Development of a liquid chromatography–electrospray ionization–tandem mass spectrometry method for the simultaneous analysis of intact glucosinolates and isothiocyanates in Brassicaceae seeds and functional foods

Exploring the bioaccessibility, in vitro colonic fermentation, and the impact on the intestinal microbiota of allyl-and benzyl-isothiocyanate from white and Ethiopian mustard

The aim of this research was to study the formation and bioaccessibility of allyl- and benzyl-isothiocyanate (ITC) resulting from the gastrointestinal digestion (small and large intestine) of green parts from Ethiopian and white mustard. In addition, a GC-MS methodology was validated to determine these compounds in bioaccessible and non-bioaccessible fraction. Plant clumps were divided into two batches: fresh and freeze-dried samples. ITC bioaccessibility was low in the small intestine, with values ranged between 11 and 53 % and mean values of 26 %. These results are in agreement with the fact that ITCs are poorly water-soluble compounds. Bioaccessibility values for lyophilised samples were lower than those obtained in fresh samples. This could be due to the degradation of the precursor glucosinolates (sinigrin and glucotropaeolin respectively). The simulation of the colonic fermentation reduced allyl - and benzyl - ITC levels from the non-bioaccessible fraction of Ethiopian and white mustard (values between 0.009 and 0.087 mg/g). In both cases, ITCs concentration dropped dramatically, i.e. with a ten-fold reduction. Nevertheless, this result does not necessarily indicate that ITCs have not been produced in the large intestine. Bacterial microbiota plays a key role in generating ITCs; however, ITCs are not always the final products of this process. The metagenomic analysis of colonic samples revealed that ITCs and cruciferous matrix significantly influenced the composition of gut microbiota, inhibiting potentially pathogenic bacteria such as Enterobacter and Klebsiella, while promoting beneficial bacteria such as Bifidobacterium, Faecalibacterium, Blautia, and Ruminococcus. Interestingly, ITCs-rich environments selected bacterial species (i.e. Enterobacter ludwigii) and promoted metabolic pathways involved in glucosinolate/ITCs metabolism.

Facile Preparation of Magnetic COF-on-COF for Rapid Adsorption and Determination of Sulforaphane from Cruciferous Vegetables

Sulforaphane (SFN) is a natural isothiocyanate compound widely abundant in cruciferous vegetables with multiple bioactive functions. However, traditional analytical methods for the extraction and determination of SFN are cumbersome, time-consuming, and low sensitivity with large amounts of organic solvents. Herein, novel magnetic COF-on-COFs (MB-COFs) were fabricated using Fe3O4 as a magnetic core and COFs-1 grown with COFs-2 as a shell, and they were used as efficient adsorbents of magnetic dispersive solid-phase extraction for rapid quantification of SFN in cruciferous vegetables by combining with HPLC-MS/MS. At the optimal ratio of COFs-1 to COFs-2, MB-COFs had a spherical cluster-like structure and a rough surface, with a sufficient magnetic response for rapid magnetic separation (1 min). Due to the introduction of Fe3O4 and COFs-2, MB-COFs exhibited outstanding extraction efficiencies for SFN (92.5-97.3%), which was about 18-72% higher than that of the bare COFs. Moreover, MB-COFs showed good adsorption capacity (Qm of 18.0 mg/g), rapid adsorption (5 min) and desorption (30 s) to SFN, and favorable reusability (≥7 cycles) by virtue of their unique hierarchical porous structure. The adsorption kinetic data were well fitted by the pseudo-second-order, Ritchie-second-order, intra-particle diffusion, and Elovich models, while the adsorption isotherm data were highly consistent with the Langmuir, Temkin, and Redlich-Peterson models. Finally, under the optimized conditions, the developed method showed a wide linear range (0.001-0.5 mg/L), high sensitivity (limits of quantification of 0.18-0.31 μg/L), satisfactory recoveries (82.2-96.2%) and precisions (1.8-7.9%), and a negligible matrix effect (0.82-0.97). Compared to previous methods, the proposed method is faster and more sensitive and significantly reduces the use of organic solvents, which can achieve the efficient detection of large-scale samples in practical scenarios. This work reveals the high practical potential of MB-COFs as adsorbents for efficient extraction and sensitive analysis of SFN in cruciferous vegetables.

