Comparative Gene Expression Analyses Reveal Distinct Molecular Signatures between Differentially Reprogrammed Cardiomyocytes

Enhanced fatty acid oxidation via SCD1 downregulation fuels cardiac reprogramming

Direct cardiac reprogramming has emerged as a promising therapeutic strategy to remuscularize injured myocardium. This approach converts non-contractile fibroblasts to induced cardiomyocytes (iCMs) that spontaneously contract, yet the intrinsic metabolic requirements driving cardiac reprogramming are not fully understood. Using single-cell metabolic flux estimation and flux balance analysis, we characterized the metabolic heterogeneity of iCMs and identified fatty acid oxidation (FAO) as a critical factor in iCM conversion. Both pharmacological and genetic inhibition of FAO impairs iCM generation. We further identified stearoyl-coenzyme A desaturase 1 (SCD1) as a metabolic switch that suppresses iCM reprogramming. Mechanistically, Scd1 knockdown activates PGC1α and PPARβ signaling, enhancing FAO-related gene expression and mitochondrial biogenesis, thereby improving reprogramming efficacy. Pharmacological manipulations targeting SCD1, PGC1α, and the PPARβ signaling axis further improved iCM generation and mitochondrial function. Our findings collectively highlight FAO as a key determinant of iCM fate and offer new therapeutic avenues for advancing reprogramming strategies.

Dressed in Collagen: 2D and 3D Cardiac Fibrosis Models

Cardiovascular diseases (CVD), the leading cause of death worldwide, and their strong association with fibrosis highlight the pressing need for innovative antifibrotic therapies. In vitro models have emerged as valuable tools for replicating cardiac fibrosis 'in a dish', facilitating the study of disease mechanisms and serving as platforms for drug testing and development. These in vitro systems encompass 2D and 3D models, each with its own limitations and advantages. 2D models offer high reproducibility, cost-effectiveness, and high-throughput capabilities, but they oversimplify the complex fibrotic environment. On the other hand, 3D models provide greater biological relevance but are more complex, harder to reproduce, and less suited for high-throughput screening. The choice of model depends on the specific research question and the stage of drug development. Despite significant progress, challenges remain, including the integration of immune cells in cardiac fibrosis and optimizing the scalability and throughput of highly biomimetic systems. Herein, we review recent in vitro cardiac fibrosis models, with a focus on their shared characteristics and remaining challenges, and explore how in vitro fibrosis models of other organs could inspire novel approaches in cardiac research, showcasing potential strategies that could be adapted to refine myocardial fibrosis models.

Decoding the epigenetic and transcriptional basis of direct cardiac reprogramming

Heart disease, particularly resulting from myocardial infarction (MI), continues to be a leading cause of mortality, largely due to the limited regenerative capacity of the human heart. Current therapeutic approaches seek to generate new cardiomyocytes from alternative sources. Direct cardiac reprogramming, which converts fibroblasts into induced cardiomyocytes (iCMs), offers a promising alternative by enabling in situ cardiac regeneration and minimizing tumorigenesis concerns. Here we review recent advancements in the understanding of transcriptional and epigenetic mechanisms underlying cardiac reprogramming, with a focus on key early-stage molecular events, including epigenetic barriers and regulatory mechanisms that facilitate reprogramming. Despite substantial progress, human cardiac fibroblast reprogramming and iCM maturation remain areas for further exploration. We also discuss the combinatorial roles of reprogramming factors in governing transcriptional and epigenetic changes. This review consolidates current knowledge and proposes future directions for promoting the translational potential of cardiac reprogramming techniques.

Integrating melt electrospinning writing and microfluidics to engineer a human cardiac microenvironment for high-fidelity drug screening

The preclinical evaluation of drug-induced cardiotoxicity is critical for developing novel drug, helping to avoid drug wastage and post-marketing withdrawal. Although human induced pluripotent stem cell-derived cardiomyocytes (iPSC-CMs) and the engineered heart organoid have been used for drug screening and mimicking disease models, they are always limited by the immaturity and lack of functionality of the cardiomyocytes. In this study, we constructed a Cardiomyocytes-on-a-Chip (CoC) that combines micro-grooves (MGs) and circulating mechanical stimulation to recapitulate the well-organized structure and stable beating of myocardial tissue. The phenotypic changes and maturation of CMs cultured on the CoC have been verified and can be used for the evaluation of cardiotoxicity and cardioprotective drug responses. Taken together, these results highlight the ability of our myocardial microarray platform to accurately reflect clinical behaviour, underscoring its potential as a powerful pre-clinical tool for assessing drug response and toxicity.

Direct fibroblast reprogramming: an emerging strategy for treating organic fibrosis

Direct reprogramming has garnered considerable attention due to its capacity to directly convert differentiated cells into desired cells. Fibroblasts are frequently employed in reprogramming studies due to their abundance and accessibility. However, they are also the key drivers in the progression of fibrosis, a pathological condition characterized by excessive extracellular matrix deposition and tissue scarring. Furthermore, the initial stage of reprogramming typically involves deactivating fibrotic pathways. Hence, direct reprogramming offers a valuable method to regenerate target cells for tissue repair while simultaneously reducing fibrotic tendencies. Understanding the link between reprogramming and fibrosis could help develop effective strategies to treat damaged tissue with a potential risk of fibrosis. This review summarizes the advances in direct reprogramming and reveals their anti-fibrosis effects in various organs such as the heart, liver, and skin. Furthermore, we dissect the mechanisms of reprogramming influenced by fibrotic molecules including TGF-β signaling, mechanical signaling, inflammation signaling, epigenetic modifiers, and metabolic regulators. Innovative methods for fibroblast reprogramming like small molecules, CRISPRa, modified mRNA, and the challenges of cellular heterogeneity and senescence faced by in vivo direct reprogramming, are also discussed.

Age-associated metabolic and epigenetic barriers during direct reprogramming of mouse fibroblasts into induced cardiomyocytes

Heart disease is the leading cause of mortality in developed countries, and novel regenerative procedures are warranted. Direct cardiac conversion (DCC) of adult fibroblasts can create induced cardiomyocytes (iCMs) for gene and cell-based heart therapy, and in addition to holding great promise, still lacks effectiveness as metabolic and age-associated barriers remain elusive. Here, by employing MGT (Mef2c, Gata4, Tbx5) transduction of mouse embryonic fibroblasts (MEFs) and adult (dermal and cardiac) fibroblasts from animals of different ages, we provide evidence that the direct reprogramming of fibroblasts into iCMs decreases with age. Analyses of histone posttranslational modifications and ChIP-qPCR revealed age-dependent alterations in the epigenetic landscape of DCC. Moreover, DCC is accompanied by profound mitochondrial metabolic adaptations, including a lower abundance of anabolic metabolites, network remodeling, and reliance on mitochondrial respiration. In vitro metabolic modulation and dietary manipulation in vivo improve DCC efficiency and are accompanied by significant alterations in histone marks and mitochondrial homeostasis. Importantly, adult-derived iCMs exhibit increased accumulation of oxidative stress in the mitochondria and activation of mitophagy or dietary lipids; they improve DCC and revert mitochondrial oxidative damage. Our study provides evidence that metaboloepigenetics plays a direct role in cell fate transitions driving DCC, highlighting the potential use of metabolic modulation to improve cardiac regenerative strategies.

Control of cell fate upon transcription factor-driven cardiac reprogramming

Adult mammals are susceptible to substantial cardiomyocyte (CM) loss following various cardiac diseases due to the limited capacity of CM proliferation and regeneration. Recently, direct cardiac reprogramming, converting fibroblasts into induced CMs, has been achieved both in vitro and in vivo through forced expression of transcription factors (TFs). This review encapsulates the advancements made in enhancing reprogramming efficiency and underlying molecular mechanisms. It covers the optimization of TF-based reprogramming cocktails and in vivo delivery platform and recently identified regulators in enhancing reprogramming efficiency. In addition, we discuss recent insights into the molecular mechanisms of direct cardiac reprogramming from single-cell omics analyses. Finally, we briefly touch on remaining challenges and prospective direction of this field.

