Levels and congener profiles of polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins, polychlorinated dibenzofurans and dioxin-like polychlorinated biphenyls in cow's milk collected in Campania, Italy

Polychlorinated biphenyls in bovine milk from a typical informal electronic waste recycling and related source regions in southern India before and after the COVID-19 pandemic outbreak

For more than a decade, Chennai city in southern India has been evidenced with informal electronic waste (e-waste) recycling and open burning practices as the potential sources for polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs). PCBs can bioaccumulate in livestock particularly cows grazing on the contaminated soil. The outbreak of the COVID-19 pandemic led to additional challenges associated with waste management practices. Hence this study aims to elucidate twenty-five PCB congeners in bovine milk from the previously reported PCB source regions in Chennai and the suburbs before and after about three years of the pandemic outbreak along electronic waste recycling (EWR), open burning dumps (OBD), and residential (RES) transects. The geomean concentration of Ʃ25PCBs in ng/g lipid weight (lw) followed a decreasing trend of EWR (13 ng/g lw) > OBD (8 ng/g lw) > RES (4 ng/g lw). Over 80 % of PCBs stemmed from EWR and OBD transects before and after the pandemic. However, a significant surge in the level of PCB-52 was observed in the OBD transect after the pandemic outbreak. Most toxic PCB congeners, PCB-126 and -169 were significant contributors to TEQs in EWR and OBD transects and can be reasoned with the burning of waste materials and mixed plastics in these transects. The highest average daily dose (ADD) exposure risk was for children from EWR and was significantly higher (p < 0.05) than other transects. Mean ADD-induced TEQ (6.6 pg TEQ/kg-bw/day) from the cows grazing around Kodungaiyur dumpsite slightly exceeded the EU guideline of 5.5 pg TEQ/kg-bw/day after the outbreak of the pandemic due to PCB-126. However, none of the samples exceeded the US FDA (1.5μg/g milk fat) recommendation limits for PCBs in milk fat. Prolonged exposure to such persistent organic pollutants interlinked with the burning of mixed waste in the open dumps can be a public health concern.

Safety Evaluation and Probabilistic Health Risk Assessment of Cow Milk Produced in Northern Italy According to Dioxins and PCBs Contamination Levels

Contamination levels of dioxins and polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) were monitored over 2018-2021 in 214 bovine milk samples from farms located in two regions in northern Italy (Lombardy and Emilia-Romagna). The average concentrations of the sum of dioxins and dioxin-like PCBs (0.78 ± 0.55 pg TEQ/g fat) and six non-dioxin-like PCBs (6.55 ± 2.24 ng/g fat) were largely below the maximum, and action limits established at European level, confirming a decreasing trend observed both locally and across Europe in recent years. The impact of contamination levels on chronic dietary exposure of the Italian population to dioxins and PCBs was found to be highly variable based on the type of cow milk (skimmed, semi-skimmed, or whole-fat milk) and the population age group considered. Indeed, a first-tier screening of the potential exposure via determinist methods allowed for the identification of the youngest population as the group with the worst risk profile. The refinement of exposure assessment via Monte Carlo probabilistic methods suggested that, at the less pessimistic middle-bound simulation scenario, infants, toddlers, and children consuming whole cow milk may be exposed to dioxins and PCBs levels above the toxicological reference values with a probability of 76, 56, and 22%, respectively.

Occurrence and congener profiles of dioxins (PCDDs), furans (PCDFs) and polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) in ovine and caprine milk samples collected in a very polluted site in Central Italy

Concentrations of 7 polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins (PCDDs), 10 polychlorinated dibenzofurans (PCDFs) and 18 polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), including 12 dioxin-like (DL-PCBs) and 6 non-dioxin-like PCBs (NDL-PCBs) were measured in 16 ovine and caprine milk samples collected in the territory of Bussi sul Tirino, central Italy, a Site of National Interest (SNI) due to its high and widespread environmental pollution. All the analyzed samples were compliant with the maximum levels fixed by Commission Regulation (EU) 1259/2011 for the content of PCDD/Fs and the sum of PCDD/Fs and DL-PCBs. In two cases, contamination levels of the sum of PCDD/Fs and DL-PCBs were higher than the action levels fixed by EU Recommendation 663/2014. The statistical analysis, performed by Principal Component Analysis (PCA), revealed that the differences in contamination profiles of the different milk samples were independent of the distance of the farms from the Bussi illegal landfill but likely related to local emission sources influencing the exposure to POPs of studied animals.

The health impact of hazardous waste landfills and illegal dumps contaminated sites: An epidemiological study at ecological level in Italian Region

Background and aim

The implementation of idoneous management of hazardous waste, in contrast to illegal practices, is one of the environment and health priorities of the WHO. The aim of the present study, based on a collaborative agreement between the Italian National Health Institute and a Prosecution Office located in Naples North, was to evaluate the health effects of illegal landfills and burning of urban and hazardous waste in the territory of the Prosecution Office.

Methods

The municipalities included in the study territory were investigated with respect to the regional population. Regression analyses were performed in the study area between four classes of an environmental municipal indicator of waste risk (MRI) previously defined, computing the relative risks (RRs) in 2-4 MRI classes, with respect to the first MRI class (the least impacted). The prevalence of reproductive outcomes and cause-specific mortality and hospitalization were analyzed in the general population and in the 0-19-year-old population using SAS software.

Results

An increase of mortality and hospitalization risk in both the genders of the whole area, with respect to regional population, were found for overall all cancer cases, cancer of the stomach, the liver, the lung and the kidney, and ischemic heart diseases. An increase of mortality for leukemias in the 0-19-year-old population and in hospitalization risk for certain conditions originating in the perinatal period were observed. Correlation between MRI and the risk of mortality from breast tumors in women (MRI class 2: RR = 1.06; MRI class 3: RR = 1.15; MRI class 4: RR = 1.11) and between MRI and the risk of hospitalization from testis tumors (MRI class 2: RR = 1.25; MRI class 3: RR = 1.31; MRI class 4: RR = 1.32) were found. The hospitalization risk from breast tumors and asthma exceeded significantly in both genders of three and four MRI classes. Among the 0-19-year-old population, correlation between MRI and hospitalization from leukemias (MRI class 2: RR = 1.48; MRI class 3: RR = 1.60; MRI class 4: RR = 1.41) and between MRI and the prevalence of preterm birth (MRI class 2: RR = 1.17; MRI class 3: RR = 1.08; MRI class 4: RR = 1.25) were found.

