 cell neuroinflammation and found that 23OM18 exhibited superior anti-inflammatory effects. We further investigated the protective activity and anti-inflammatory mechanisms of 23OM18 in these two cell models. In addition, the profiles of 16 metabolites were compared between the representative accessions and among the five genetic resources using ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry (UHPLC-QTOF-MS). The results showed that 23OM18 protected HT22 cells by inhibiting reactive oxygen species generation and regulating the MAPK-JNK signaling pathway, thereby reducing LPS-induced BV2 cell neuroinflammation by regulating the NF-κB and MAPK signaling pathways. Based on these results, 23OM18 has the potential to be developed as a functional food for the treatment of neurodegenerative diseases.

Linalool-rich rosewood essential oil (Aniba rosaeodora Ducke) mitigates emotional and neurochemical impairments induced by ethanol binge-like exposure during adolescence in female rats

Linalool-rich Rosewood oil (Aniba rosaeodora Ducke) is a natural compound widely used in perfumery industry. Evidence suggests that linalool exerts antidepressant and anxiolytic effects. Conversely, ethanol binge drinking (i.e., intermittent and episodic consumption) during adolescence elicits neurobehavioral alterations associated with brain damage. Here, we investigated whether linalool-rich Rosewood oil administration can improve the emotional and molecular impairments associated with ethanol binge-like exposure during adolescence in female rats. Rosewood oil was obtained by hydrodistillation and posteriorly analyzed. Adolescent female Wistar rats received four-cycles of ethanol binge-like pattern (3 g/kg/day, 3 days on/4 days off) and daily Rosewood oil (35 mg/kg, intranasally) for 28 days. Twenty-four hours after treatments, it was evaluated the impact of ethanol exposure and Rosewood oil treatment on the putative emotional impairments assessed on the splash and forced swimming tests, as well as the levels of brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), S100B, oxidative parameters, and inflammatory cytokines in prefrontal cortex and hippocampus. Results indicated that Rosewood oil intranasal administration mitigated emotional impairments induced by ethanol exposure accompanied by a marked increase in BDNF, S100B, glutathione (GSH), and antioxidant activity equivalent to Trolox (TEAC) levels in brain areas. Rosewood oil treatment also prevented the ethanol-induced increase of interleukin-1β, interleukin-6, tumor necrosis factor α (TNF-α), and neurofilament light chain (NFL) levels. These findings provide the first evidence that Rosewood oil intranasal administration exerts protective effects against emotional and molecular impairments associated with adolescent ethanol binge-like exposure, possibly due to linalool actions triggering neurotrophic factors, rebalancing antioxidant status, and attenuating proinflammatory process.

Monoterpene linalool restrains gentamicin-mediated acute kidney injury in rats by subsiding oxidative stress, apoptosis, and the NF-κB/iNOS/TNF-α/IL-1β pathway and regulating TGF-β

The clinical use of gentamicin (GM) is restricted by its nephrotoxic effects. This study aimed for the first time to elucidate the ameliorative effects of the monoterpene linalool (Lin) against GM-mediated acute kidney injury in rats. A total of thirty-two rats were subdivided into four equal groups: control (saline), Lin (100 mg/kg/day), GM (100 mg/kg/day), and GM + Lin (100 and 100 mg/kg/day). Lin and GM were intraperitoneally administered for 12 days. Our results illustrated that Lin ameliorated GM-mediated renal histopathological abnormalities and reduced serum urea and creatinine levels in rats exposed to GM. Lin treatment mitigated oxidative stress in nephrotoxic animals as manifested by reducing serum and renal levels of malondialdehyde and increasing the activities of serum and renal glutathione peroxidase and renal catalase. Moreover, Lin markedly inhibited GM-triggered inflammation by downregulating NF-κB, iNOS, TNF-α, and IL-1β and reducing renal myeloperoxidase activity and nitric oxide levels. Interestingly, Lin repressed GM-induced apoptosis, as reflected by a marked downregulation of Bax and caspase-3 expression, concurrent with the upregulation of Bcl2 expression. Finally, Lin administration led to a significant downregulation of TGF-β expression in nephrotoxic animals. In summary, Lin ameliorated GM-mediated nephrotoxicity in rats, at least through its antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and anti-apoptotic activities and by modulating TGF-β.

Maternal linalool treatment protects against radiofrequency wave-induced deteriorations in adolescent rats: A behavioral and electrophysiological study

Recent years, the rapid advancement of technology has raised concerns. We studied the effects of prenatal exposure to 900 MHz radiofrequency (RF) from mobile phones and the protective effects of linalool on learning and memory, and anxiety in adolescent male and female offspring rats. Pregnant rats were divided into four groups: control, wave, wave + linalool, and linalool. Rats received linalool (25mg/kg) by gavage for 21 days. Irradiation was conducted from day 0 to day 21 of pregnancy. Offsprings underwent behavioral and electrophysiological tests on days 50 and 60 after birth. Exposure to RF during pregnancy caused anxiety-like behavior in the EPM test and impairment of learning and memory in the Morris water maze and shuttle box tests. Electrophysiological properties and synaptic plasticity of the dorsal hippocampal CA3-CA1 synapse showed a decrease in fEPSP amplitude and slope. The trace element levels in both male and female offspring were consistent across all groups compared to their respective controls. In the hippocampus tissue, the levels of Fe, Cu, and Mn, as well as the Cu/Zn ratio, were significantly higher in the exposed groups (wave groups) compared to their controls. Moreover, Zn levels were significantly lower in the hippocampus tissue of the exposed groups. Linalool administration mitigated the excessive increase in Fe, Cu, Mn, and Cu/Zn ratio and normalized the disrupted levels of trace elements, except for Zn levels in both male and female offspring. Sex differences were observed in the EPM and shuttle box tests, females were more sensitive than males. In summary, our study demonstrates that prenatal exposure to mobile phone radiation induces stress-like behaviors, disrupts learning and memory, alters hippocampal electrophysiological properties and trace element balance in offspring. Treatment with linalool mitigates these deleterious effects, highlighting its potential as a therapeutic intervention. These findings contribute to our understanding of the impact of prenatal environmental exposures on neurodevelopment and offer insights into potential strategies for neuroprotection.