The Role of Human-Induced Pluripotent Stem Cells in Studying Cardiac Channelopathies

Cardiac channelopathies are inherited diseases that increase the risk of sudden cardiac death. While different genes have been associated with inherited channelopathies, there are still subtypes, e.g., catecholaminergic polymorphic ventricular tachycardia and Brugada syndrome, where the genetic cause remains unknown. Various models, including animal models, heterologous expression systems, and the human-induced pluripotent stem-cell-derived cardiomyocytes (hiPSCs-CMs) model, have been used to study the pathophysiological mechanisms of channelopathies. Recently, researchers have focused on using hiPSCs-CMs to understand the genotype-phenotype correlation and screen drugs. By combining innovative techniques such as Clustered Regularly Interspaced Short Palindromic Repeats/Clustered Regularly Interspaced Short Palindromic Repeats associated protein 9 (CRISPR/Cas9)-mediated genome editing, and three-dimensional (3D) engineered heart tissues, we can gain new insights into the pathophysiological mechanisms of channelopathies. This approach holds promise for improving personalized drug treatment. This review highlights the role of hiPSCs-CMs in understanding the pathomechanism of Brugada syndrome and catecholaminergic polymorphic ventricular tachycardia and how these models can be utilized for drug screening.

ELM2-SANT Domain-Containing Scaffolding Protein 1 Regulates Differentiation and Maturation of Cardiomyocytes Derived From Human-Induced Pluripotent Stem Cells

BACKGROUND

ELMSAN1 (ELM2-SANT domain-containing scaffolding protein 1) is a newly identified scaffolding protein of the MiDAC (mitotic deacetylase complex), playing a pivotal role in early embryonic development. Studies on Elmsan1 knockout mice showed that its absence results in embryo lethality and heart malformation. However, the precise function of ELMSAN1 in heart development and formation remains elusive. To study its potential role in cardiac lineage, we employed human-induced pluripotent stem cells (hiPSCs) to model early cardiogenesis and investigated the function of ELMSAN1.

METHODS AND RESULTS

We generated ELMSAN1-deficient hiPSCs through knockdown and knockout techniques. During cardiac differentiation, ELMSAN1 depletion inhibited pluripotency deactivation, decreased the expression of cardiac-specific markers, and reduced differentiation efficiency. The impaired expression of genes associated with contractile sarcomere structure, calcium handling, and ion channels was also noted in ELMSAN1-deficient cardiomyocytes derived from hiPSCs. Additionally, through a series of structural and functional assessments, we found that ELMSAN1-null hiPSC cardiomyocytes are immature, exhibiting incomplete sarcomere Z-line structure, decreased calcium handling, and impaired electrophysiological properties. Of note, we found that the cardiac-specific role of ELMSAN1 is likely associated with histone H3K27 acetylation level. The transcriptome analysis provided additional insights, indicating maturation reduction with the energy metabolism switch and restored cell proliferation in ELMSAN1 knockout cardiomyocytes.

CONCLUSIONS

In this study, we address the significance of the direct involvement of ELMSAN1 in the differentiation and maturation of hiPSC cardiomyocytes. We first report the impact of ELMSAN1 on multiple aspects of hiPSC cardiomyocyte generation, including cardiac differentiation, sarcomere formation, calcium handling, electrophysiological maturation, and proliferation.

Proteomics applications in next generation induced pluripotent stem cell models

INTRODUCTION

Induced pluripotent stem (iPS) cell technology has transformed biomedical research. New opportunities now exist to create new organoids, microtissues, and body-on-a-chip systems for basic biology investigations and clinical translations.

AREAS COVERED

We discuss the utility of proteomics for attaining an unbiased view into protein expression changes during iPS cell differentiation, cell maturation, and tissue generation. The ability to discover cell-type specific protein markers during the differentiation and maturation of iPS-derived cells has led to new strategies to improve cell production yield and fidelity. In parallel, proteomic characterization of iPS-derived organoids is helping to realize the goal of bridging in vitro and in vivo systems.

EXPERT OPINIONS

We discuss some current challenges of proteomics in iPS cell research and future directions, including the integration of proteomic and transcriptomic data for systems-level analysis.

Next-generation direct reprogramming

Tissue repair is significantly compromised in the aging human body resulting in critical disease conditions (such as myocardial infarction or Alzheimer's disease) and imposing a tremendous burden on global health. Reprogramming approaches (partial or direct reprogramming) are considered fruitful in addressing this unmet medical need. However, the efficacy, cellular maturity and specific targeting are still major challenges of direct reprogramming. Here we describe novel approaches in direct reprogramming that address these challenges. Extracellular signaling pathways (Receptor tyrosine kinases, RTK and Receptor Serine/Theronine Kinase, RSTK) and epigenetic marks remain central in rewiring the cellular program to determine the cell fate. We propose that modern protein design technologies (AI-designed minibinders regulating RTKs/RSTK, epigenetic enzymes, or pioneer factors) have potential to solve the aforementioned challenges. An efficient transdifferentiation/direct reprogramming may in the future provide molecular strategies to collectively reduce aging, fibrosis, and degenerative diseases.

Fibroblast Reprogramming in Cardiac Repair

Cardiovascular disease is one of the major causes of death worldwide. Limited proliferative capacity of adult mammalian cardiomyocytes has prompted researchers to exploit regenerative therapy after myocardial injury, such as myocardial infarction, to attenuate heart dysfunction caused by such injury. Direct cardiac reprogramming is a recently emerged promising approach to repair damaged myocardium by directly converting resident cardiac fibroblasts into cardiomyocyte-like cells. The achievement of in vivo direct reprogramming of fibroblasts has been shown, by multiple laboratories independently, to improve cardiac function and mitigate fibrosis post-myocardial infarction, which holds great potential for clinical application. There have been numerous pieces of valuable work in both basic and translational research to enhance our understanding and continued refinement of direct cardiac reprogramming in recent years. However, there remain many challenges to overcome before we can truly take advantage of this technique to treat patients with ischemic cardiac diseases. Here, we review recent progress of fibroblast reprogramming in cardiac repair, including the optimization of several reprogramming strategies, mechanistic exploration, and translational efforts, and we make recommendations for future research to further understand and translate direct cardiac reprogramming from bench to bedside. Challenges relating to these efforts will also be discussed.

Recent advances and future prospects in direct cardiac reprogramming

Cardiovascular disease remains a leading cause of death worldwide despite important advances in modern medical and surgical therapies. As human adult cardiomyocytes have limited regenerative ability, cardiomyocytes lost after myocardial infarction are replaced by fibrotic scar tissue, leading to cardiac dysfunction and heart failure. To replace lost cardiomyocytes, a promising approach is direct cardiac reprogramming, in which cardiac fibroblasts are transdifferentiated into induced cardiomyocyte-like cells (iCMs). Here we review cardiac reprogramming cocktails (including transcription factors, microRNAs and small molecules) that mediate iCM generation. We also highlight mechanistic studies exploring the barriers to and facilitators of this process. We then review recent progress in iCM reprogramming, with a focus on single-cell '-omics' research. Finally, we discuss obstacles to clinical application.

Direct Reprogramming of Resident Non-Myocyte Cells and Its Potential for In Vivo Cardiac Regeneration

Cardiac diseases are the foremost cause of morbidity and mortality worldwide. The heart has limited regenerative potential; therefore, lost cardiac tissue cannot be replenished after cardiac injury. Conventional therapies are unable to restore functional cardiac tissue. In recent decades, much attention has been paid to regenerative medicine to overcome this issue. Direct reprogramming is a promising therapeutic approach in regenerative cardiac medicine that has the potential to provide in situ cardiac regeneration. It consists of direct cell fate conversion of one cell type into another, avoiding transition through an intermediary pluripotent state. In injured cardiac tissue, this strategy directs transdifferentiation of resident non-myocyte cells (NMCs) into mature functional cardiac cells that help to restore the native tissue. Over the years, developments in reprogramming methods have suggested that regulation of several intrinsic factors in NMCs can help to achieve in situ direct cardiac reprogramming. Among NMCs, endogenous cardiac fibroblasts have been studied for their potential to be directly reprogrammed into both induced cardiomyocytes and induced cardiac progenitor cells, while pericytes can transdifferentiate towards endothelial cells and smooth muscle cells. This strategy has been indicated to improve heart function and reduce fibrosis after cardiac injury in preclinical models. This review summarizes the recent updates and progress in direct cardiac reprogramming of resident NMCs for in situ cardiac regeneration.