Conclusion

A correlation between health outcomes and the environmental pressure by uncontrolled waste sites was found. Notwithstanding the limitation of the study, the results promote implementing the actions of environmental remediation and the prosecution of illegal practices.

The 'land of fires': epidemiological research and public health policy during the waste crisis in Campania, Italy

The region of Campania, South Italy rose to prominence in the mid-2000s due to the illegal disposal of waste by the Camorra during the local waste management crisis. Several lines of evidence have identified a link between exposure to toxic waste and adverse health outcomes in the local populations. Critically, studies since 2017 have strongly suggested that this link is causal in nature. The uncertainty of evidence polarised the Italian epidemiological community and partly undermined the precautionary principle in public health policy, leading to years of delay in the deployment of appropriate interventions. The crisis also sparked concerns about pollution of soil, water, and agricultural products. The contrast between political responses and protests from local communities shows analogies with environmental emergencies of a larger scale. Beyond law enforcement actions to prosecute illegal waste disposal activity, future mitigation of risks for affected populations will require coordinated efforts in environmental policy (land reclamation, improved waste management) and public health (i.e. extensive epidemiological surveillance, screening and prevention programs). By summarising evidence over the last two decades, this review aims to construct a cohesive interdisciplinary narrative of the events in the Campanian waste crisis.

A retrospective study on dioxins and dioxin-like polychlorinated biphenyls in milk and dairy products from the Latium region (Italy) over a 7-year study period (2011-2017)

This study reports the data of polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins (PCDDs), -furans (PCDFs), and polychlorinated biphenyls dioxin-like (dl PCBs) measured in a total of 260 samples of the dairy supply chain collected over a period of 7 years (2011-2017) in the Latium region (Italy). Levels and average profiles of congeners were reported for each group of the analyzed dairy matrices, and any differences between different sampling strategies were considered (around likely pollutant sources or casual sampling). Of the samples, 95.4% resulted compliant with the regulated levels; only samples belonging to the "sheep bulk milk" matrix were found to be above either the action levels or the maximum levels (tot. 12 samples). Raw milk of the sheep species showed the highest averages (PCDD/F 0.248 and dl PCB 0.966 WHO TEQ pg/g of fat) compared to the milk of other species. The buffalo milk showed a content of dl PCB significantly lower (dl PCB: 0.371 WHO TEQ pg/g of fat) than the sheep milk (p<0.05). Dioxins were found to be superior to furans in almost all dairy products, except in the noncompliant samples where furans were higher. The OCDD was found to be the most abundant congener in almost all dairy products. This study provides a first list of reference values for background contamination of the dairy supply chain in the Latium region. These pre-existing values will be useful in all cases of environmental pollution to identify critical situations.

Environmental status of an Italian site highly polluted by illegal dumping of industrial wastes: The situation 15 years after the judicial intervention

In 2008 the Italian government classified the Bussi sul Tirino area (Central Italy) as Site of National Interest destined to remediation which, unfortunately, has not yet begun. The decision followed >20 years of illegal dumping of industrial wastes, lasting from 1984 to 2005, that generated the biggest illegal toxic waste disposal site in Europe. The contamination profile of the site was mainly characterized by PCDD/Fs, PCBs, PAHs, chlorinated solvents, Hg, and Pb. Due to the health concern of the population and local authorities, an extensive monitoring and biomonitoring campaign was carried out in 2017-2018, checking the site-specific pollutants in local food (free-range hens' eggs, milk from grazing sheep and goats, wild edible mushrooms, and drinking water), environmental (air and freshwaters) and biological (human urine) matrices. A total of 314 samples were processed, obtaining 3217 analytical data that were compared with regulatory limits, when available, and values reported by international literature. The sum PCDD/Fs and DL-PCBs ranged from 0.24 to 3.6 pg TEQ g^-1 fat, and from 0.46 to 8.3 pg TEQ g^-1 fat, respectively in milk in eggs, in line with the maximum levels established by CE Regulations except for an egg sample. As regards PAHs, all our results were lower than the literature data, as well as for Hg and Pb. Outdoor air showed levels of chlorinated solvents ranging from <LOD to 36 μg m^-3, and freshwaters from 0.21 to 2.8 μg L^-1. All drinking water samples resulted compliant with the maximum levels established by the current EU directive. Despite the severe pollution of the illegal dumping site and the remediation not yet carried out, the local environment and the population living in Bussi and surroundings seem not to be affected by significant exposure to the toxics characterizing the landfill.

Levels of polychlorinated biphenyls and organochlorine pesticides in donkey milk: Correlation with the infection level by intestinal strongyles

AIM

The study aimed at evaluating the concentration levels of organochlorine pollutants in donkey milk and their modulation on the intestinal strongyle infection. Risk evaluation for consumer health was also investigated.

METHODS

We analyzed milk of grazing donkeys living in areas of Southern of Italy affected by organochlorine compounds environmental pollution and parasite infection. The presence of pollutants was assessed through summary statistics; regression analysis of intestinal strongyle on pollutant concentration was performed to investigate the relationship between the two variables.

RESULTS

PCB concentrations (mainly non-dioxin-like (ndl)-PCBs) were higher than OCP ones. Mean values of ndl-PCBs across areas ranged from 93.13 to 263.64 ng g^-1. In all sample units we detected the six indicator PCBs with the prevalence of the PCB 153, followed by the PCB 28 and the PCB 101. Among the dioxin-like (dl)-PCBs, non-ortho PCB 169, 77 and 126 were assessed in some milk samples; in all areas we detected the mono-ortho PCB 118 and PCB 105. Positive correlation between infection level and six indicator PCBs as well as between the former and HCB, on WW and LW, were observed (at least statistically significant at 5 percent). In some cases, Dl-PCB concentrations emerged as dangerous given the EU maximum residue limit for PCDD/Fs and dl-PCBs.

CONCLUSION

Evidence supports the hypothesis of an immunosuppressive role of organochlorine pollutants; risk evaluation reveals the potential health impact of dl-PCB intake, particularly for major donkey milk consumers such as infants, children with cow milk and multiple food intolerance, and elders.