Diesel exhaust particles alter mitochondrial bioenergetics and cAMP producing capacity in human bronchial epithelial cells

Introduction: Air pollution from diesel combustion is linked in part to the generation of diesel exhaust particles (DEP). DEP exposure induces various processes, including inflammation and oxidative stress, which ultimately contribute to a decline in lung function. Cyclic AMP (cAMP) signaling is critical for lung homeostasis. The impact of DEP on cAMP signaling is largely unknown. Methods: We exposed human bronchial epithelial (BEAS-2B) cells to DEP for 24-72 h and evaluated mitochondrial bioenergetics, markers of oxidative stress and inflammation and the components of cAMP signaling. Mitochondrial bioenergetics was measured at 72 h to capture the potential and accumulative effects of prolonged DEP exposure on mitochondrial function. Results: DEP profoundly altered mitochondrial morphology and network integrity, reduced both basal and ATP-linked respiration as well as the glycolytic capacity of mitochondria. DEP exposure increased gene expression of oxidative stress and inflammation markers such as interleukin-8 and interleukin-6. DEP significantly affected mRNA levels of exchange protein directly activated by cAMP-1 and -2 (Epac1, Epac2), appeared to increase Epac1 protein, but left phospho-PKA levels unhanged. DEP exposure increased A-kinase anchoring protein 1, β2-adrenoceptor and prostanoid E receptor subtype 4 mRNA levels. Interestingly, DEP decreased mRNA levels of adenylyl cyclase 9 and reduced cAMP levels stimulated by forskolin (AC activator), fenoterol (β2-AR agonist) or PGE2 (EPR agonist). Discussion: Our findings suggest that DEP induces mitochondrial dysfunction, a process accompanied by oxidative stress and inflammation, and broadly dampens cAMP signaling. These epithelial responses may contribute to lung dysfunction induced by air pollution exposure.

Linalool: Therapeutic Indication And Their Multifaceted Biomedical Applications

This comprehensive review endeavors to illuminate the nuanced facets of linalool, a prominent monoterpene found abundantly in essential oils, constituting a massive portion of their composition. The biomedical relevance of linalool is a key focus, highlighting its therapeutic attributes observed through anti-nociceptive effects, anxiolytic properties, and behavioral modulation in individuals affected by dementia. These findings underscore the compound's potential application in biomedical applications. This review further explores contemporary formulations, delineating the adaptability of linalool in nano-emulsions, microemulsions, bio-capsules, and various topical formulations, including topical gels and lotions. This review covers published and granted patents between 2018-2024 and sheds light on the evolving landscape of linalool applications, revealing advancements in dermatological, anti-inflammatory, and antimicrobial domains.

Influence of the glutamate-glutamine cycle on valproic acid-associated hepatotoxicity in pediatric patients with epilepsy

INTRODUCTION

Although valproic acid is generally well tolerated, hepatotoxicity is a common side effect in patients receiving long-term treatment. However, the mechanisms underlying valproic acid-associated hepatotoxicity remain elusive.

METHODS

To investigate the mechanisms and explore the potential risk factors for valproic acid-associated hepatotoxicity, 165 age-matched pediatric patients were recruited for laboratory tests and glutamate-glutamine cycle analysis.

RESULTS

The concentration of glutamate in patients with hepatotoxicity was significantly greater than that in control patients, while the concentration of glutamine in patients with hepatotoxicity was significantly lower than that in control patients (P <0.05). In addition, the frequencies of the heterozygous with one mutant allele and homozygous with two mutant alleles genotypes in glutamate-ammonia ligase rs10911021 were significantly higher in the hepatotoxicity group than those in the control group (47.1 percent versus 32.5 percent, P = 0.010; 17.6 percent versus 5.2 percent, P = 0.001, respectively). Moreover, heterozygous carriers with one mutant allele and homozygous carriers with two mutant alleles genotypes of glutamate-ammonia ligase rs10911021 exhibited significant differences in the concentrations of glutamine and glutamate concentrations (P ˂ 0.001 and P = 0.001, respectively) and liver function indicators (activities of aspartate aminotransferase, alanine aminotransferase, and gamma-glutamyl transferase, P <0.001, respectively). Furthermore, logistic regression analysis indicated that glutamate-ammonia ligase rs10911021 (P = 0.002, odds ratio: 3.027, 95 percent confidence interval, 1.521 - 6.023) and glutamate (P = 0.001, odds ratio: 2.235, 95 percent confidence interval, 1.369 - 3.146) were associated with a greater risk for hepatotoxicity, while glutamine concentrations were negatively associated with hepatotoxicity (P = 0.001, odds ratio: 0.711, 95 percent confidence interval, 0.629 - 0.804).

DISCUSSION

Understanding pharmacogenomic risks for valproic acid induced hepatotoxicity might help direct patient specific care. Limitations of our study include the exclusive use of children from one location and concomitant medication use in many patients.

CONCLUSION

Perturbation of the glutamate-glutamine cycle is associated with valproic acid-associated hepatotoxicity. Moreover, glutamate-ammonia ligase rs10911021, glutamate and glutamine concentrations are potential risk factors for valproic acid-associated hepatotoxicity.

The beneficial effects of quinoa seed extract supplementation on ram sperm quality following cryopreservation

Although cryopreservation is a reliable method used in assisted reproduction to preserve genetic materials, it can stimulate the occurrence of oxidative stress, which affects sperm structure and function. This research was conducted to explore the effects of quinoa seed extracts (QSE) on ram sperm quality, oxidative biomarkers, and the gene expression of frozen-thawed ram sperm. Semen samples were diluted in extenders supplemented with 0 (QSE0), 250 (QSE1), 500 (QSE2), 750 (QSE3), and 1000 (QSE4) µg of QSE /mL, and then frozen according to the typical procedure. The findings indicate that the QSE3 and QSE4 groups provided the optimal results in terms of sperm viability and progressive motility. Sperm kinematics were considerably enhanced in the QSE3 group compared to the other groups (P<0.01). QSE (500-1000 µg/mL) significantly decreased the apoptosis-like changes (higher viable and lower apoptotic sperm) in ram sperm (P<0.001). The percentage of live sperm with intact acrosomes was significantly increased, while the percentage of detached and intact acrosomes in live and dead sperm were significantly decreased respectively by the QSE addition (P<0.001). All QSE groups had higher TAC and lower MDA and H2O2 levels than the control group (P<0.001). The expressions of SOD1, CAT, GABPB1, and GPX1 genes in sperm samples were significantly increased, while the CASP3 gene was significantly decreased in all QSE-supplemented samples. Our data suggest that QSE has beneficial effects on sperm quality of cryopreserved ram semen, which are achieved by promoting sperm antioxidant-related genes and reducing apoptosis-related gene.