SIRT3 promotes metabolic maturation of human iPSC-derived cardiomyocytes via OPA1-controlled mitochondrial dynamics

The metabolic patterns and energetics of human induced pluripotent stem cell-derived cardiomyocytes (HiPSC-CMs) are much less than those of normal adult cardiomyocytes, which has limited their application in disease therapy and regenerative medicine. It has been demonstrated that SIRT3, a mitochondria-target deacetylase, controls mitochondrial metabolism in physiological and pathological conditions. In this research, We investigated the role and regulatory mechanism of SIRT3 in energy metabolism in HiPSC-CMs. We found that the expression of SIRT3 was increased during the differentiation and maturation of HiPSC-CMs. Knocking down SIRT3 impaired mitochondrial structure, mitochondrial respiration capacity, and fatty acid oxidation but enhanced glycolysis. However, honokiol, a pharmacological activator of SIRT3, improved the mitochondrial ultrastructure and energetics, and promoted oxidative phosphorylation in HiPSC-CMs. Furthermore, SIRT3 regulated the acetylation of OPA1, and the knockdown of OPA1 blocked the promotion of energy metabolism by honokiol, meanwhile, knocking down OPA1 impaired mitochondrial fusion, mitochondrial respiration capacity, and fatty acid oxidation which were reversed by M1 (a mitochondrial fusion promoter) in HiPSC-CMs. In summary, SIRT3 regulated energetics and promoted metabolism remodeling by targeting the OPA1-controlled mitochondrial dynamics in HiPSC-CMs, and targeting SIRT3 may have revelatory implications in the treatment of cardiovascular diseases and the application of HiPSC-CMs to regenerative medicine.

Transcription Factors - the Essence of Heart Regeneration: A Potential Novel Therapeutic Strategy

Myocardial cell injury and following sequelae are the primary reasons for death globally. Unfortunately, myocardiocytes in adults have limited regeneration capacity. Therefore, the generation of neo myocardiocytes from non-myocardial cells is a surrogate strategy. Transcription factors (TFs) can be recruited to achieve this tremendous goal. Transcriptomic analyses have suggested that GATA, Mef2c, and Tbx5 (GMT cocktail) are master TFs to transdifferentiate/reprogram cell linage of fibroblasts, somatic cells, mesodermal cells into myocardiocytes. However, adding MESP1, MYOCD, ESRRG, and ZFPM2 TFs induces the generation of more efficient and physiomorphological features for induced myocardiocytes. Moreover, the same cocktail of transcription factors can induce the proliferation and differentiation of induced/pluripotent stem cells into myocardial cells. Amelioration of impaired myocardial cells involves the activation of healing transcription factors, which are induced by inflammation mediators; IL6, tumor growth factor β, and IL22. Transcription factors regulate the cellular and subcellular physiology of myocardiocytes to include mitotic cell cycling regulation, karyokinesis and cytokinesis, hypertrophic growth, adult sarcomeric contractile protein gene expression, fatty acid metabolism, and mitochondrial biogenesis and maturation. Cell therapy by transcription factors can be applied to cardiogenesis and ameliorating impaired cardiocytes. Transcription factors are the cornerstone in cell differentiation.

Direct cardiac reprogramming: Toward the era of multi-omics analysis

Limited regenerative capacity of adult cardiomyocytes precludes heart repair and regeneration after cardiac injury. Direct cardiac reprograming that converts scar-forming cardiac fibroblasts (CFs) into functional induced-cardiomyocytes (iCMs) offers promising potential to restore heart structure and heart function. Significant advances have been achieved in iCM reprogramming using genetic and epigenetic regulators, small molecules, and delivery strategies. Recent researches on the heterogeneity and reprogramming trajectories elucidated novel mechanisms of iCM reprogramming at single cell level. Here, we review recent progress in iCM reprogramming with a focus on multi-omics (transcriptomic, epigenomic and proteomic) researches to investigate the cellular and molecular machinery governing cell fate conversion. We also highlight the future potential using multi-omics approaches to dissect iCMs conversion for clinal applications.

The heart of cardiac reprogramming: The cardiac fibroblasts

Cardiovascular disease is the leading cause of death worldwide, outpacing pulmonary disease, infectious disease, and all forms of cancer. Myocardial infarction (MI) dominates cardiovascular disease, contributing to four out of five cardiovascular related deaths. Following MI, patients suffer adverse and irreversible myocardial remodeling associated with cardiomyocyte loss and infiltration of fibrotic scar tissue. Current therapies following MI only mitigate the cardiac physiological decline rather than restore damaged myocardium function. Direct cardiac reprogramming is one strategy that has promise in repairing injured cardiac tissue by generating new, functional cardiomyocytes from cardiac fibroblasts (CFs). With the ectopic expression of transcription factors, microRNAs, and small molecules, CFs can be reprogrammed into cardiomyocyte-like cells (iCMs) that display molecular signatures, structures, and contraction abilities similar to endogenous cardiomyocytes. The in vivo induction of iCMs following MI leads to significant reduction in fibrotic cardiac remodeling and improved heart function, indicating reprogramming is a viable option for repairing damaged heart tissue. Recent work has illustrated different methods to understand the mechanisms driving reprogramming, in an effort to improve the efficiency of iCM generation and create an approach translational into clinic. This review will provide an overview of CFs and describe different in vivo reprogramming methods.

A review of protocols for human iPSC culture, cardiac differentiation, subtype-specification, maturation, and direct reprogramming

The methods for the culture and cardiomyocyte differentiation of human embryonic stem cells, and later human induced pluripotent stem cells (hiPSC), have moved from a complex and uncontrolled systems to simplified and relatively robust protocols, using the knowledge and cues gathered at each step. HiPSC-derived cardiomyocytes have proven to be a useful tool in human disease modelling, drug discovery, developmental biology, and regenerative medicine. In this protocol review, we will highlight the evolution of protocols associated with hPSC culture, cardiomyocyte differentiation, sub-type specification, and cardiomyocyte maturation. We also discuss protocols for somatic cell direct reprogramming to cardiomyocyte-like cells.

Modelling Diabetic Cardiomyopathy: Using Human Stem Cell-Derived Cardiomyocytes to Complement Animal Models

Diabetes is a global epidemic, with cardiovascular disease being the leading cause of death in diabetic patients. There is a pressing need for an in vitro model to aid understanding of the mechanisms driving diabetic heart disease, and to provide an accurate, reliable tool for drug testing. Human induced-pluripotent stem cell-derived cardiomyocytes (hiPSC-CMs) have potential as a disease modelling tool. There are several factors that drive molecular changes inside cardiomyocytes contributing to diabetic cardiomyopathy, including hyperglycaemia, lipotoxicity and hyperinsulinemia. Here we discuss these factors and how they can be seen in animal models and utilised in cell culture to mimic the diabetic heart. The use of human iPSC-CMs will allow for a greater understanding of disease pathogenesis and open up new avenues for drug testing.

ETV2 functions as a pioneer factor to regulate and reprogram the endothelial lineage

The vasculature is an essential organ for the delivery of blood and oxygen to all tissues of the body and is thus relevant to the treatment of ischaemic diseases, injury-induced regeneration and solid tumour growth. Previously, we demonstrated that ETV2 is an essential transcription factor for the development of cardiac, endothelial and haematopoietic lineages. Here we report that ETV2 functions as a pioneer factor that relaxes closed chromatin and regulates endothelial development. By comparing engineered embryonic stem cell differentiation and reprogramming models with multi-omics techniques, we demonstrated that ETV2 was able to bind nucleosomal DNA and recruit BRG1. BRG1 recruitment remodelled chromatin around endothelial genes and helped to maintain an open configuration, resulting in increased H3K27ac deposition. Collectively, these results will serve as a platform for the development of therapeutic initiatives directed towards cardiovascular diseases and solid tumours.