PCDD/Fs, DL-PCBs, and NDL-PCBs in Dairy Cows: Carryover in Milk from a Controlled Feeding Study

A feeding study was carried out to investigate the kinetics in cow milk of the 17 polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins and dibenzofurans (PCDD/Fs), the 12 dioxin-like polychlorinated biphenyls (DL-PCBs), and the 6 non-dioxin-like PCBs (NDL-PCBs) regulated by the European (EU) legislation. A fortified ration (ΣPCDD/Fs and DL-PCBs: 24.68 ng TEQ/day/cow; ΣNDL-PCBs: 163.99 μg/day/cow) was given to the animals for 49 days, followed by 42 days on clean feed. EU maximum limit for TEQ_{PCDD/F+DL-PCB} was exceeded in milk after 1 week of exposure, while for ΣNDL-PCBs, after 5 weeks. Milk compliance was restored after 1 week on clean feed, but to return to the basal TEQ_{PCDD/F+DL-PCB} it took 42 days. At the end of the study, ΣNDL-PCBs had not yet reached the basal level. The carryover rate of ΣNDL-PCBs was 25.4%, while the carryover rate of TEQ_{PCDD/F+DL-PCB} was 36.9%. The latter was mainly affected by the 12 congeners contributing most to the toxic equivalent (TEQ) level, explaining the fast overcome of the maximum limit in milk.

Distribution of Chemical Residues among Fat, Skim, Curd, Whey, and Protein Fractions in Fortified, Pasteurized Milk

The distribution of 12 environmental contaminants or metabolites with diverse polarities (2,2',4,4',5-pentabromodiphenyl ether; bisphenol A; estrone; glyphosate; β-hexabromocyclododecane; imidacloprid; 2,3',4,4',5-pentachlorobiphenyl; 3'-methylsulfone 2,2',4,5,5'-pentachlorobiphenyl; 1,2,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin; 2-hydroxy-1,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin; tetrabromobisphenol A; and triclocarban) among skim milk, fat, curd, whey, whey retentate, and whey permeate was characterized. Analysis of these compounds along with 15 drugs previously studied provided a robust linear model predicting the distribution between skim and fat and the chemical's lipophilicity (log P, r ² = 0.71; log D, r ² = 0.79). Similarly, distribution between curd and whey was correlated with lipophilicity (log P, r ² = 0.63; log D, r ² = 0.73). Phenolic compounds had less predictable distribution patterns based on their lipophilicities. Within the whey fraction, chemicals with greater lipophilicity are associated with whey proteins more than hydrophilic chemicals. The resultant model could help predict the potential distribution of chemical contaminants among milk products in cow milk, if present.

Levels, congener profiles, and dietary intake assessment of polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins/dibenzofurans and dioxin-like polychlorinated biphenyls in beef, freshwater fish, and pork marketed in Guangdong Province, China

Persistent organic pollutants such as polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins (PCDDs), polychlorinated dibenzofurans (PCDFs), and dioxin-like polychlorinated biphenyls (DL-PCBs) consisting of non-ortho and mono-ortho PCBs are suggested to be very hazardous and have adverse effects on human health. However, their levels and congener profiles in retail foods marketed in Guangdong Province of China have not been elucidated thus far. Thus, in this study, 226 individual samples of beef, freshwater fish, and pork marketed across four regions of Guangdong Province were randomly collected during 2013-2015 to determine their levels of PCDD/Fs and DL-PCBs. The results showed that the total toxic equivalency quantities (TEQs) of most samples were below the maximum limits except for the 26 samples collected from the vicinities of pollution areas. The median total TEQs of these three categories were 0.174, 0.488, and 0.113pgTEQ/g fw, respectively, which indicated that the contamination status of the studied foods was not serious. For congener profiles, significantly different patterns were observed in three food groups, but with the same major TEQ contributors being 2,3,4,7,8-PeCDF in beef, freshwater fish, and pork. Regional differences of congener profiles in each food group were also found in this study, which might be attributed to the regionally different distributions of PCDD/Fs and DL-PCBs in environment media. The dietary exposures of four population subgroups (girls, boys, male adults, and female adults) to PCDD/Fs and DL-PCBs via three food groups were estimated to assessed the potential risks. They were all lower than the provisional tolerable monthly intake (PTMI, 70pgTEQ/kgbw/month) established by Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additive. In these food categories, the exposure to PCDD/Fs and DL-PCBs via freshwater fish was the highest one, which accounted for about 20% of PTMI, indicating that it was the major route to expose dioxin compounds.

Food contamination by PCBs and waste disposal crisis: Evidence from goat milk in Campania (Italy)

AIM

The study aims at investigating whether, and if so, to what extent the strong presence of urban and industrial waste in a territory may cause PCB contamination in goat milk produced therein.

METHODS

We compared PCB concentrations in goat milk from three different locations in the Campania region (Italy). One of the three locations, together with its surrounding area, has long suffered from illegal waste disposal and burning mainly by the so-called Ecomafia. The other locations, not involved in these illegal activities, allowed us to create a control group of goats with characteristics very similar to those of main interest.

RESULTS

In milk from the waste contaminated area we identified high PCB concentrations (six indicator PCBs amounted to 170 ng g^-1 on lipid weight, on average), whereas there was an almost total absence of such pollutants in milk from the control group. Concentrations of the six indicator PCBs were above the current European maximum residue limit fixed by the EU. At the same time, we found a lower average value of lipid content and a negative relationship between lipid content and PCB concentrations.

CONCLUSION

Evidence indicates the potential health risk for consumers living in areas involved in illegal dumping of waste.

2,3,7,8-Tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin influences bovine herpesvirus 1 replication through upregulation of SIRT3 and cytoskeletal reorganization

Infection of kidney cells (MDBK) with Bovine Herpesvirus 1 (BoHV-1) is affected by 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (TCDD), which accelerates BoHV-1-induced apoptosis and increases virus replication. Herein, to elucidate the mechanism through TCDD modifies BoHV-1 infection, we analyzed the modulation of a members of Sirtuin proteins family in MDBK cells. We found that mitochondrial SIRT3 was upregulated during infection. This change was accompanied by cytoskeletal rearrangements and cell extensions. All these trends were drastically modified by TCDD. We hypothesize that, taken together, these results might further clarify the processes responsible for the action of TCDD on the BoHV-1 replication, resulting in enhanced virus production.

Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) residues in commercial pasteurized cows' milk in Tehran, Iran

BACKGROUND

To date, despite the facts that pasteurized milk is the most consumed dairy product in Iran and its consumption has increased almost two fold during the last 10 years, no data are available concerning the concentrations of polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) in commercial cow milk in Iran market.

METHODS

This study designed to determine the levels of PCBs in these products and to assess population exposure to PCBs by estimating the daily intakes. Pasteurized cows' milk samples (10 brands) were collected from local markets at two different seasons and analyzed using sensitive and reliable methods.

RESULTS

Based on the results all the indicator PCBs were detected and quantified in all of the samples, the mean ± SD concentration for the sum of the six congeners was 18.92 ± 14.36 ng g^-1 fat. None of the samples surpassed the provisional value established by the EU of 40 ng g^-1 fat. The sum of dioxin-like congeners, expressed as WHO-TEQ was 0.492 pg/g of fat which was considerably lower than the defined limit 3 pg/g fat, set for cow's milk. Furthermore, a similar DL-PCBs profile as other studies was found for analyzed samples. The results indicated that concentrations of DL-PCBs were very low, and all of milk samples were compliant with EC legislation. In addition, seasonal variations were not observed for DL- and NDL-PCBs levels (p values >0.05).

CONCLUSIONS

The estimated dietary intake for target population was 0.06 pg TEQ/kg of body weight/day, much smaller than the amounts declared by the World Health Organization as tolerable daily intake.

2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin and the viral infection

Exposure to 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (TCDD), a widespread highly toxic environmental contaminant, suppresses immune response and leads to an increased susceptibility to infectious agents. In particular, several studies have provided evidence that TCDD decreases resistance to numerous viruses. Indeed, in vivo and in vitro investigations showed that the presence of TCDD is able to interfere with the replication of both human and animal viruses, such as influenza A viruses, coxsackie virus B3, immunodeficiency virus type-1 (HIV-1), cytomegalovirus (CMV), herpes simplex II, and bovine herpesvirus 1. Moreover, TCDD could induce an exacerbation of latent infection produced by HIV-1, CMV or Epstein-Barr virus. In this review, we first describe the general effects of TCDD exposure on mammalian cells, then we focus on its influence on the viral infections. Overall, the available data support the concept that TCDD exposure may act as an additional risk factor in promoting of viral diseases.

Determination of polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins and dibenzofurans (PCDD/Fs) in Brazilian cow milk

The determination of polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins (PCDDs) and polychlorinated dibenzofurans (PCDFs) in raw cow milks have never been reported in Brazil. Since the consumption of food of animal origin, including milk and dairy products, is the major source of human exposure to these compounds, this study aimed to establish the levels and profile of seven PCDDs and ten PCDFs in raw cow milk samples collected in eight Brazilian states which among the major milk producer states. Raw milk samples were collected in 34 different dairy cattle farms during the summer of 2013. All PCDD/Fs congeners were found at least in some of the 34 samples studied. The octa-chlorinated congeners (OCDD and OCDF) were ubiquitous and also present in high concentrations. The mean values of WHO-TEQ_1998;2005 were respectively 1.66 and 1.36pgTEQg^-1 fat and samples taken in São Paulo showed the highest WHO-TEQ values (2.46 TEQ₁₉₉₈g^-1 fat and 2.10pgTEQ₂₀₀₅g^-1 fat). Although all samples showed some contamination level, all values were below the limit established by European Union for total PCDD/Fs in cow milk (3pgWHO-TEQ₁₉₉₈g^-1 fat). Principal Component Analysis (PCA) showed that OCDD and OCDF were responsible for 73% and 20% of the total data variance, respectively and they presented an independent behavior, probably as a result of distinct origins. The use of TEQ as weights in the PCA, revealed the importance of the penta-chloro congeners and it was possible to identify sample distribution patterns probably associated with the main PeCDD and PeCDF. The importance of local sources to PCDD/Fs concentrations is still to be evaluated and determined.

Environment and Health: Not Only Cancer

The Hippocratic tradition emphasized environmental causes of diseases and the need for harmony between the individual and the natural environment as the right philosophy to maintain a good health status. Public awareness and scientific attention concerning environmental pollution is usually focused on the consequent increased risk of developing cancer. Air pollution has been recognized by the World Health Organization (WHO) to cause cardiovascular and respiratroy diseases, as well as lung cancer, after acute/chronic exposure to fine particulates (PM2.5 and PM10) even at concentrations which are 50% lower than those accepted as legal limits in many developed countries. An increase of 10 µg/m³ of PM2.5 produces a +4%-6% of overall mortality, a +10% of cardiovascular disease prevalence (arithmyas, acute myocardial infarctions, and heart failure) and a +22% of lung cancer prevalence. In addition to these chronic effects, acute hospitalizations are also affected, especially among susceptible populations such as children and diabetic patients. Water and soil contamination also have an additional detrimental effect on people's health. Other issues concerning environment contamination and human health include male/female fertility, metabolic and thyroid conditions, but also professional exposures resulting in occupational diseases. Moreover, in the perspective of "gender medicine", different acute or chronic effects of environmental pollution should be specifically assessed both in men and in women. This special issue on "Environmental Diseases" is aimed at providing a global overview about different threats to human health possibily originating from environmental contamination.

Increased risk of bladder cancer in critical areas at high pressure of pollution of the Campania region in Italy: A systematic review

During the past three decades, large areas of the Naples and the Caserta provinces of the Campania region in Italy have been extensively contaminated by the widespread burial and open-air dumping and incineration of industrial toxic waste. On the basis of the finding that the incidence of bladder cancer appears remarkably high in the Naples province with respect to the rest of Europe and of a potential causative role of environmental contaminants, we sought associations between exposure to toxic agents and increased mortality/incidence of bladder cancer by performing a systematic search of epidemiology and human biomonitoring studies conducted in the provinces of Naples and Caserta. The data show that the incidence of bladder cancer is higher than expected on the basis of regional data in the province of Naples and in certain areas of the province of Caserta, even after accounting for social deprivation, with two clusters of increased mortality rate located in the north-western part of Naples province and in the south-eastern part of the Caserta province. The biomonitoring studies conducted focused on the levels of polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins and dibenzofurans (PCDD/Fs) and polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), which are generated by the uncontrolled combustion of refuse abandoned in the territory and have been shown to enter the food chain. While the average values of PCDD/F and PCBs reported in blood serum and human milk of the area population are in accordance with those expected on the basis of studies conducted at a national and international level, five municipalities assessed in the province of Naples, that is Brusciano, Caivano, Giugliano, Mugnano, and Qualiano-Villaricca were clearly characterized by the presence of arsenic, with 62% samples showing serum arsenic levels higher than the 95th percentile of the national distribution. The potential negative synergism of social deprivation, environmental pressure and arsenic contamination may account for the higher than expected bladder cancer incidence and mortality in certain areas of the Campania region and remains to be elucidated via the conduction of ad hoc population-based studies.