Cannabinoid treatments in epilepsy and seizure disorders

Cannabis has been used to treat convulsions and other disorders since ancient times. In the last few decades, preclinical animal studies and clinical investigations have established the role of cannabidiol (CBD) in treating epilepsy and seizures and support potential therapeutic benefits for cannabinoids in other neurological and psychiatric disorders. Here, we comprehensively review the role of cannabinoids in epilepsy. We briefly review the diverse physiological processes mediating the central nervous system response to cannabinoids, including Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (Δ9-THC), cannabidiol, and terpenes. Next, we characterize the anti- and proconvulsive effects of cannabinoids from animal studies of acute seizures and chronic epileptogenesis. We then review the clinical literature on using cannabinoids to treat epilepsy, including anecdotal evidence and case studies as well as the more recent randomized controlled clinical trials that led to US Food and Drug Administration approval of CBD for some types of epilepsy. Overall, we seek to evaluate our current understanding of cannabinoids in epilepsy and focus future research on unanswered questions.

Plant Monoterpenes and Essential Oils as Potential Anti-Ageing Agents: Insights from Preclinical Data

Ageing is a natural process characterized by a time-dependent decline of physiological integrity that compromises functionality and inevitably leads to death. This decline is also quite relevant in major human pathologies, being a primary risk factor in neurodegenerative diseases, metabolic disorders, cardiovascular diseases and musculoskeletal disorders. Bearing this in mind, it is not surprising that research aiming at improving human health during this process has burst in the last decades. Importantly, major hallmarks of the ageing process and phenotype have been identified, this knowledge being quite relevant for future studies towards the identification of putative pharmaceutical targets, enabling the development of preventive/therapeutic strategies to improve health and longevity. In this context, aromatic plants have emerged as a source of potential bioactive volatile molecules, mainly monoterpenes, with many studies referring to their anti-ageing potential. Nevertheless, an integrated review on the current knowledge is lacking, with several research approaches studying isolated ageing hallmarks or referring to an overall anti-ageing effect, without depicting possible mechanisms of action. Herein, we aim to provide an updated systematization of the bioactive potential of volatile monoterpenes on recently proposed ageing hallmarks, and highlight the main mechanisms of action already identified, as well as possible chemical entity-activity relations. By gathering and categorizing the available scattered information, we also aim to identify important research gaps that could help pave the way for future research in the field.

Novel SK channel positive modulators prevent ferroptosis and excitotoxicity in neuronal cells

Small conductance calcium-activated potassium (SK) channel activity has been proposed to play a role in the pathology of several neurological diseases. Besides regulating plasma membrane excitability, SK channel activation provides neuroprotection against ferroptotic cell death by reducing mitochondrial Ca2+ uptake and reactive oxygen species (ROS). In this study, we employed a multifaceted approach, integrating structure-based and computational techniques, to strategically design and synthesize an innovative class of potent small-molecule SK2 channel modifiers through highly efficient multicomponent reactions (MCRs). The compounds' neuroprotective activity was compared with the well-studied SK positive modulator, CyPPA. Pharmacological SK channel activation by selected compounds confers neuroprotection against ferroptosis at low nanomolar ranges compared to CyPPA, that mediates protection at micromolar concentrations, as shown by an MTT assay, real-time cell impedance measurements and propidium iodide staining (PI). These novel compounds suppress increased mitochondrial ROS and Ca2+ level induced by ferroptosis inducer RSL3. Moreover, axonal degeneration was rescued by these novel SK channel activators in primary mouse neurons and they attenuated glutamate-induced neuronal excitability, as shown via microelectrode array. Meanwhile, functional afterhyperpolarization of the novel SK2 channel modulators was validated by electrophysiological measurements showing more current change induced by the novel modulators than the reference compound, CyPPA. These data support the notion that SK2 channel activation can represent a therapeutic target for brain diseases in which ferroptosis and excitotoxicity contribute to the pathology.

Chemical Profile and Biological Activities Of Piper mikanianum (Kunth) Steud Essential Oil for Development and Improvement of Oral Rinse

INTRODUCTION

Studies prove that the use of medicinal plants is a custom carried out by man since ancient times, the evolution of the pharmaceutical industry makes more people consume more natural products. Currently, we can observe that mouthwashes containing natural compounds have shown a growth in demand in the markets and in the professional community.

OBJECTIVE

The present study aims to carry out the chemical characterization and microbiological potential of Piper mikanianum (Kunth) Steud essential oil (EOPm), providing data that allows the development of a low-cost mouthwash formulation aimed at vulnerable communities.

METHODS

The evaluation of the antibacterial activity and modulator of bacterial resistance was performed by the microdilution method to determine the minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC). The chemical components were characterized by gas chromatography coupled to mass spectrometry, identified 28 constituents, in which Safrole Phenylpropanoid is the major compound, representing 72.6 % of the total composition, followed by α-pinene (10.7 %), Limonene (2 %), β-caryophyllene (2 %), E-nerolidol (1.9 %), spathulenol (1.3 %) and camphene (1.1 %).

RESULTS

The EOPm showed a MIC minimum inhibitory concentration≥1024 μg/mL for all bacterial strains used in the tests. When the EOPm modulating activity combined with chlorhexidine, mouthwash, ampicillin, gentamicin and penicillin G was evaluated against bacterial resistance, the oil showed significant synergistic activity, reducing the MIC of the products tested in combination, in percentage between 20.6 % to 98 .4 %.

CONCLUSIONS

We recommend the expansion of tests with greater variation of EOPm concentration combinations and the products used in this study, as well as toxicity evaluation and in vivo tests, seeking the development of a possible low-cost mouthwash formulation accessible to the most vulnerable population.

Alleviating effect of lavender (Lavandula angustifolia) and its major components on postherpetic pain: a randomized blinded controlled trial

BACKGROUND

Postherpetic neuralgia (PHN) causes severe pain which can lead to decreased quality-of-life. This study aimed to evaluate the effects of inhalation of lavender (Lavandula angustifolia) oil and its major components (linalool and linalyl acetate) on the pain in patients with PHN.

METHODS

This study was performed at an outpatient clinic. Sixty-four patients with postherpetic neuralgia were randomly allocated to a control group (almond oil) or one of three experimental groups (lavender oil, linalool, or linalyl acetate diluted in almond oil at concentration of 1% v/v), and the participants inhaled the aroma by natural breathing. Quality, severity, and intensity of pain were measured before and after the intervention.

RESULTS

Six patients discontinued the intervention for personal reasons; hence, data from 58 patients were analyzed (control group, n = 14; 1% lavender oil group, n = 15; 1% linalool, n = 15; 1% linalyl acetate, n = 14). Reduction in sensory pain was greater in the 1% lavender oil group, 1% linalool group, and 1% linalyl acetate group than in the control group (all P < 0.001). Reduction in affective pain was greater in the 1% lavender group (P < 0.001) and the 1% linalool group (P = 0.007) than in the control group. Decreases in pain severity and intensity were significantly greater in all three intervention groups than in the control group.