Morpho-functional comparison of differentiation protocols to create iPSC-derived cardiomyocytes

Cardiomyocytes derived from induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSC-CMs) offer an attractive platform for cardiovascular research. Patient-specific iPSC-CMs are very useful for studying disease development, and bear potential for disease diagnostics, prognosis evaluation and development of personalized treatment. Several monolayer-based serum-free protocols have been described for the differentiation of iPSCs into cardiomyocytes, but data on their performance are scarce. In this study, we evaluated two protocols that are based on temporal modulation of the Wnt/β-catenin pathway for iPSC-CM differentiation from four iPSC lines, including two control individuals and two patients carrying an SCN5A mutation. The SCN5A gene encodes the cardiac voltage-gated sodium channel (Na_v1.5) and loss-of-function mutations can cause the cardiac arrhythmia Brugada syndrome. We performed molecular characterization of the obtained iPSC-CMs by immunostaining for cardiac specific markers and by expression analysis of selected cardiac structural and ionic channel protein-encoding genes with qPCR. We also investigated cell growth morphology, contractility and survival of the iPSC-CMs after dissociation. Finally, we performed electrophysiological characterization of the cells, focusing on the action potential (AP) and calcium transient (CT) characteristics using patch-clamping and optical imaging, respectively. Based on our comprehensive morpho-functional analysis, we concluded that both tested protocols result in a high percentage of contracting CMs. Moreover, they showed acceptable survival and cell quality after dissociation (>50% of cells with a smooth cell membrane, possible to seal during patch-clamping). Both protocols generated cells presenting with typical iPSC-CM AP and CT characteristics, although one protocol (that involves sequential addition of CHIR99021 and Wnt-C59) rendered iPSC-CMs, which were more accessible for patch-clamp and calcium transient experiments and showed an expression pattern of cardiac-specific markers more similar to this observed in human heart left ventricle samples.

Summary: In this study, we evaluated two protocols that are based on temporal modulation of the Wnt/β -catenin pathway for iPSC-CM differentiation from four iPSC lines. We show that both protocols were successful in the generation of contracting iPSC-CMs. However, one of the tested protocols rendered cells that were more accessible for patch-clamp experiments and showed an expression pattern of cardiac-specific markers more similar to this of human heart left ventricle samples.

The role of metabolism in directed differentiation versus trans-differentiation of cardiomyocytes

The advent of induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs) and identification of transcription factors for cardiac reprogramming have raised hope to cure heart disease, the leading cause of death in the world. Our knowledge in heart development and molecular barriers of cardiac reprogramming is advancing, but many hurdles are yet to be overcome for clinical translation. Importantly, we lack a full understanding of molecular mechanisms governing cell fate conversion toward cardiomyocytes. In this review, we will discuss the role of metabolism in directed differentiation versus trans-differentiation of cardiomyocytes. Cardiomyocytes exhibit a unique metabolic feature distinct from PSCs and cardiac fibroblasts, and there are multiple overlapping molecular mechanisms underlying metabolic reprogramming during cardiomyogenesis. We will discuss key metabolic changes occurring during cardiomyocytes differentiation from PSCs and cardiac fibroblasts, and the potential role of metabolic reprogramming in the enhancement strategies for cardiomyogenesis. Only when such details are discovered will more effective strategies to enhance the de novo production of cardiomyocytes be possible.

Direct reprogramming as a route to cardiac repair

Ischemic heart disease is the leading cause of morbidity, mortality, and healthcare expenditure worldwide due to an inability of the heart to regenerate following injury. Thus, novel heart failure therapies aimed at promoting cardiomyocyte regeneration are desperately needed. In recent years, direct reprogramming of resident cardiac fibroblasts to induced cardiac-like myocytes (iCMs) has emerged as a promising therapeutic strategy to repurpose the fibrotic response of the injured heart toward a functional myocardium. Direct cardiac reprogramming was initially achieved through the overexpression of the transcription factors (TFs) Gata4, Mef2c, and Tbx5 (GMT). However, this combination of TFs and other subsequent cocktails demonstrated limited success in reprogramming adult human and mouse fibroblasts, constraining the clinical translation of this therapy. Over the past decade, significant effort has been dedicated to optimizing reprogramming cocktails comprised of cardiac TFs, epigenetic factors, microRNAs, or small molecules to yield efficient cardiac cell fate conversion. Yet, efficient reprogramming of adult human fibroblasts remains a significant challenge. Underlying mechanisms identified to accelerate this process have been centered on epigenetic remodeling at cardiac gene regulatory regions. Further studies to achieve a refined understanding and directed means of overcoming epigenetic barriers are merited to more rapidly translate these promising therapies to the clinic.

Biosensor-based profiling to track cellular signalling in patient-derived models of dilated cardiomyopathy

Dilated cardiomyopathies (DCM) represent a diverse group of cardiovascular diseases impacting the structure and function of the myocardium. To better treat these diseases, we need to understand the impact of such cardiomyopathies on critical signalling pathways that drive disease progression downstream of receptors we often target therapeutically. Our understanding of cellular signalling events has progressed substantially in the last few years, in large part due to the design, validation and use of biosensor-based approaches to studying such events in cells, tissues and in some cases, living animals. Another transformative development has been the use of human induced pluripotent stem cells (hiPSCs) to generate disease-relevant models from individual patients. We highlight the importance of going beyond monocellular cultures to incorporate the influence of paracrine signalling mediators. Finally, we discuss the recent coalition of these approaches in the context of DCM. We discuss recent work in generating patient-derived models of cardiomyopathies and the utility of using signalling biosensors to track disease progression and test potential therapeutic strategies that can be later used to inform treatment options in patients.

Improving Cardiac Reprogramming for Heart Regeneration in Translational Medicine

Direct reprogramming of fibroblasts into CM-like cells has emerged as an attractive strategy to generate induced CMs (iCMs) in heart regeneration. However, low conversion rate, poor purity, and the lack of precise conversion of iCMs are still present as significant challenges. In this review, we summarize the recent development in understanding the molecular mechanisms of cardiac reprogramming with various strategies to achieve more efficient iCMs. reprogramming. Specifically, we focus on the identified critical roles of transcriptional regulation, epigenetic modification, signaling pathways from the cellular microenvironment, and cell cycling regulation in cardiac reprogramming. We also discuss the progress in delivery system optimization and cardiac reprogramming in human cells related to preclinical applications. We anticipate that this will translate cardiac reprogramming-based heart therapy into clinical applications. In addition to optimizing the cardiogenesis related transcriptional regulation and signaling pathways, an important strategy is to modulate the pathological microenvironment associated with heart injury, including inflammation, pro-fibrotic signaling pathways, and the mechanical properties of the damaged myocardium. We are optimistic that cardiac reprogramming will provide a powerful therapy in heart regenerative medicine.

Characterisation of the single-cell human cardiomyocytes taken from the excess heart tissue of the right ventricular outlet in congenital heart disease

Cardiovascular disease is the second highest cause of death across the globe. Myocardial infarction is one of the heart diseases that cause permanent impairment of the heart wall leads to heart failure. Cellular therapy might give hope to regenerate the damaged myocardium. Single cells isolated from an excess heart tissue obtained from the correction of the right ventricular hypertrophy in patients with Tetralogy of Fallot for future heart study were investigated.

METHODS

Once resected, the heart tissues were transported at 37 °C, in Dulbecco's Modified Eagle's medium/ DMEM (4.5 g.L^-1, antibiotic-antimycotic 3x, PRP10% (v/v)), to reach the lab within 30 min, weighted and grouped into less than 500 mg and more than 1000 mg (n = 4). Each sample was digested with 250 U.mL^-1 Collagenase type V and 4U.mL^-1 Proteinase XXIV in the MACS™ C-tube (Milltenyi, Germany), then dissociated using the MACS™ Octo Dissociator with Heater (Milltenyi, Germany) for 60 min at 37 °C.

RESULTS

All cells isolated were rod-shaped cells; viability was up to 90%. The cell density obtained from the 500 mg group were 4,867 ± 899 cells.mg^-1 tissue weight, significantly higher compared to the 1,000 mg group; had 557 ± 490 cells.mg^-1 tissue weight (mean of (n = 3) ± 95% C.l). The isolated cells were analyzed using FACs BD Flowcytometer, expressed cTnT + 13.38%, PECAM-1 + /VCAM-1- 32.25%, cKit + 7.85%, ICAM + 85.53%, indicating the cardiomyocyte progenitor cells.