Illegal Dumping of Toxic Waste and Its Effect on Human Health in Campania, Italy

The region of Campania (particularly Naples and Caserta) has experienced an emergency in the waste management cycle during past years. Although the most critical phase has been overcome after the construction of the incineration plant in Acerra (an old-fashioned technology built up over a few months, whose impact on environment and health has not yet been assessed), most of the underlying problems have not been resolved. The illegal burning of wheels, plastics, textiles, and other industrial residuals, along with the detection of two thousand toxic substance dumping sites, still represents major concerns of environmental pollution and population health. This review summarizes the most relevant studies, which analyzed chemical contamination (primarily dioxins and polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs)) of the air, soil, water, animals, and humans in Campania. In addition, we reviewed information on population health (i.e., mortality data, congenital malformations, and cancer incidence). Moving from a detailed mapping of (mostly illegal) waste dumping sites in Campania, we have focused on recent studies which have found: (a) high concentrations of dioxins (≥5.0 pg TEQ/g fat) in milk samples from sheep, cows, and river buffaloes; (b) remarkable contamination of dioxin and PCBs in human milk samples from those living in the Naples and Caserta areas (PCDDs+PCDFs and dioxin-like-PCBs (dl-PCBs) assessed at 16.6 pg TEQ/g of fat; range: 7.5-43 pg/g of fat); (c) potential age-adjusted standardized mortality rates associated with some specific cancer types; (d) a statistically significant association between exposure to illegal toxic waste dumping sites and cancer mortality, even after adjustment by socio-economic factors and other environmental indicators.

Occurrence, variability and human exposure to Polychlorinated Dibenzo-p-dioxins (PCDDs), Polychlorinated Dibenzofurans (PCDFs) and Dioxin-Like Polychlorinated Biphenyls (DL-PCBs) in dairy products from Chile during the 2011-2013 survey

Levels, congener profiles of PCDD/Fs, DL-PCBs and human exposure for these xenobiotics never have been reported in Chile. For that purpose 102 raw cow milk samples were collected from seven different regions of Chile during 2011 until 2013. The highest mean level for PCDD/Fs, corresponds to 0.32 pg WHO-TEQ2005 g(-1) fat (2012) and for DL-PCBs 0.17 pg WHO-TEQ2005 g(-1) fat (2011), using the upper bound approach. Penta and tetra chlorinated congeners dominated PCDD/Fs profiles in a WHO-TEQ2005 basis during the survey. In the case of DL-PCBs, PCB 126 dominated the profiles with 89%. Statistical analysis showed significant difference among years only in DL-PCBs residues. Also dietary intake was estimated, and the highest level for total sum of PCDD/Fs and DL-PCBs for adult was 0.16 pg WHO-TEQ kg(-1) b.w d(-1) (2011) and for children correspond to 0.65 pg WHO-TEQ kg(-1) b.wd(-1) (2011). Concentrations and dietary intake for the studied compounds in milk and butter samples were below international and national regulations.

Environmental pollution from illegal waste disposal and health effects: a review on the "triangle of death"

The term “triangle of death” was used for the first time by Senior and Mazza in the journal The Lancet Oncology referring to the eastern area of the Campania Region (Southern Italy) which has one of the worst records of illegal waste dumping practices. In the past decades, many studies have focused on the potential of illegal waste disposal to cause adverse effects on human health in this area. The great heterogeneity in the findings, and the bias in media communication has generated great healthcare doubts, anxieties and alarm. This paper addresses a review of the up-to-date literature on the “triangle of death”, bringing together the available information on the occurrence and severity of health effects related to illegal waste disposal. The Scopus database was searched using the search terms “waste”, “Campania”, “Naples”, “triangle of death” and “human biomonitoring”. Despite the methodological and sampling heterogeneity between the studies, this review examines the evidence from published data concerning cancer incidence, childhood mortality and birth defects, so that the current situation, knowledge gaps and research priorities can be established. The review aims to provide a contribution to the scientific community, and to respond to the concerns of the general population.

Incidence of soft tissue sarcomas in an Italian area affected by illegal waste dumping sites

The aim of the present study was to investigate the possible association between occurrence of soft tissue sarcomas (STS) and residence in an Italian area affected by illegal practices of dumping and setting fire to both hazardous and solid urban wastes. Standardized incidence ratios (SIRs) were computed separately for STS and some specific STS subtypes. The analysis was performed for the total population and for specific age groups, namely, children, adolescents, and adults. In adults, no significant increase in STS was found other than for gastrointestinal stromal tumors in males. A nonsignificant increase in incidence of STS was observed for male children and female adolescents. The results of the present study do not allow conclusions for a causal association. In the absence of previous epidemiological studies on this issue, further investigations are needed.

A survey of dioxins (PCDDs and PCDFs) and dioxin-like PCBs in sheep and goat milk from Campania, Italy

In 2008, after the crisis of buffalo dairy fields in Campania, Italy, an assessment of the contamination of polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins and polychlorinated dibenzofurans (PCDD/Fs) and dioxin-like polychlorinated biphenyls (dl-PCBs) was also necessary for other animal species bred in the region. The contents of PCDDs, polychlorinated dibenzofurans (PCDFs), and dl-PCBs were determined by high-resolution gas chromatography/mass spectrometry (HR-GC/MS) (according to USEPA method 1613) in 69 sheep and goat milk samples from 63 farms. In eleven samples from six sheep farms, the PCDD/Fs levels exceeded the maximum limit of 3.0 pg g(-1) fat established by the European Commission, in particular the concentrations ranged between 3.89 and 12.90 pg g(-1) fat. Statistical treatment of the results for the congener profiles of the non-compliant and compliant samples has been used to identify the sources of contamination.