CONCLUSIONS

Inhalation of lavender oil and its major volatile components effectively reduced the quality, severity, and intensity of postherpetic pain, suggesting that lavender oil, linalool, and linalyl acetate may each be an effective intervention for reducing pain in patients with postherpetic neuralgia.

TRIAL REGISTRATION

This study was retrospectively registered on the Clinical Research Information Service.

REGISTRATION NUMBER

KCT0007772, first registration 06/10/2022.

Analgesic effect of linalool odor on oral ulcerative mucositis-induced pain in rats

Oral ulcerative mucositis (OUM) induces severe pain, leading to a low quality of life. Linalool odor exposure has recently been reported to suppress inflammatory pain in the hind paws. However, the analgesic effect of linalool odor on orofacial pain remains unclear. In this study, we examined the mechanism underlying the analgesic effect of linalool odor on oral pain caused by OUM using nocifensive behavioral and immunohistochemical analyses in rats. OUM was developed by treating the labial fornix region of the inferior incisors with acetic acid. Linalool at 1% was exposed for 5 min at 30 min before nocifensive behavioral measurements. OUM induced spontaneous pain and mechanical allodynia, which were suppressed by the linalool odor. Mechanical allodynia in the hind paw following the injection of complete Freund's adjuvant was also suppressed by linalool odor. Application of lidocaine to the olfactory bulb attenuated the inhibition of spontaneous pain and hyperactivation of trigeminal spinal nucleus caudalis neurons in OUM model rats. Linalool odor exposure-induced neuronal activation in the locus coeruleus (LC) of OUM model rats was decreased by lidocaine application to the olfactory bulb. The decrease in neuronal activation in the LC was attenuated by the administration of orexin 1 receptor (OX-1) antagonist to the LC. These results suggest that linalool odor stimulation through the olfactory pathway activates LC neurons via OX-1 signaling, leading to the suppression of OUM-induced oral pain.

Linalool attenuates hypothalamus proteome disturbance facilitated by methamphetamine induced neurotoxicity in rats

BACKGROUND

One of the most powerful stimulants of the central nervous system is methamphetamine (METH). Linalool has a neuroprotective effect against ischemia injury by reducing oxidative stress and apoptosis. The present study investigated whether linalool can reverse the hypothalamus neurotoxicity and proteome disturbance in METH-treated rats.

BRIEF METHOD

A total of 36 male albino rats were split into two equal groups (normal and METH-treated). Three equal subgroups of normal rats were created; Control, Linalool (25 mg/kg), and Linalool (50 mg/kg); Normal rats were given daily oral doses of 1 ml of distilled water, 25 mg/kg linalool, and 50 mg/kg of linalool, respectively. METH groups were divided into 3 equal subgroups; METH-treated rats, Linalool (25 mg/kg)+METH-treated, and Linalool (50 mg/kg)+METH-treated subgroups; METH-treated rats received daily and oral doses of 1 ml distilled water, 25 mg/kg linalool, and 50 mg/kg of linalool, respectively.

RESULTS

According to the data obtained, METH caused a decrease of the sucrose preference test, travel distance test, and center square entries test, superoxide dismutase, glutathione peroxidase, catalase, NADPH oxidase, interleukin-10 but a rise in the center square duration test, tail suspension test, and forced swimming test, malondialdehyde, conjugated dienes, oxidative index, serotonin, dopamine, norepinephrine, γ-aminobutyric acid, tumour necrosis factor-α, interleukin-1β, interleukin-6 levels. When compared to the control group, rats treated with METH had lower sodium/potassium ATPase activity and missing of prothrombin, fibrinogen, and ceruloplasmin protein bands in the hypothalamus. In METH-treated rats, daily and oral co-administration with linalool brought all these parameters back to values that were close to control.

SIGNIFICANCE

According to obtained data, linalool could protect the hypothalamus against METH-induced neurotoxicity and proteome disturbance probably by modifying oxidative stress, neurotransmitters, inflammation, sodium/potassium-ATPase activity, proteome disturbance, and tissue histology in METH-treated rats where higher dose of linalool was more efficient than lower dose.

The contribution of Coriandrum sativum in enhancing Oreochromis niloticus rearing at sub-optimal temperatures: effect on growth, health status, survival rate, and resistance to Aeromons Veronii

This study (60 days) was conducted to investigate the ability of diet enriched with Coriandrum sativum powder or its extract to protect Oreochromis niloticus health and survivability at suboptimal temperature (21 ℃). One hundred and twenty (33.14 ± 0.5 g) were divided into four groups; each group has three replicates.. The first control group fed on a basal diet. Second and third groups fed on diet enriched with 30 mg/kg coriander seed powder (CP) and coriander seed ethanolic extract (CE), respectively. The fourth group (OT) fed on diet enriched with 500 mg oxytetracycline/kg diet. The results revealed that CE exhibited a considerable improvement in hematological parameters, hepatic-renal functions, antioxidant status, and immunological markers as well as remarkably increased resistance against Aeromonas veronii. It could be concluded that feeding tilapia CE enriched diet at 30 mg/kg is a recommended strategy to enhance tilapia health and resistance to A. veronii infection reared at 21 ℃.

Pharmacological evidence for glutamatergic pathway involvement in the antidepressant-like effects of 2-phenyl-3-(phenylselanyl)benzofuran in male Swiss mice

Depression is a multifactorial and heterogeneous disease with several neurobiological mechanisms underlying its pathophysiology, including dysfunctional glutamatergic neurotransmission, which makes the exploration of the glutamate pathway an interesting strategy for developing novel rapid-acting antidepressant treatments. In the present study, we aimed to evaluate the possible glutamatergic pathway relation in the antidepressant-like action of 2-phenyl-3-(phenylselanyl)benzofuran (SeBZF1) in Swiss mice employing the tail suspension test (TST). Male Swiss mice received drugs targeting glutamate receptors before acute SeBZF1 administration at effective (50 mg/kg) or subeffective (1 mg/kg) doses by intragastric route (ig). TST and the open-field test (OFT) were employed in all behavioral experiments. The pretreatment of mice with N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) (0.1 pmol/site, intracerebroventricular, icv, a selective agonist of the NMDA receptors), D-serine (30 µg/site, icv, a co-agonist at the NMDA receptor), arcaine (1 mg/kg, intraperitoneal, ip, an antagonist of the polyamine-binding site at the NMDA receptor), and 6,7-dinitroquinoxaline-2,3-dione (DNQX) (2,5 µg/site, icv, an antagonist of the AMPA/kainate type of glutamate receptors) inhibited the antidepressant-like effects of SeBZF1 (50 mg/kg, ig) in the TST. Coadministration of a subeffective dose of SeBZF1 with low doses of MK-801 (0.001 mg/kg, ip, a non-competitive NMDA receptor antagonist) or ketamine (0.1 mg/kg, ip, a non-selective antagonist of the NMDA receptors) produced significant antidepressant-like effects (synergistic action). These findings suggest the involvement of the glutamatergic system, probably through modulation of ionotropic glutamate receptors, in the antidepressant-like action of SeBZF1 in mice and contribute to a better understanding of the mechanisms underlying its pharmacological effects.