CONCLUSION

Cardiomyocytes taken from the wasted heart tissue might be a candidate of cardiomyocytes source to study interventions to the heart as it contained up to 13.38% cardiomyocytes, and 32.25% of cardiac progenitor cells. Moreover, perhaps when cardiac cell therapy needs autologous cardiomyocytes, less than 500 mg tissue weight can be considered as sufficient.

Strategies for constructing pluripotent stem cell- and progenitor cell-derived three-dimensional cardiac micro-tissues

Three-dimensional (3D) cardiac micro-tissue is a promising model for simulating the structural and functional features of heart in vitro. This scientific achievement provides a platform for exploration about the mechanisms on the development, damage, and regeneration of tissue, hence, paving a way toward development of novel therapies for heart diseases. However, 3D micro-tissue technology is still in its infant stages faced with many challenges such as incompleteness of the tissue microarchitecture, loss of the resident immune cells, poor reproducibility, and deficiencies in continuously feeding the nutrients and removing wastes during micro-tissue culturing. There is an urgent need to optimize the construction of 3D cardiac micro-tissue and improve functions of the involved cells. Therefore, scaffolds and cell resources for building 3D cardiac micro-tissues, strategies for inducing the maturation and functionalization of pluripotent stem cell- or cardiac progenitor cell-derived cardiomyocytes, and the major challenges were reviewed in this writing to enable future fabrication of 3D cardiac micro-tissues or organoids for drug screening, disease modeling, regeneration treatment, and so on.

Cardiac regeneration by direct reprogramming in this decade and beyond

Japan faces an increasing incidence of heart disease, owing to a shift towards a westernized lifestyle and an aging demographic. In cases where conventional interventions are not appropriate, regenerative medicine offers a promising therapeutic option. However, the use of stem cells has limitations, and therefore, “direct cardiac reprogramming” is emerging as an alternative treatment. Myocardial regeneration transdifferentiates cardiac fibroblasts into cardiomyocytes in situ.

Three cardiogenic transcription factors: Gata4, Mef2c, and Tbx5 (GMT) can induce direct reprogramming of fibroblasts into induced cardiomyocytes (iCMs), in mice. However, in humans, additional factors, such as Mesp1 and Myocd, are required. Inflammation and immune responses hinder the reprogramming process in mice, and epigenetic modifiers such as TET1 are involved in direct cardiac reprogramming in humans. The three main approaches to improving reprogramming efficiency are (1) improving direct cardiac reprogramming factors, (2) improving cell culture conditions, and (3) regulating epigenetic factors. miR-133 is a potential candidate for the first approach. For the second approach, inhibitors of TGF-β and Wnt signals, Akt1 overexpression, Notch signaling pathway inhibitors, such as DAPT ((S)-tert-butyl 2-((S)-2-(2-(3,5-difluorophenyl) acetamido) propanamido)-2-phenylacetate), fibroblast growth factor (FGF)-2, FGF-10, and vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF: FFV) can influence reprogramming. Reducing the expression of Bmi1, which regulates the mono-ubiquitination of histone H2A, alters histone modification, and subsequently the reprogramming efficiency, in the third approach. In addition, diclofenac, a non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug, and high level of Mef2c overexpression could improve direct cardiac reprogramming.

Direct cardiac reprogramming needs improvement if it is to be used in humans, and the molecular mechanisms involved remain largely elusive. Further advances in cardiac reprogramming research are needed to bring us closer to cardiac regenerative therapy.

Inhibition of CREB-CBP Signaling Improves Fibroblast Plasticity for Direct Cardiac Reprogramming

Direct cardiac reprogramming of fibroblasts into induced cardiomyocytes (iCMs) is a promising approach but remains a challenge in heart regeneration. Efforts have focused on improving the efficiency by understanding fundamental mechanisms. One major challenge is that the plasticity of cultured fibroblast varies batch to batch with unknown mechanisms. Here, we noticed a portion of in vitro cultured fibroblasts have been activated to differentiate into myofibroblasts, marked by the expression of αSMA, even in primary cell cultures. Both forskolin, which increases cAMP levels, and TGFβ inhibitor SB431542 can efficiently suppress myofibroblast differentiation of cultured fibroblasts. However, SB431542 improved but forskolin blocked iCM reprogramming of fibroblasts that were infected with retroviruses of Gata4, Mef2c, and Tbx5 (GMT). Moreover, inhibitors of cAMP downstream signaling pathways, PKA or CREB-CBP, significantly improved the efficiency of reprogramming. Consistently, inhibition of p38/MAPK, another upstream regulator of CREB-CBP, also improved reprogramming efficiency. We then investigated if inhibition of these signaling pathways in primary cultured fibroblasts could improve their plasticity for reprogramming and found that preconditioning of cultured fibroblasts with CREB-CBP inhibitor significantly improved the cellular plasticity of fibroblasts to be reprogrammed, yielding ~2-fold more iCMs than untreated control cells. In conclusion, suppression of CREB-CBP signaling improves fibroblast plasticity for direct cardiac reprogramming.

Maturation strategies and limitations of induced pluripotent stem cell-derived cardiomyocytes

Induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs) have the ability to differentiate into cardiomyocytes (CMs). They are not only widely used in cardiac pharmacology screening, human heart disease modeling, and cell transplantation-based treatments, but also the most promising source of CMs for experimental and clinical applications. However, their use is largely restricted by the immature phenotype of structure and function, which is similar to embryonic or fetal CMs and has certain differences from adult CMs. In order to overcome this critical issue, many studies have explored and revealed new strategies to induce the maturity of iPSC-CMs. Therefore, this article aims to review recent induction methods of mature iPSC-CMs, related mechanisms, and limitations.

Next generation of heart regenerative therapies: progress and promise of cardiac tissue engineering

The adult heart is a vital and highly specialized organ of the human body, with limited capability of self-repair and regeneration in case of injury or disease. Engineering biomimetic cardiac tissue to regenerate the heart has been an ambition in the field of tissue engineering, tracing back to the 1990s. Increased understanding of human stem cell biology and advances in process engineering have provided an unlimited source of cells, particularly cardiomyocytes, for the development of functional cardiac muscle, even though pluripotent stem cell-derived cardiomyocytes poorly resemble those of the adult heart. This review outlines key biology-inspired strategies reported to improve cardiomyocyte maturation features and current biofabrication approaches developed to engineer clinically relevant cardiac tissues. It also highlights the potential use of this technology in drug discovery science and disease modeling as well as the current efforts to translate it into effective therapies that improve heart function and promote regeneration.

Inhibition of EZH2 primes the cardiac gene activation via removal of epigenetic repression during human direct cardiac reprogramming

Cardiovascular disease, until now, is still the leading cause of death in the United States. Due to the limited regenerative capacity of adult hearts, the damage caused by heart injury cannot be reversed and eventually progress into heart failure. In need of cardiovascular disease treatment, many therapies aimed at either cell transplantation or cell regeneration have been proposed. Direct reprogramming of somatic cells into induced cardiomyocytes (iCMs) is considered to be a promising strategy for regenerative medicine. The induction of cardiomyocytes from non-myocytes can be achieved efficiently via ectopic expression of reprogramming factors both in vitro and in vivo in the mouse model, however, the generation of human induced cardiomyocyte-like cells (hiCMs) remains challenging. The inefficiency of hiCMs production called for the identification of the additional epigenetic memories in non-myocytes which might be damping the hiCM reprogramming. Here, we conducted an unbiased loss-of-function screening focusing on epigenetic regulators and identified enhancer of zeste homolog 2 (EZH2) as an important epigenetic barrier during hiCM reprogramming. We found that the removal of EZH2 via genetic knockdown or treatment of EZH2 selective degrader significantly increased the hiCM reprogramming efficiency and led to profound activation of cardiac genes and repression of collagen and extracellular matrix genes. Furthermore, EZH2 inhibitors targeting its catalytic activity also promotes hiCM reprogramming, suggesting that EZH2 may restrain cardiac conversion through H3K27me3-mediated gene repression. Indeed, genomic profiling of H3K27me3 revealed a subset of cardiac genes that remain repressed with high levels of H3K27me3 despite of the delivery of the reprogramming factors. Inhibition of EZH2, however, leads to reduced H3K27me3 occupancy and robust activation of these cardiac genes. Taken together, our data suggested that EZH2 inhibition facilitates the activation of cardiac genes in fibroblasts and eases the production of hiCMs.