Data on milk dioxin contamination linked with the location of fodder croplands allow to hypothesize the origin of the pollution source in an Italian valley

Polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins (PCDDs), polychlorinated dibenzofurans (PCDFs) and dioxin-like polychlorinated biphenyls (dl-PCBs) have similar toxic, endocrine-disrupting, and carcinogenic activity. They are classified as persistent organic pollutants accumulating in the environment and the tissues of living organisms. High concentrations of PCDD/F and dl-PCB have been detected in bovine milk collected in a Piedmont valley (Northwestern Italy) since 2004. This geographic study describes the local distribution of pollution from PCDD/Fs and dl-PCBs. Since their presence in animal products could be traced back to the ingestion of contaminated fodder, dioxin levels in cow milk were related to the distribution of fodder cropland parcels. Specifically, the aim of the study was to determine, through an exploratory approach, whether the contamination was consistent with one common point source of contamination or different scattered sources. Data for PCDD/F and dl-PCB concentrations in the bulk milk from 27 herds, sampled over a 4-year period (2004-2007), were matched to the georeferenced land parcels the dairy farmers used for growing fodder. Isopleth maps of dioxin concentrations were estimated with ordinary kriging. The highest level of pollution for both PCDD/Fs and dl-PCBs was geographically juxtaposed: in both instances, the location of the local steel plant was within this extremely highly polluted area. The study results support the hypothesis for one common point source of contamination in the valley. The exploratory spatial analysis applied in this research may provide a valuable, novel approach to straightforward identification of a highly likely source of dioxin contamination of dairy products (even in the absence of top soil contamination data).

Priority persistent contaminants in people dwelling in critical areas of Campania Region, Italy (SEBIOREC biomonitoring study)

To investigate if protracted living in degraded environments of the Caserta and Naples provinces (Campania Region, Italy) had an impact on exposure of local people, highly toxic persistent contaminants were measured in blood, blood serum, and human milk of a large number of healthy donors. Sampling was carried out from 2008 to 2009. Blood was collected from over 850 20-64-year old donors; by pooling, 84 blood and 84 serum samples were obtained. Milk was donated by 52 mothers: specimens were pooled into six samples. Polychlorodibenzodioxins (PCDDs), polychlorodibenzofurans (PCDFs), and polychlorobiphenyls (PCBs, dioxin-like (DL) and non-dioxin-like (Σ6PCBs)), arsenic (As), cadmium (Cd), mercury (Hg), and lead (Pb) were measured in serum (organic biomarkers) and blood (metals); these chemicals and polybromobiphenyl ethers (Σ9PBDEs) were analyzed in milk. PCDD+PCDF, DL-PCB, TEQTOT, and Σ6PCB concentration ranges (medians) in serum were 6.26-23.1 (12.4), 3.42-31.7 (11.5), 10.0-52.8 (23.9) pgTEQ97/g fat, and 55.5-647 (219) ng/g fat, respectively, while in milk concentration ranges were 5.99-8.77, 4.02-6.15, 10.0-14.2 pgTEQ97/g fat, and 48.7-74.2 ng/g fat. Likewise, As, Cd, Hg, and Pb findings in blood spanned 2.34-13.4 (5.83), 0.180-0.930 (0.475), 1.09-7.60 (2.60), 10.2-55.9 (28.8) μg/L, respectively; only Pb could be measured in milk (2.78-5.99 μg/L). Σ9PBDE levels in milk samples were 0.965-6.05 ng/g fat. Biomarkers' concentrations were found to be compatible with their current values in European countries and in Italy, and consistent with an exposure primarily determined by consumption of commercial food from the large distribution system. Based on relatively higher biomarker values within the hematic biomonitoring database, the following municipalities were flagged as possibly deserving attention for health-oriented interventions: Brusciano and Caivano (As), Giugliano (Hg), Pianura (PCDDs+PCDFs), and Qualiano-Villaricca (As, Hg). The analysis of samples' qualitative variability indicated that biomarker composition was sensitive at municipality level, a feature that can potentially drive interventions for future local risk assessment and/or management measures.

Predicting PCB concentrations in cow milk: validation of a fugacity model in high-mountain pasture conditions

A fugacity model reported in the literature was applied to a high-altitude pasture in the Italian Alps. The model takes into account three compartments (digestive tract, blood and fat tissues) in unsteady-state conditions using food as the contamination source. Disregarding biotransformation inside cow tissues, the predicted concentrations of 14 polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) in milk were in good agreement with the observed data, especially for congeners known for their resistance to biotransformation (e.g., CB-138 and 153). In contrast, the predicted concentrations were clearly overestimated for congeners with high biotransformation susceptibilities. Therefore data measured in milk and faeces were used to calculate the first-order-biotransformation rate constants in dairy cows. The PCB absorption efficiency observed for pasture conditions was lower than that observed in the cowshed. The final version of the model included biotransformation and observed PCB absorption and was able to predict PCB concentrations in cow milk with mean differences between the predicted and measured data below ± 20% for most congeners.

A general model of dioxin contamination in breast milk: results from a study on 94 women from the Caserta and Naples areas in Italy

BACKGROUND

The Caserta and Naples areas in Campania Region experience heavy environmental contamination due to illegal waste disposal and burns, thus representing a valuable setting to develop a general model of human contamination with dioxins (PCDDs-PCDFs) and dioxin-like-PCBs (dl-PCBs).

METHODS

94 breastfeeding women (aged 19-32 years; mean age 27.9 ± 3.0) were recruited to determine concentrations of PCDDs-PCDFs and dl-PCBs in their milk. Individual milk samples were collected and analyzed according to standard international procedures. A generalized linear model was used to test potential predictors of pollutant concentration in breast milk: age, exposure to waste fires, cigarette smoking, diet, and residence in high/low risk area (defined at high/low environmental pressure by a specific 2007 WHO report). A Structural Equation Model (SEM) analysis was carried out by taking into account PCDDs-PCDFs and dl-PCBs as endogenous variables and age, waste fires, risk area and smoking as exogenous variables.

RESULTS

All milk samples were contaminated by PCDDs-PCDFs (8.6 pg WHO-TEQ/98g fat ± 2.7; range 3.8-19) and dl-PCBs (8.0 pg WHO-TEQ/98g fat ± 3.7; range 2.5-24), with their concentrations being associated with age and exposure to waste fires (p < 0.01). Exposure to fires resulted in larger increases of dioxins concentrations in people living in low risk areas than those from high risk areas (p < 0.01).