Species-specific metabolic reprogramming in human and mouse microglia during inflammatory pathway induction

Metabolic reprogramming is a hallmark of the immune cells in response to inflammatory stimuli. This metabolic process involves a switch from oxidative phosphorylation (OXPHOS) to glycolysis or alterations in other metabolic pathways. However, most of the experimental findings have been acquired in murine immune cells, and little is known about the metabolic reprogramming of human microglia. In this study, we investigate the transcriptomic, proteomic, and metabolic profiles of mouse and iPSC-derived human microglia challenged with the TLR4 agonist LPS. We demonstrate that both species display a metabolic shift and an overall increased glycolytic gene signature in response to LPS treatment. The metabolic reprogramming is characterized by the upregulation of hexokinases in mouse microglia and phosphofructokinases in human microglia. This study provides a direct comparison of metabolism between mouse and human microglia, highlighting the species-specific pathways involved in immunometabolism and the importance of considering these differences in translational research.

Synergistic effects of aerobic exercise and transcranial direct current stimulation on executive function and biomarkers in healthy young adults

OBJECTIVE

This research explored the combined effects of transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) and aerobic exercise (AE) on executive function and specific serum biomarkers in healthy adults.

METHODS

Sixty healthy young adults were randomly assigned into tDCS+AE, tDCS only, or AE only groups. Interventions were carried out for 20 days. Executive functions were evaluated using tasks such as the 2,3-back task, the spatial working memory task, the Stroop test, T test, and hexagonal obstacle jump task. Serum biomarkers, including brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), malondialdehyde (MDA), superoxide dismutase (SOD), glutamate, glutathione peroxidase 4 (GPX4) and iron ion, were analyzed pre- and post-intervention.

RESULTS

The tDCS+AE group showed superior enhancements in executive function, evidenced by improved accuracy rates in 2,3-back tasks, better performance in the staircase task, and reduced reaction times in the incongruent reaction time of the Stroop task compared to other groups. Importantly, we found substantial changes in serum biomarkers: increased levels of BDNF and SOD, and decreased levels of MDA and glutamate in the tDCS+AE group. These changes were significantly different when compared with the tDCS and AE only groups. Notably, these alterations in serum biomarkers were correlated with improvements in executive function tasks, thus offering a potential physiological basis for the cognitive improvements witnessed.

CONCLUSION

The combined tDCS and AE intervention effectively improved executive function in healthy young adults, with the improvements linked to changes in key serum biomarkers. The results emphasize the potential of combined tDCS and AE interventions in engaging multiple physiological pathways to enhance executive function.

Update on new trends and progress of natural active ingredients in the intervention of Alzheimer's disease, based on understanding of traditional Chinese and Western relevant theories: A review

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is one of the major neurological disorders causing death in the elderly worldwide. As a neurodegenerative disease that is difficult to prevent and cure, the pathogenesis of AD is complex and there is no effective cure. A variety of natural products derived from plants have been reported to have promising anti-AD activities, including flavonoids, terpenes, phenolic acids and alkaloids, which can effectively relieve the symptoms of AD in a variety of ways. This paper mainly reviews the pharmacological activity and mechanisms of natural products against AD. Although the clinical efficacy of these plants still needs to be determined by further high-quality studies, it may also provide a basis for future researchers to study anti-AD in depth.

Farrerol attenuates glutamate-induced apoptosis in HT22 cells via the Nrf2/heme oxygenase-1 pathway

Farrerol is a flavonoid found in plants with a wide range of pharmacological effects, including protection and enhancement of nerve cell function, as well as antioxidant and antibacterial properties, among others. Neurodegenerative diseases are irreversible neurological disorders resulting from the loss of neuronal cells in the brain and spinal cord. In this experiment, we investigated the neuroprotective and antioxidant effects of farrerol on glutamate-induced HT22 cells. Our results showed that farrerol inhibited reactive oxygen species expression, apoptosis, mitochondrial damage, and the activation of caspases 3 and 9 in HT22 cells induced by glutamate. Additionally, farrerol potentially regulated the Nrf2/heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1) signaling pathway, as it attenuated the nuclear translocation of Nrf2 and promoted the expression of HO-1. These findings suggest that farrerol has potential as a new therapeutic option.

Characterizing the specific mechanism of series processed Coptidis Rhizoma by multi-organ metabolomics combined with network pharmacology and molecular docking

BACKGROUND

After being processed with different excipients, the clinical application of Coptidis Rhizoma (CR) is differentially investigated. However, the underlying mechanism and material basis are not clear, and there is a lack of attention to the collaborative working mode of herbal medicine during exploration.

PURPOSE

To characterize the specific mechanism of wine/zingiberis rhizoma recens/euodiae fructus processed CR (wCR/zCR/eCR) and to investigate the role of excipients during processing.

METHODS

The multi-organ metabolomics approach was employed to explore the target organs of wCR/zCR/eCR and multiple pathways being triggered in each organ. The tissue distribution of CR and wCR/zCR/eCR components was compared to indicate the material basis of efficacy change after processing. Further, the network pharmacology study coupled with experimental validation was conducted to support metabolomic research and predicted active ingredients and core targets, and the molecular docking coupled with binding test was performed to identify the binding between active ingredient and core target.

RESULTS

The multi-organ metabolomics and network pharmacology study elucidated the intervening effect of wCR on heart/lung, zCR on stomach/colon, and eCR on liver/colon/stomach. Combined with molecular docking, binding test and tissue distribution studies, the specific mechanism was as follows: the wine made iso-quinoline alkaloids in CR more likely to accumulate in heart/lung, thus triggering the core targets of PTGS2, NOS2, ESR1 and SLC6A4 in heart/lung, and thereby highlighting the detoxifying and cardiopulmonary protective effect of wCR. The zingiberis rhizoma recens and euodiae fructus made organic acids in CR more likely to accumulate in stomach/colon and liver/colon/stomach respectively, thus triggering the core targets of ACTB, TNF and PRKCA in stomach/colon, the core targets of ACTB, TNF, PRKCA and GPT in stomach/colon/liver, and thereby highlighting the improving effect of zCR/eCR on digestive function.