NRF2 is required for structural and metabolic maturation of human induced pluripotent stem cell-derived ardiomyocytes

Background

Human induced pluripotent stem cell-derived cardiomyocytes (hiPSC-CMs) hold great promise for regenerative medicine and in drugs screening. Despite displaying key cardiomyocyte phenotypic characteristics, they more closely resemble fetal/neonatal cardiomyocytes and are still immature; these cells mainly rely on glucose as a substrate for metabolic energy, while mature cardiomyocytes mainly employ oxidative phosphorylation of fatty acids. Studies showed that the alteration of metabolism pattern from glycolysis to oxidative phosphorylation improve the maturity of hiPSC-CMs. As a transcription factor, accumulating evidences showed the important role of NRF2 in the regulation of energy metabolism, which directly regulates the expression of mitochondrial respiratory complexes. Therefore, we hypothesized that NRF2 is involved in the maturation of hiPSC-CMs.

Methods

The morphological and functional changes related to mitochondria and cell maturation were analyzed by knock-down and activation of NRF2.

Results

The results showed that the inhibition of NRF2 led to the retardation of cell maturation. The activation of NRF2 leads to a more mature hiPSC-CMs phenotype, as indicated by the increase of cardiac maturation markers, sarcomere length, calcium transient dynamics, the number and fusion events of mitochondria, and mitochondrial respiration. Bioinformatics analysis showed that in addition to metabolism-related genes, NRF2 also activates the expression of myocardial ion channels.

Conclusions

These findings indicated that NRF2 plays an important role in the maturation of hiPSC-CMs. The present work provides greater insights into the molecular regulation of hiPSC-CMs metabolism and theoretical basis in drug screening, disease modeling, and alternative treatment.

Bioengineering Clinically Relevant Cardiomyocytes and Cardiac Tissues from Pluripotent Stem Cells

The regenerative capacity of cardiomyocytes is insufficient to functionally recover damaged tissue, and as such, ischaemic heart disease forms the largest proportion of cardiovascular associated deaths. Human-induced pluripotent stem cells (hiPSCs) have enormous potential for developing patient specific cardiomyocytes for modelling heart disease, patient-based cardiac toxicity testing and potentially replacement therapy. However, traditional protocols for hiPSC-derived cardiomyocytes yield mixed populations of atrial, ventricular and nodal-like cells with immature cardiac properties. New insights gleaned from embryonic heart development have progressed the precise production of subtype-specific hiPSC-derived cardiomyocytes; however, their physiological immaturity severely limits their utility as model systems and their use for drug screening and cell therapy. The long-entrenched challenges in this field are being addressed by innovative bioengingeering technologies that incorporate biophysical, biochemical and more recently biomimetic electrical cues, with the latter having the potential to be used to both direct hiPSC differentiation and augment maturation and the function of derived cardiomyocytes and cardiac tissues by mimicking endogenous electric fields.

Multiplexing physical stimulation on single human induced pluripotent stem cell-derived cardiomyocytes for phenotype modulation

Traditional in vitro bioengineering approaches whereby only individual biophysical cues are manipulated at any one time are highly inefficient, falling short when recapitulating the complexity of the cardiac environment. Multiple biophysical cues are present in the native myocardial niche and are essential during development, as well as in maintenance of adult cardiomyocyte (CM) phenotype in both health and disease. This study establishes a novel biofabrication workflow to study and manipulate hiPSC-CMs and to understand how these cells respond to a multiplexed biophysical environment, namely 3D shape and substrate stiffness, at a single cell level. Silicon masters were fabricated and developed to generate inverse patterns of the desired 3D shapes in bas relief, which then were used to mold the designed microwell arrays into a hydrogel. Polyacrylamide (PAAm) was modified with the incorporation of acrylic acid to provide a carboxylic group conjugation site for adhesion motifs, without compromising capacity to modulate stiffness. In this manner, two individual parameters can be finely tuned independently within the hydrogel: the shape of the 3D microwell and its stiffness. The design allows the platform to isolate single hiPSC-CMs to study solely biophysical cues in the absence of cell-cell physical interaction. Under physiologic-like physical conditions (3D shape resembling that of adult CM and 9.83 kPa substrate stiffness that mimics muscle stiffness), isolated single hiPSC-CMs exhibit increased Cx-43 density, cell membrane stiffness and calcium transient amplitude; co-expression of the subpopulation-related MYL2-MYL7 proteins; and higher anisotropism than cells in pathologic-like conditions (flat surface and 112 kPa substrate stiffness). This demonstrates that supplying a physiologic or pathologic microenvironment to an isolated single hiPSC-CM in the absence of any physical cell-to-cell communication in this biofabricated platform leads to a significantly different set of cellular features, thus presenting a differential phenotype. Importantly, this demonstrates the high plasticity of hiPSC-CMs even in isolation. The ability of multiple biophysical cues to significantly influence isolated single hiPSC-CM phenotype and functionality highlights the importance of fine-tuning such cues for specific applications. This has the potential to produce more fit-for-purpose hiPSC-CMs. Further understanding of human cardiac development is enabled by the robust, versatile and reproducible biofabrication techniques applied here. We envision that this system could be easily applied to other tissues and cell types where the influence of cellular shape and stiffness of the surrounding environment is hypothesized to play an important role in physiology.

iPSC-Cardiomyocyte Models of Brugada Syndrome-Achievements, Challenges and Future Perspectives

Brugada syndrome (BrS) is an inherited cardiac arrhythmia that predisposes to ventricular fibrillation and sudden cardiac death. It originates from oligogenic alterations that affect cardiac ion channels or their accessory proteins. The main hurdle for the study of the functional effects of those variants is the need for a specific model that mimics the complex environment of human cardiomyocytes. Traditionally, animal models or transient heterologous expression systems are applied for electrophysiological investigations, each of these models having their limitations. The ability to create induced pluripotent stem cell-derived cardiomyocytes (iPSC-CMs), providing a source of human patient-specific cells, offers new opportunities in the field of cardiac disease modelling. Contemporary iPSC-CMs constitute the best possible in vitro model to study complex cardiac arrhythmia syndromes such as BrS. To date, thirteen reports on iPSC-CM models for BrS have been published and with this review we provide an overview of the current findings, with a focus on the electrophysiological parameters. We also discuss the methods that are used for cell derivation and data acquisition. In the end, we critically evaluate the knowledge gained by the use of these iPSC-CM models and discuss challenges and future perspectives for iPSC-CMs in the study of BrS and other arrhythmias.

Direct cell reprogramming: approaches, mechanisms and progress

The reprogramming of somatic cells with defined factors, which converts cells from one lineage into cells of another, has greatly reshaped our traditional views on cell identity and cell fate determination. Direct reprogramming (also known as transdifferentiation) refers to cell fate conversion without transitioning through an intermediary pluripotent state. Given that the number of cell types that can be generated by direct reprogramming is rapidly increasing, it has become a promising strategy to produce functional cells for therapeutic purposes. This Review discusses the evolution of direct reprogramming from a transcription factor-based method to a small-molecule-driven approach, the recent progress in enhancing reprogrammed cell maturation, and the challenges associated with in vivo direct reprogramming for translational applications. It also describes our current understanding of the molecular mechanisms underlying direct reprogramming, including the role of transcription factors, epigenetic modifications, non-coding RNAs, and the function of metabolic reprogramming, and highlights novel insights gained from single-cell omics studies.