CONCLUSIONS

A diffuse human exposure to persistent organic pollutants was observed in the Caserta and Naples areas. Dioxins concentration in women living in areas classified at low environmental pressure in 2007 WHO report was significantly influenced by exposure to burns.

Body burden monitoring of dioxins and other organic substances in workers at a hazardous waste incinerator

The construction in Constantí (Tarragona County, Catalonia) of the first, and up till now the only hazardous waste incinerator (HWI) in Spain, finished in 1999. In this study, we measured the concentrations of a number of organic substances determined in blood and urine of the HWI workers. Samples of 18 men and 9 women, classified according to their respective workplaces, were collected in 2011, after approximately 12 years of regular operations in the facility. The current results were compared with those of the baseline survey, as well as with the most recent surveys performed in 2008, 2009 and 2010. Plasma analyses were carried out for hexachlorobenzene (HCB), polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs 28, 52, 101, 138, 153, and 180) and polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins and dibenzofurans (PCDD/Fs), while the levels of 2,4- and 2,5-dichlorophenol (DCP), 2,4,5- and 2,4,6-trichlorophenol (TCP), pentachlorophenol (PCP) and 1-hydroxypyrene (1-HP) were measured in urine samples. In plasma, the mean concentrations were the following: 10.8μg/kg lipid for HCB; 0.8μg/kg lipid for PCB28; 0.3μg/kg lipid for PCB52; 0.5μg/kg lipid for PCB101; 42.2μg/kg lipid for PCB138; 18.5μg/kg lipid for PCB153, and 51.2μg/kg lipid for PCB180. For PCDD/Fs, the mean concentration was 4.6ng I-TEQ/kg lipid (4.7ng WHO-TEQ/kg lipid). These levels, as well as those found in urine samples, are in agreement with the data of previous surveys performed in the same area. The current results in HWI workers do not show any evident sign of occupational exposure to PCDD/Fs and other organic substances. However, these results must be considered only as an indication of potential exposure, as the study presents notable limitations, such as the reduced number of participants and the lack of data relative to the air concentrations of chemicals. Consequently, general conclusions cannot be derived and the results should not be used as a basis for the implementation of industrial hygiene measures in other HWIs.

Predicting dioxin-like PCBs soil contamination levels using milk of grazing animal as indicator

Dioxin-like PCBs (dl-PCBs) are ubiquitous persistent organic pollutants of recognized negative effects on human health. Assessing highly polluted areas should be an important public health issue. This study proposes to use the milk of grazing animals as a bioindicator of dl-PCB contamination in the environment. The hypothesis is that milk concentration of dl-PCBs are related to soil concentrations of these compounds, and that soils are generally reflective of a larger environmental issue of dl-PCB contamination. In this study, we evaluate the possibility of predicting soil concentrations using milk of sheep, cows and buffalos in a spatial model. For this purpose, samples of soil and milk collected in Campania (Italy) were introduced in a GIS platform to perform geostatistical analysis for building a simple predictive model. The ordinary least squares regressions (OLS) showed a statistically significant correlation (p<0.05) between soil and milk contamination. However, this relationship was spatially variable. Thus, a geographically weighted regression (GWR) was performed, obtaining R(2) values of 0.91, 0.77 and 0.66 for sheep's, buffalo's and cow's milk respectively. Assessed the mathematical relationships between the variables, new data was introduced to evaluate the performance of the model. Predictions of soil contamination with dl-PCBs using sheep's, cow's and buffalo's milk showed a mean error of 23%, 25% and 36% respectively. According to these results the sheep's milk can be considered the best bioindicator of dl-PCBs contamination among the three species. The results of this project evidence the potentialities of the proposed approach to assess bioindicator performance in a spatial predictive model.

Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) residues in milk from an agroindustrial zone of Tuxpan, Veracruz, Mexico

The coasts of the Gulf of Mexico are zones exposed to the exploration and exploitation of petroleum sources, and the products generated in agricultural zones may become contaminated by persistent organic pollutants (POPs). The objective of the present study was to evaluate the presence of polychlorinated biphenyl compounds (PCBs) in milk from dairy production units near sources of environmental pollutants. It was confirmed that the seven congeners of nondioxin-like PCBs (NDL-PCBs) are present in milk where compounds PCB101, PCB118, PCB153 and PCB180 appear in 100% of the samples analyzed, the rank of concentration for the sum of the seven congeners fluctuating between 2.6 and 26 ng g(-1) with a median of 6 ng g(-1). None of the samples surpassed the provisional value established by the EU of 40 ng g(-1) of milk fat for the sum of the seven congeners, indicator that was not affected by the season of the year (p<0.05), whose median of 8.6 ng g(-1) and 6.3 ng g(-1) for rain and drought respectively. The concentrations of NDL-PCBs found in milk do not represent a problem for human health; however, they alert the existence of spontaneously generated, uncontrolled sources that may represent a potential danger for human and animal health.

Analysis of plasma indices of redox homeostasis in dairy cows reared in polluted areas of Piedmont (northern Italy)

Steel manufacturing is responsible for the emission of pollutants, including dioxins and transition metals, inducing reactive oxygen species generation and DNA damage. Dioxin pollution represents the major cause of milk and dairy product contamination, in Italy, and is associated with oxidative stress-related processes, that may impair health and performance of cows. We evaluated the effect of exposure to different concentrations of pollutants derived from steel manufacturing on blood redox homeostasis of bovine cows. We analyzed two groups of dairy cows (A, B), reared in two different polluted areas, and a control group of cows bred in an industry free area. The extent of exposure to contaminants was defined by measuring dioxin level in bulk milk samples collected from animals of each farm. This level was lower in milk of group A than in group B. Plasma concentrations of retinol, alpha-tocopherol and ascorbate, the total antioxidant capacity, and the activities of superoxide dismutase and glutathione peroxidase were higher in control group than in exposed groups. In particular, retinol and tocopherol levels were higher in the group with lower milk dioxin level. Plasma titers of protein-bound carbonyls (PC), nitro-tyrosine, and hydroperoxides were lower in control group than in A or B. Hydroperoxides and PC plasma concentrations were increased in the group with higher milk concentration of dioxin. Our results demonstrate that, irrespective of the nature of chemicals inducing oxidative modifications, the extent of damage to plasma protein and lipid, is correlated with the concentration of dioxin in milk. So, the characterization of blood redox status might be a useful tool for identifying animals exposed to environmental pollutants. Plasma concentrations of retinol, alpha-tocopherol, PC and hydroperoxides could therefore represent good indices of the extent of animal exposure, as they significantly change in groups with different milk concentrations of dioxin.