CONCLUSION

Iso-quinoline alkaloids were the material basis of CR for anti-inflammation, and organic acids were mainly responsible for regulating gastrointestinal function. Due to the influence of excipients on the accumulation tendency of CR components, the differentially highlighted application of wCR/zCR/eCR was achieved. These findings propose a novel strategy for processing mechanism research.

Anti-Inflammatory and Antimicrobial Properties of Thyme Oil and Its Main Constituents

Thyme oil (TO) is derived from the flowers of various plants belonging to the genus Thymus. It has been used as a therapeutic agent since ancient times. Thymus comprises numerous molecular species exhibiting diverse therapeutic properties that are dependent on their biologically active concentrations in the extracted oil. It is therefore not surprising that oils extracted from different thyme plants present different therapeutic properties. Furthermore, the phenophase of the same plant species has been shown to yield different anti-inflammatory properties. Given the proven efficacy of TO and the diversity of its constituents, a better understanding of the interactions of the various components is warranted. The aim of this review is to gather the latest research findings regarding TO and its components with respect to their immunomodulatory properties. An optimization of the various components has the potential to yield more effective thyme formulations with increased potency.

Activated AMPK-mediated glucose uptake and mitochondrial dysfunction is critically involved in the glutamate-induced oxidative injury in HT22 cell

BACKGROUND

Accumulation of glutamate damages neurons via the reactive oxygen species (ROS) injury, which was involved in the development of neurodegenerative diseases. However, the mechanism of neuronal oxidative stress damage caused by glutamate and the intervention targets still needs to be further studied. This study explored whether 5' adenosine monophosphate-activated protein kinase (AMPK)-induced glucose metabolic and mitochondrial dysfunction were related to glutamate-dependent ROS injury of the neuron.

METHODS

Neuronal oxidative stress injury was induced by glutamate treatment in HT-22 cells. Western blotting was used to evaluate the phosphorylation of the AMPK. The XF24 Flux Analyzer was used to measure the effect of glutamate and Compound C (a well-known pharmacological inhibitor of AMPK phosphorylation) on the cellular oxygen consumption rate (OCR) of HT-22 cells. Glucose uptake, intracellular ROS, mitochondrial potential, apoptosis and cell viability were quantified using biochemical assays.

RESULTS

Glutamate caused the phosphorylation of AMPK and subsequently promoted the glucose uptake. Furthermore, AMPK-mediated glucose uptake enhanced OCR and increased the intracellular ROS levels in neurons. The pharmacological inhibition of AMPK phosphorylation by Compound C attenuated glutamate-induced toxicity in HT22 cells by regulating the glucose uptake/mitochondrial respiration/ROS pathway.

CONCLUSIONS

The AMPK phosphorylation/glucose uptake/mitochondrial respiration/ROS pathway was involved in glutamate-induced excitotoxic injury in HT22 cells. The inhibition of AMPK phosphorylation may be a potential target for the development of therapeutic agents for treating the glutamate-induced neurotoxicity.

Cannabinoids in traumatic brain injury and related neuropathologies: preclinical and clinical research on endogenous, plant-derived, and synthetic compounds

Traumatic brain injury is common, and often results in debilitating consequences. Even mild traumatic brain injury leaves approximately 20% of patients with symptoms that persist for months. Despite great clinical need there are currently no approved pharmaceutical interventions that improve outcomes after traumatic brain injury. Increased understanding of the endocannabinoid system in health and disease has accompanied growing evidence for therapeutic benefits of Cannabis sativa. This has driven research of Cannabis' active chemical constituents (phytocannabinoids), alongside endogenous and synthetic counterparts, collectively known as cannabinoids. Also of therapeutic interest are other Cannabis constituents, such as terpenes. Cannabinoids interact with neurons, microglia, and astrocytes, and exert anti-inflammatory and neuroprotective effects which are highly desirable for the management of traumatic brain injury. In this review, we comprehensively appraised the relevant scientific literature, where major and minor phytocannabinoids, terpenes, synthetic cannabinoids, and endogenous cannabinoids were assessed in TBI, or other neurological conditions with pathology and symptomology relevant to TBI, as well as recent studies in preclinical TBI models and clinical TBI populations.

Efficacy and tolerability of Lavandula angustifolia in treating patients with the diagnosis of depression: a systematic review of randomized controlled trials

Pharmacotherapy is the conventional treatment for depression, with only half of the patients responding to the first trial of monotherapy with first-line medicines. One way to overcome this resistance is to use complementary and alternative medicine. The antidepressant effects of Lavandula angustifolia, which is commonly called lavender, have been investigated in previous studies. This study aims to provide the first systematic review of lavender in treating patients with depression diagnosis. ISI Web of Science, Scopus, PubMed, Embase, PsycINFO, Google Scholar, and three trial registries were searched until May 2020 to find randomized controlled trials on lavender for depressed patients. The primary outcome was difference between the intervention and control groups in changing depression scores from baseline to endpoint. The included studies were assessed for effect size and methodological quality. Seven clinical trials were identified, in which 852 patients were studied. In six trials, the effectiveness of lavender in treating depression was reported, as being more pronounced adjunct to a typical antidepressant in one study. Significant reported side effects include headaches and eructation. Lavender is beneficial, tolerable, and safe in treating depression. Despite obtaining promising results, they are not enough to recommend prescribing lavender to depressed patients. Further high-quality, large-scale studies for rectifying the shortcomings of existing studies are recommended.

Immunomodulatory effect of Linalool (Lin) against CCl4 -induced hepatotoxicity and oxidative damage in rats

The current study explored the hepatoprotective and immunomodulatory effects of Linalool (Lin) against carbon tetrachloride (CCl₄ )-induced toxicity in mice. Four study groups (n = 8 each) were used: (1) a negative control group and (2) a toxicity control group (single dose of CCl₄ administered on day 14 as 1 mL/kg of CCL₄ in 1% olive oil). Intraperitoneally (i.p.)), and two experimental groups where mice were treated with either (3) Lin (25 mg/kg b.w., orally, daily for 15 days) or (4) pretreated with Lin (25 mg/kg b.w., orally, daily for 14 days) and intoxicated with CCl₄ (1 mL/kg of CCL₄ in 1% olive oil. i.p.) on day 14. The levels of the anti-inflammatory cytokine interleukin 10 (IL-10), the proinflammatory cytokines TNF-α, IL-6, and TGF-1β, and the histopathology of the liver were assessed. According to our findings, IL-10 concentrations were significantly increased in Lin-treated groups, while other cytokine levels were marked by a considerable decrease in the toxicity model group (CCl₄ -treated group). Histopathological examinations of liver tissues showed that the Lin-treated groups had an almost normal structure. The current findings showed that Lin could inhibit CCl₄ -induced liver injury in mice, which warrants further investigation of Lin as a potential protective and therapeutic agent against hepatotoxicity.