Production of Cardiomyocyte-Like Cells by Fibroblast Reprogramming with Defined Factors

Over the last decade, great achievements have been made in the field of direct epigenetic reprogramming, which converts one type of adult somatic cells into another type of differentiated cells, such as direct reprogramming of fibroblasts into cardiomyocytes, without passage through an undifferentiated pluripotent stage. Discovery of direct cardiac reprogramming offers a promising therapeutic strategy to prevent/attenuate cardiac fibrotic remodeling in a diseased heart. Furthermore, in vitro reprogramming of fibroblasts into cardiomyocyte-like cells provides new avenues to conduct basic mechanistic studies, to test drugs, and to model cardiac diseases in a dish. Here, we describe a detailed step-by-step protocol for in vitro production of induced cardiomyocyte-like cells (iCMs) from fibroblasts. The related procedures include high-quality fibroblast isolation of different origins (neonatal cardiac, tail-tip, and adult cardiac fibroblasts), retroviral preparation of reprogramming factors, and iCM generation by fibroblast reprogramming via retroviral transduction of Gata4, Mef2c, and Tbx5. A detailed written protocol will help many other laboratories, inexperienced in this area, to use and further improve this technology in their studies of cardiac regenerative medicine.

Proteomic analysis of mitochondrial biogenesis in cardiomyocytes differentiated from human induced pluripotent stem cells

Mitochondria play key roles in the differentiation and maturation of human cardiomyocytes (CMs). As human induced pluripotent stem cell-derived cardiomyocytes (hiPSC-CMs) hold potential in the treatment of heart diseases, we sought to identify key mitochondrial pathways and regulators, which may provide targets for improving cardiac differentiation and maturation. Proteomic analysis was performed on enriched mitochondrial protein extracts isolated from hiPSC-CMs differentiated from dermal fibroblasts (dFCM) and cardiac fibroblasts (cFCM) at time points between 12 and 115 days of differentiation, and from adult and neonatal mouse hearts. Mitochondrial proteins with a twofold change at time points up to 120 days relative to 12 days were subjected to ingenuity pathway analysis (IPA). The highest upregulation was in metabolic pathways for fatty acid oxidation (FAO), the tricarboxylic acid (TCA) cycle, oxidative phosphorylation (OXPHOS), and branched chain amino acid (BCAA) degradation. The top upstream regulators predicted to be activated were peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor γ coactivator 1 α (PGC1-α), the insulin receptor (IR), and the retinoblastoma protein (Rb1) transcriptional repressor. IPA and immunoblotting showed upregulation of the mitochondrial LonP1 protease-a regulator of mitochondrial proteostasis, energetics, and metabolism. LonP1 knockdown increased FAO in neonatal rat ventricular cardiomyocytes (nRVMs). Our results support the notion that LonP1 upregulation negatively regulates FAO in cardiomyocytes to calibrate the flux between glucose and fatty acid oxidation. We discuss potential mechanisms by which IR, Rb1, and LonP1 regulate the metabolic shift from glycolysis to OXPHOS and FAO. These newly identified factors and pathways may help in optimizing the maturation of iPSC-CMs.

Down-regulation of Beclin1 promotes direct cardiac reprogramming

Direct reprogramming of fibroblasts to alternative cell fates by forced expression of transcription factors offers a platform to explore fundamental molecular events governing cell fate identity. The discovery and study of induced cardiomyocytes (iCMs) not only provides alternative therapeutic strategies for heart disease but also sheds lights on basic biology underlying CM fate determination. The iCM field has primarily focused on early transcriptome and epigenome repatterning, whereas little is known about how reprogramming iCMs remodel, erase, and exit the initial fibroblast lineage to acquire final cell identity. Here, we show that autophagy-related 5 (Atg5)-dependent autophagy, an evolutionarily conserved self-digestion process, was induced and required for iCM reprogramming. Unexpectedly, the autophagic factor Beclin1 (Becn1) was found to suppress iCM induction in an autophagy-independent manner. Depletion of Becn1 resulted in improved iCM induction from both murine and human fibroblasts. In a mouse genetic model, Becn1 haploinsufficiency further enhanced reprogramming factor-mediated heart function recovery and scar size reduction after myocardial infarction. Mechanistically, loss of Becn1 up-regulated Lef1 and down-regulated Wnt inhibitors, leading to activation of the canonical Wnt/β-catenin signaling pathway. In addition, Becn1 physically interacts with other classical class III phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI3K III) complex components, the knockdown of which phenocopied Becn1 depletion in cardiac reprogramming. Collectively, our study revealed an inductive role of Atg5-dependent autophagy as well as a previously unrecognized autophagy-independent inhibitory function of Becn1 in iCM reprogramming.

Single-cell protein expression of hiPSC-derived cardiomyocytes using Single-Cell Westerns

The ability to reprogram human somatic cells into human induced pluripotent stem cells (hiPSCs) has enabled researchers to generate cell types in vitro that have the potential to faithfully recapitulate patient-specific disease processes and phenotypes. hiPSC-derived cardiomyocytes (hiPSC-CMs) offer the promise of in vitro patient- and disease-specific models for drug testing and the discovery of novel therapeutic approaches for treating cardiovascular diseases. While methods to differentiate hiPSCs into cardiomyocytes have been demonstrated, the heterogeneity and immaturity of these differentiated populations have restricted their potential in reproducing human disease and the associated target cell phenotypes. These barriers may be overcome through comprehensive single-cell characterization to dissect the rich heterogeneity of hiPSC-CMs and to study the source of varying cell fates. In this study, we optimized and validated a new Single-Cell Western method to assess protein expression in hiPSC-CMs. To better understand distinct subpopulations generated from cardiomyocyte differentiations and to track populations at single-cell resolution over time, we measured and quantified the expression of cardiomyocyte subtype-specific proteins (MLC2V and MLC2A) using Single-Cell Westerns. By understanding their heterogeneity through single-cell protein expression and quantification, we may improve upon current cardiomyocyte differentiation protocols, generate hiPSC-CMs that are more representative of in vivo derived cardiomyocytes for disease modeling, and utilize hiPSC-CMs for regenerative medicine purposes. Single-Cell Westerns provide a robust platform for protein expression analysis at single-cell resolution.

Roles of Reactive Oxygen Species in Cardiac Differentiation, Reprogramming, and Regenerative Therapies

Reactive oxygen species (ROS) have been implicated in mechanisms of heart development and regenerative therapies such as the use of pluripotent stem cells. The roles of ROS mediating cell fate are dependent on the intensity of stimuli, cellular context, and metabolic status. ROS mainly act through several targets (such as kinases and transcription factors) and have diverse roles in different stages of cardiac differentiation, proliferation, and maturation. Therefore, further detailed investigation and characterization of redox signaling will help the understanding of the molecular mechanisms of ROS during different cellular processes and enable the design of targeted strategies to foster cardiac regeneration and functional recovery. In this review, we focus on the roles of ROS in cardiac differentiation as well as transdifferentiation (direct reprogramming). The potential mechanisms are discussed in regard to ROS generation pathways and regulation of downstream targets. Further methodological optimization is required for translational research in order to robustly enhance the generation efficiency of cardiac myocytes through metabolic modulations. Additionally, we highlight the deleterious effect of the host's ROS on graft (donor) cells in a paracrine manner during stem cell-based implantation. This knowledge is important for the development of antioxidant strategies to enhance cell survival and engraftment of tissue engineering-based technologies. Thus, proper timing and level of ROS generation after a myocardial injury need to be tailored to ensure the maximal efficacy of regenerative therapies and avoid undesired damage.

Reprogramming of Non-myocytes into Cardiomyocyte-like Cells: Challenges and Opportunities

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

The high global incidence of heart disease drives the need for methods of mending damaged hearts. Direct reprogramming of cardiac fibroblasts into cardiomyocyte-like cells (called iCMs) has been successful in the creation of new muscle cells, in the repair of hearts post-myocardial injury, and therefore has great promise for the clinic. The purpose of this paper is to review and highlight the approaches for and underlying molecular mechanisms of direct cardiac reprogramming.

RECENT FINDINGS

Single-cell genomics and mechanistic studies have elucidated the stepwise transition of fibroblasts to iCMs as well as the molecular roadblocks that hinder reprogramming. Cardiac fibroblasts are able to be directly reprogrammed, in vitro and in vivo, into induced cardiomyocyte-like cells by the ectopic expression of a combination of transcription factors, microRNAs or small molecules. Recent works have illustrated methods that improve the efficiency of iCM generation and delivery of reprogramming cocktails as well as have revealed the molecular networks governing the reprogramming process. Current studies have also begun to identify and address the additional hurdles in human iCM reprogramming.