Seasonal and spatial variability of polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) in vegetation and cow milk from a high altitude pasture in the Italian Alps

The seasonal and spatial variability of polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) in vegetation and cow milk was studied in a high altitude pasture in the Alps (1900 m a.s.l.). PCB contamination in vegetation shows a concentration peak in June, which is mainly interpreted as the consequence of a temporary PCB enrichment of the air layer above the ground due to net emission fluxes from the soil. A three compartment dynamic model was developed to test this hypothesis. The North/South enrichment factor in the vegetation was 1.5-1.6 for penta- and hexa-substituted congeners and 1.7 for hepta- and octa-PCBs, according to the effect of temperature on compounds having higher K(oa) values. Milk concentrations followed the vegetation seasonal trend. The congener abundance in milk is in agreement with the biotransformation susceptibility, absorption efficiency and residence time of the different congeners in dairy cows.

Congener profile, occurrence and estimated dietary intake of dioxins and dioxin-like PCBs in foods marketed in the Region of Valencia (Spain)

During 2006-2008, a monitoring program was conducted on 29 target compounds, including PCDD/Fs and dl-PCBs, comprising 150 randomly collected individual food samples marketed in the Region of Valencia, Spain, grouped into 8 categories (vegetables, cereals, fats and oils, eggs, milk and dairy products, fish products, meat and meat products and fish oil). For PCDD/Fs, the highest frequency of detection corresponds to 1,2,3,4,6,7,8-HpCDD, OCDD, 2,3,4,7,8-PeCDF; and PCBs 118, 105 and 156 were the more frequent dl-PCBs. The food groups presenting higher contamination, expressed as toxic equivalents (WHO-TEQs), were fish oil (6.38 pg WHO-TEQ g(-1)fat), fish (1.21 pg WHO-TEQ g(-1)w.w.) and milk and dairy products (0.90 pg WHO-TEQ g(-1)fat). Of all analysed samples, only two fish oils presented levels higher than the EU limits for total WHO-TEQ. The average PCDD/Fs and dl-PCBs intakes were estimated as 2.86 pg WHO-TEQ kg(-1)b.w.d(-1) and 4.58 pg WHO-TEQ kg(-1)b.w.d(-1), for adults and children, respectively, using the deterministic method for chronic exposure. The main contributors to total intake for adults were fish (59%), milk and dairy products (19%), and fat and oils (9%). The average daily intake for adults (2.86 pg WHO-TEQ kg(-1)b.w.d(-1)) is within range of TDI recommended by the WHO (1-4 pg WHO-TEQ kg(-1)b.w.d(-1)), and slightly above the TWI and PTMI adopted by SCF and JECFA respectively.

Monitoring temporal trends in environmental levels of polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins and dibenzofurans: results from a 10-year surveillance program of a hazardous waste incinerator

The only hazardous waste incinerator (HWI) in Spain has been operating in Constantí (Tarragona County, Catalonia) since 1999. Before its construction, a surveillance program was initiated to monitor the concentrations of polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins and dibenzofurans (PCDD/Fs) in the neighborhood of the facility. In 2008, 40 soil and 40 vegetation samples were collected and PCDD/F levels determined. The median PCDD/F concentration in soil was 0.49 ng international toxic equivalents (I-TEQ)/kg. Although it meant a nonsignificant decrease of 44% with respect to the preoperational survey, important fluctuations of the levels of PCDD/Fs through time were found in some specific sites. Therefore, a new survey was performed 1 year later (2009) by deleting those sampling sites with inconstant values, which mostly coincided with urban zones. In 2009, the median level of PCDD/Fs in soils was found to be 0.42 ng I-TEQ/kg. In contrast, median PCDD/F levels in vegetation were 1.11 ng I-TEQ/kg, a significant increase compared with previous surveys (range of the median 0.21-0.25 ng I-TEQ/kg). However, this increase was uniformly observed in the entire sampling area, suggesting that lack of rainfall was a key parameter for decreasing plant dilution and wash-up of pollutants on vegetation. This indicates that in surveillance programs, information must be obtained from different sources because the use of a single compartment may yield significant misinterpretation when evaluating temporal trends of environmental pollutants. Human health risks derived from exposure to PCDD/Fs were also assessed for the local population. The results indicated that current concentrations of these contaminants do not pose any additional carcinogenic or noncarcinogenic risk for those people living near the HWI.

Exposure assessment of dioxins and dioxin-like PCBs in pasteurised bovine milk using probabilistic modelling

Quantitative exposure assessment is a useful technique to investigate the risk from contaminants in the food chain. The objective of this study was to develop a probabilistic exposure assessment model for dioxins (PCDD/Fs) and dioxin-like PCBs (DL-PCBs) in pasteurised bovine milk. Mean dioxins and DL-PCBs (non-ortho and mono-ortho PCBs) concentrations (pg WHO-TEQ g(-1)) in bovine milk were estimated as 0.06 ± 0.07 pg WHO-TEQ g(-1) for dioxins and 0.08 ± 0.07 pg WHO-TEQ g(-1) for DL-PCBs using Monte Carlo simulation. The simulated model estimated mean exposure for dioxins was 0.19 ± 0.29 pg WHO-TEQ kg(-1)bw d(-1) and 0.14 ± 0.22 pg WHO-TEQ kg(-1) bw d(-1) and for DL-PCBs was 0.25 ± 0.30 pg WHO-TEQ kg(-1) bw d(-1) and 0.19 ± 0.22 pg WHO-TEQ kg(-1) bw d(-1) for men and women, respectively. This study showed that the mean dioxins and DL-PCBs exposure from consumption of pasteurised bovine milk is below the provisional maximum tolerable monthly intake of 70 pg TEQ kg(-1) bw month(-1) (equivalent of 2.3 pg TEQ kg(-1) bw d(-1)) recommended by the Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives and Contaminants (JECFA). Results from this study also showed that the estimated dioxins and DL-PCBs concentration in pasteurised bovine milk is comparable to those reported in previous studies.