Oxygen Sensing in Neurodegenerative Diseases: Current Mechanisms, Implication of Transcriptional Response, and Pharmacological Modulation

Significance: Oxygen (O₂) sensing is the fundamental process through which organisms respond to changes in O₂ levels. Complex networks exist allowing the maintenance of O₂ levels through the perception, capture, binding, transport, and delivery of molecular O₂. The brain extreme sensitivity to O₂ balance makes the dysregulation of related processes crucial players in the pathogenesis of neurodegenerative diseases (NDs). In this study, we wish to review the most relevant advances in O₂ sensing in relation to Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis. Recent Advances: Over the years, it has been clarified that most NDs share common pathways, a great number of which are in relation to O₂ imbalance. These include hypoxia, hyperoxia, reactive oxygen species production, metabolism of metals, protein misfolding, and neuroinflammation. Critical Issues: There is still a gap in knowledge concerning how O₂ sensing plays a role in the above indicated neurodegenerations. Specifically, O₂ concentrations are perceived in body sites that are not limited to the brain, but primarily reside in other organs. Moreover, the mechanisms of O₂ sensing, gene expression, and signal transduction seem to correlate with neurodegeneration, but many aspects are mechanistically still unexplained. Future Directions: Future studies should focus on the precise characterization of O₂ level disruption and O₂ sensing mechanisms in NDs. Moreover, advances need to be made also concerning the techniques used to assess O₂ sensing dysfunctions in these diseases. There is also the need to develop innovative therapies targeting this precise mechanism rather than its secondary effects, as early intervention is necessary. Antioxid. Redox Signal. 38, 160-182.

A Recent Update on Pathophysiology and Therapeutic Interventions of Alzheimer's Disease

AIM

Alzheimer's disease (AD) has been identified as a progressive brain disorder associated with memory dysfunction and the accumulation of β-amyloid plaques and neurofibrillary tangles of τ protein. Mitochondria is crucial in maintaining cell survival, cell death, calcium regulation, and ATP synthesis. Mitochondrial dysfunction and linked calcium overload have been involved in the pathogenesis of AD. CRM2 (Collapsin response mediator protein-2) is involved in endosomal lysosomal trafficking as well as autophagy, and their reduced level is also a primary culprit in the progression of AD. In addition, Cholinergic neurotransmission and neuroinflammation are two other mechanisms implicated in AD onset and might be protective targets to attenuate disease progression. The microbiota-gut-brain axis (MGBA) is another crucial target for AD treatment. Crosstalk between gut microbiota and brain mutually benefitted each other, dysbiosis in gut microbiota affects the brain functions and leads to AD progression with increased AD-causing biomarkers. Despite the complexity of AD, treatment is only limited to symptomatic management. Therefore, there is an urgent demand for novel therapeutics that target associated pathways responsible for AD pathology. This review explores the role of different mechanisms involved in AD and possible therapeutic targets to protect against disease progression.

BACKGROUND

Amidst various age-related diseases, AD is the most deleterious neurodegenerative disorder that affects more than 24 million people globally. Every year, approximately 7.7 million new cases of dementia have been reported. However, to date, no novel disease-modifying therapies are available to treat AD.

OBJECTIVE

The aim of writing this review is to highlight the role of key biomarker proteins and possible therapeutic interventions that could play a crucial role in mitigating the ongoing prognosis of Alzheimer's disease.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The available information about the disease was collected through multiple search engines, including PubMed, Science Direct, Clinical Trials, and Google Scholar.

RESULTS

Accumulated pieces of evidence reveal that extracellular aggregation of β-amyloid plaques and intracellular tangles of τ protein are peculiar features of perpetuated Alzheimer's disease (AD). Further, the significant role of mitochondria, calcium, and cholinergic pathways in the pathogenesis of AD makes the respiratory cell organelle a crucial therapeutic target in this neurodegenerative disease. All currently available drugs either delay the clinical damage to cells or temporarily attenuate some symptoms of Alzheimer's disease.

CONCLUSION

The pathological features of AD are extracellular deposition of β-amyloid, acetylcholinesterase deregulation, and intracellular tangles of τ protein. The multifactorial heterogeneity of disease demands more research work in this field to find new therapeutic biological targets.

Neuroprotective Strategies for Stroke by Natural Products: Advances and Perspectives

Cerebral ischemic stroke is a disease with high prevalence and incidence. Its management focuses on rapid reperfusion with intravenous thrombolysis and endovascular thrombectomy. Both therapeutic strategies reduce disability, but the therapy time window is short, and the risk of bleeding is high. Natural products (NPs) have played a key role in drug discovery, especially for cancer and infectious diseases. However, they have made little progress in clinical translation and pose challenges to the treatment of stroke. Recently, with the investigation of precise mechanisms in cerebral ischemic stroke and the technological development of NP-based drug discovery, NPs are addressing these challenges and opening up new opportunities in cerebral stroke. Thus, in this review, we first summarize the structure and function of diverse NPs, including flavonoids, phenols, terpenes, lactones, quinones, alkaloids, and glycosides. Then we propose the comprehensive neuroprotective mechanism of NPs in cerebral ischemic stroke, which involves complex cascade processes of oxidative stress, mitochondrial damage, apoptosis or ferroptosis-related cell death, inflammatory response, and disruption of the blood-brain barrier (BBB). Overall, we stress the neuroprotective effect of NPs and their mechanism on cerebral ischemic stroke for a better understanding of the advances and perspective in NPs application that may provide a rationale for the development of innovative therapeutic regimens in ischemic stroke.