Direct Cardiac Reprogramming for Cardiovascular Regeneration and Differentiation

Cardiovascular disease is the leading cause of death worldwide. Cardiomyocytes have limited regenerative capacity; consequently, regenerative therapies are in high demand. There are currently several potential strategies for heart regeneration, with one approach involving in situ generation of new cardiomyocytes from endogenous cell sources. Direct cardiac reprogramming has emerged as a novel therapeutic approach to regenerating the damaged heart by directly converting endogenous cardiac fibroblasts into cardiomyocyte-like cells. Following our first report of direct cardiac reprogramming, significant advances have elucidated the molecular mechanisms associated with cardiac reprogramming. These advances have also improved cardiac-reprogramming efficiency by enabling direct in vivo cardiac reprogramming. Moreover, progress has been made in cardiac reprogramming of human fibroblasts. Although basic research has supported substantial progress in this field, numerous challenges remain in terms of clinical application. Here, we review the current state of cardiac reprogramming as a new technology for understanding and treating cardiovascular diseases.

Induced pluripotent stem cells for therapy personalization in pediatric patients: Focus on drug-induced adverse events

Adverse drug reactions (ADRs) are major clinical problems, particularly in special populations such as pediatric patients. Indeed, ADRs may be caused by a plethora of different drugs leading, in some cases, to hospitalization, disability or even death. In addition, pediatric patients may respond differently to drugs with respect to adults and may be prone to developing different kinds of ADRs, leading, in some cases, to more severe consequences. To improve the comprehension, and thus the prevention, of ADRs, the set-up of sensitive and personalized assays is urgently needed. Important progress is represented by the possibility of setting up groundbreaking patient-specific assays. This goal has been powerfully achieved using induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs). Due to their genetic and physiological species-specific differences and their ability to be differentiated ideally into all tissues of the human body, this model may be accurate in predicting drug toxicity, especially when this toxicity is related to individual genetic differences. This review is an up-to-date summary of the employment of iPSCs as a model to study ADRs, with particular attention to drugs used in the pediatric field. We especially focused on the intestinal, hepatic, pancreatic, renal, cardiac, and neuronal levels, also discussing progress in organoids creation. The latter are three-dimensional in vitro culture systems derived from pluripotent or adult stem cells simulating the architecture and functionality of native organs such as the intestine, liver, pancreas, kidney, heart, and brain. Based on the existing knowledge, these models are powerful and promising tools in multiple clinical applications including toxicity screening, disease modeling, personalized and regenerative medicine.

Stoichiometric optimization of Gata4, Hand2, Mef2c, and Tbx5 expression for contractile cardiomyocyte reprogramming

Reprogramming of fibroblasts to induced cardiomyocyte-like cells (iCMs) offers potential strategies for new cardiomyocyte generation. However, a major challenge of this approach remains its low efficiency for contractile iCMs. Here, we showed that controlled stoichiometric expression of Gata4 (G), Hand2 (H), Mef2c (M), and Tbx5 (T) significantly enhanced contractile cardiomyocyte reprogramming over previously defined stoichiometric expression of GMT or uncontrolled expression of GHMT. We generated quad-cistronic vectors expressing distinct relative protein levels of GHMT within the context of a previously defined splicing order of M-G-T with high Mef2c level. Transduction of the quad-cistronic vector with a splicing order of M-G-T-H (referred to as M-G-T-H) inducing relatively low Hand2 and high Mef2c protein levels not only increased sarcomeric protein induction, but also markedly promoted the development of contractile structures and functions in fibroblasts. The expressed Gata4 and Tbx5 protein levels by M-G-T-H transduction were relatively higher than those by transductions of other quad-cistronic vectors, but lower than those by previously defined M-G-T tri-cistronic vector transduction. Taken together, our results demonstrate the stoichiometric requirement of GHMT expression for structural and functional progresses of cardiomyocyte reprogramming and provide a new basic tool-set for future studies.

Ameliorating the Fibrotic Remodeling of the Heart through Direct Cardiac Reprogramming

Coronary artery disease is the most common form of cardiovascular diseases, resulting in the loss of cardiomyocytes (CM) at the site of ischemic injury. To compensate for the loss of CMs, cardiac fibroblasts quickly respond to injury and initiate cardiac remodeling in an injured heart. In the remodeling process, cardiac fibroblasts proliferate and differentiate into myofibroblasts, which secrete extracellular matrix to support the intact structure of the heart, and eventually differentiate into matrifibrocytes to form chronic scar tissue. Discovery of direct cardiac reprogramming offers a promising therapeutic strategy to prevent/attenuate this pathologic remodeling and replace the cardiac fibrotic scar with myocardium in situ. Since the first discovery in 2010, many progresses have been made to improve the efficiency and efficacy of reprogramming by understanding the mechanisms and signaling pathways that are activated during direct cardiac reprogramming. Here, we overview the development and recent progresses of direct cardiac reprogramming and discuss future directions in order to translate this promising technology into an effective therapeutic paradigm to reverse cardiac pathological remodeling in an injured heart.

Adaptation of Human iPSC-Derived Cardiomyocytes to Tyrosine Kinase Inhibitors Reduces Acute Cardiotoxicity via Metabolic Reprogramming

Tyrosine kinase inhibitors (TKIs) are widely used to treat solid tumors but can be cardiotoxic. The molecular basis for this toxicity and its relationship to therapeutic mechanisms remain unclear; we therefore undertook a systems-level analysis of human cardiomyocytes (CMs) exposed to four TKIs. CMs differentiated from human induced pluripotent stem cells (hiPSCs) were exposed to sunitinib, sorafenib, lapatinib, or erlotinib, and responses were assessed by functional assays, microscopy, RNA sequencing, and mass spectrometry (GEO: GSE114686; PRIDE: PXD012043). TKIs have diverse effects on hiPSC-CMs distinct from inhibition of tyrosine-kinase-mediated signal transduction; cardiac metabolism is particularly sensitive. Following sorafenib treatment, oxidative phosphorylation is downregulated, resulting in a profound defect in mitochondrial energetics. Cells adapt by upregulating aerobic glycolysis. Adaptation makes cells less acutely sensitive to sorafenib but may have long-term negative consequences. Thus, CMs exhibit adaptive responses to anti-cancer drugs conceptually similar to those previously shown in tumors to mediate drug resistance.

Role of cyclooxygenase-2-mediated prostaglandin E2-prostaglandin E receptor 4 signaling in cardiac reprogramming

Direct cardiac reprogramming from fibroblasts can be a promising approach for disease modeling, drug screening, and cardiac regeneration in pediatric and adult patients. However, postnatal and adult fibroblasts are less efficient for reprogramming compared with embryonic fibroblasts, and barriers to cardiac reprogramming associated with aging remain undetermined. In this study, we screened 8400 chemical compounds and found that diclofenac sodium (diclofenac), a non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug, greatly enhanced cardiac reprogramming in combination with Gata4, Mef2c, and Tbx5 (GMT) or GMT plus Hand2. Intriguingly, diclofenac promoted cardiac reprogramming in mouse postnatal and adult tail-tip fibroblasts (TTFs), but not in mouse embryonic fibroblasts (MEFs). Mechanistically, diclofenac enhanced cardiac reprogramming by inhibiting cyclooxygenase-2, prostaglandin E2/prostaglandin E receptor 4, cyclic AMP/protein kinase A, and interleukin 1β signaling and by silencing inflammatory and fibroblast programs, which were activated in postnatal and adult TTFs. Thus, anti-inflammation represents a new target for cardiac reprogramming associated with aging.

Fibroblasts can be directly reprogrammed to cardiomyocytes, but reprogramming is less efficient for adult compared to embryonic fibroblasts. Here, the authors find that inhibition of inflammation and Cox-2-prostaglandin-cAMP-IL-1β signaling enhances reprogramming efficiency of adult, but not embryonic fibroblasts.