Computational Studies Applied to Linalool and Citronellal Derivatives Against Alzheimer's and Parkinson's Disorders: A Review with Experimental Approach

Alzheimer's and Parkinson's are neurodegenerative disorders that affect a great number of people around the world, seriously compromising the quality of life of individuals, due to motor and cognitive damage. In these diseases, pharmacological treatment is used only to alleviate symptoms. This emphasizes the need to discover alternative molecules for use in prevention. Using Molecular Docking, this review aimed to evaluate the anti-Alzheimer's and anti-Parkinson's activity of linalool and citronellal, as well as their derivatives. Before performing Molecular Docking simulations, the compounds' pharmacokinetic characteristics were evaluated. For Molecular Docking, 7 chemical compounds derived from citronellal, and 10 compounds derived from linalool, and molecular targets involved in Alzheimer's and Parkinson's pathophysiology were selected. According to the Lipinski rules, the compounds under study presented good oral absorption and bioavailability. For toxicity, some tissue irritability was observed. For Parkinson-related targets, the citronellal and linalool derived compounds revealed excellent energetic affinity for α-Synuclein, Adenosine Receptors, Monoamine Oxidase (MAO), and Dopamine D1 receptor proteins. For Alzheimer disease targets, only linalool and its derivatives presented promise against BACE enzyme activity. The compounds studied presented high probability of modulatory activity against the disease targets under study, and are potential candidates for future drugs.

Linalool attenuated ischemic injury in PC12 cells through inhibition of caspase-3 and caspase-9 during apoptosis

Numerous studies have indicated the pharmacological properties of linalool, a volatile terpene alcohol found in many flowers and spice plants, including anti-nociceptive, anti-inflammatory, and neuroprotective activities. The aim of this study was to explore the mechanisms of neuroprotection provided by (±) linalool and its enantiomer, (R)-(-) linalool against oxygen, and glucose deprivation/reoxygenation (OGD/R) in PC12 cells. PC12 cells were treated with (±) linalool and (R)-(-) linalool before exposure to OGD/R condition. Cell viability, reactive oxygen species (ROS) production, malondialdehyde (MDA) level, DNA damage, and the levels of proteins related to apoptosis were evaluated using MTT, comet assay, and western blot analysis, respectively. IC50 values for the PC12 cells incubated with (±) linalool and (R)-(-) linalool were 2700 and 2600 μM after 14 h, as well as 5440 and 3040 μM after 18 h, respectively. Survival of the ischemic cells pre-incubated with (±) linalool and (R)-(-) linalool (100 μM of both) increased compared to the cells subjected to the OGD/R alone (p < .001). ROS and MDA formation were also decreased following incubation with (±) linalool and (R)-(-) linalool compared to the OGD/R group (p < .01). In the same way, pre-treatment with (±) linalool and (R)-(-) linalool significantly reduced OGD/R-induced DNA injury compared to that seen in OGD/R group (p < .001). (±) Linalool and (R)-(-) linalool also restored Bax/Bcl-2 ratio and cleaved caspase-3 and caspase-9 (p < .001, p < .01) following ischemic injury. The neuroprotective effect of linalool against ischemic insult might be mediated by alleviation of oxidative stress and apoptosis.

Astragaloside IV Alleviates Brain Injury Induced by Hypoxia via the Calpain-1 Signaling Pathway

Long-term hypoxia can induce oxidative stress and apoptosis in hippocampal neurons that can lead to brain injury diseases. Astragaloside IV (AS-IV) is widely used in the antiapoptotic therapy of brain injury diseases. However, its mechanism of action is still not fully understood. In this study, we investigated the effect of AS-IV on hypoxia-induced oxidative stress and apoptosis in hippocampal neurons and explored its possible mechanism. In vivo, mice were placed in a hypoxic circulatory device containing 10% O2 and gavaged with AS-IV (60 and 120 mg/kg/d) for 4 weeks. In vitro, mouse hippocampal neuronal cells (HT22) were treated with hypoxia (1% O2) for 24 hours in the presence or absence of AS-IV, MDL-28170 (calpain-1 inhibitor), or YC-1 (HIF-1α inhibitor). The protective effect of AS-IV on brain injury was further explored by examining calpain-1 knockout mice. The results showed that hypoxia induced damage to hippocampal neurons, impaired spatial learning and memory abilities, and increased oxidative stress and apoptosis. Treatment with AS-IV or calpain-1 knockout improved the damage to hippocampal neurons and spatial learning and memory, attenuated oxidative stress and inhibited cell apoptosis. These changes were verified in HT22 cells. Overexpression of calpain-1 abolished the improvement of AS-IV on apoptosis and oxidative stress. In addition, the effects of AS-IV were accompanied by decreased calpain-1 and HIF-1α expression, and YC-1 showed a similar effect as AS-IV on calpain-1 and caspase-3 expression. In conclusion, this study demonstrates that AS-IV can downregulate the calpain-1/HIF-1α/caspase-3 pathway and inhibit oxidative stress and apoptosis of hippocampal neurons induced by hypoxia, which provides new ideas for studying the antiapoptotic activity of AS-IV.

Mechanistic Insights into the Neuroprotective Potential of Sacred Ficus Trees

Ficus religiosa (Bo tree or sacred fig) and Ficus benghalensis (Indian banyan) are of immense spiritual and therapeutic importance. Various parts of these trees have been investigated for their antioxidant, antimicrobial, anticonvulsant, antidiabetic, anti-inflammatory, analgesic, hepatoprotective, dermoprotective, and nephroprotective properties. Previous reviews of Ficus mostly discussed traditional usages, photochemistry, and pharmacological activities, though comprehensive reviews of the neuroprotective potential of these Ficus species extracts and/or their important phytocompounds are lacking. The interesting phytocompounds from these trees include many bengalenosides, carotenoids, flavonoids (leucopelargonidin-3-O-β-d-glucopyranoside, leucopelargonidin-3-O-α-l-rhamnopyranoside, lupeol, cetyl behenate, and α-amyrin acetate), flavonols (kaempferol, quercetin, myricetin), leucocyanidin, phytosterols (bergapten, bergaptol, lanosterol, β-sitosterol, stigmasterol), terpenes (α-thujene, α-pinene, β-pinene, α-terpinene, limonene, β-ocimene, β-bourbonene, β-caryophyllene, α-trans-bergamotene, α-copaene, aromadendrene, α-humulene, alloaromadendrene, germacrene, γ-cadinene, and δ-cadinene), and diverse polyphenols (tannin, wax, saponin, leucoanthocyanin), contributing significantly to their pharmacological effects, ranging from antimicrobial action to neuroprotection. This review presents extensive mechanistic insights into the neuroprotective potential, especially important phytochemicals from F. religiosa and F. benghalensis. Owing to the complex pathophysiology of neurodegenerative disorders (NDDs), the currently existing drugs merely alleviate the symptoms. Hence, bioactive compounds with potent neuroprotective effects through a multitarget approach would be of great interest in developing pharmacophores for the treatment of NDDs.