Metabolite Profiling for Typization of "Rucola della Piana del Sele" (PGI), Eruca sativa, through UHPLC-Q-Exactive-Orbitrap-MS/MS Analysis

In August 2020, the Eruca sativa cultivar "Rucola della Piana del Sele" obtained from the European Union the prestigious PGI (protected geographical indication) label, which certifies the uniqueness of its characteristics and increases its prestige both nationally and, above all, internationally. This plant is recognized as a product of excellence, with a unique flavor and unmistakable aroma. Therefore, since there are no methods to characterize the PGI product, a metabolomic approach was applied to characterize E. sativa grown in the Piana del Sele and different geographical areas. As E. sativa has very wide cultivation, this study sought to compare the metabolite profiles of rocket grown in Piana del Sele, Bergamo, and Brescia, as well as in Switzerland, making a comparison also with the metabolite profile of E. sativa grown spontaneously. To determine the best procedure to distinguish "Rucola della Piana del Sele" from the others, different extraction procedures were carried out using different solvents and fresh or freeze-dried plant matrices. The different extracts were analyzed by liquid chromatography coupled with high-resolution mass spectrometry experiments, using chemometric analyses to identify biomarker metabolites that characterize the PGI product. The LC-ESI-Q-Exactive-MS/MS profiles of methanol and hydroalcoholic extracts of different cultivars of E. sativa were found to be rich in bioactive compounds such as glucosinolates, glycosylated flavonoids, fatty acids, and lipids. The LCMS data were analyzed by principal component analysis (PCA); the score scatter plot shows significant separation among Eruca samples grown in different geographical areas. In detail, loading the scatter plot revealed Eruca grown in Piana del Sele to be richer than other cultivars in glycosylated quercetin 3,3',4'-O-triglucoside (7), quercetin-3,4'-O-diglucoside-3'-O-(6-sinapoyl-glucoside) (10), and quercetin diglucoside (30). Finally, considering the biological interest in erucin, the myrosinase product of glucoerucin, the latter was quantified in the extracts by LC-ESI/QTrap/MS/MS using the multiple reaction monitoring (MRM) method; E. sativa from Piana del Sele showed the highest content of glucoerucin.

Synthesis and antitumor activity of erysolin and its metabolites

Erysolin and its two metabolites which were found in blood, ERY-GSH and ERY-NAC, were synthesized by alkylation, amination, isothiocyanation and oxidation reactions from 1-bromo-4-chlorobutane and sodium methyl mercaptide. The reaction temperature, time, feed ratios and purification method were also optimized. The synthesis method was simple, green, safe and low-cost. Erysolin, ERY-GSH and ERY-NAC showed good antitumor activities against MCF-7, HeLa, HepG2, A549 and SW480 cells, which suggested that the antitumor mechanism of erysolin can also be clarified from its metabolites in addition to itself.

Organosulfur in food samples: Recent updates on sampling, pretreatment and determination technologies

Organosulfur compounds (OSCs), mainly found in garlic, are the main biologically active substances for their pharmacological effects, including lowering of blood pressure and cholesterol, anti-cancer effect, liver protection, and anti-inflammatory. Efficient and sensitive pretreatment and determination methods of OSCs in different food matrices are of great significance. This review provides a comprehensive summary about the pretreatment and determination methods for OSCs in different food samples since 2010. Commonly used pretreatment methods, such as liquid-liquid extraction, microwave-assisted extraction, pressurized liquid extraction, liquid-liquid microextraction, solid phase extraction, dispersive solid phase extraction, solid-phase microextraction, and so on, have been summarized and overviewed in this paper. In particular, we discussed and compared various analysis methods including high performance liquid chromatography coupled with different detectors, gas chromatography-based methods, and few other methods. Finally, we tried to highlight the applicability, advantages and disadvantages of different pretreatment and analysis methods, and identified future prospects in this field.

Cauliflower by-products as functional ingredient in bakery foods: Fortification of pizza with glucosinolates, carotenoids and phytosterols

Industrial cauliflower by-products still represent a no-value food waste, even though they are rich in bioactive compounds. With the aim of valorizing them, optimized special flours rich in glucobrassicin, lutein, β-carotene, and β-sitosterol obtained from leaves, orange and violet stalks were used at 10 and 30% w/w in the formulation of functional leavened bakery. For the first time, the effect of bioactive compounds enrichment in pizza products as well as the rheological properties were evaluated. As results, pizza making process affected the recovery of the bioactive compounds. The recovery of glucobrassicin and carotenoids in pizza depended on the aerial part of cauliflower. Pizza with violet stalks was the richest in glucobrassicin, providing 8.4 mg per portion (200 g). Pizza with leaves showed the highest carotenoid content with a 90% of recovery rate while pizza with orange stalks provided up to 5.8% of the phytosterols health claim requirement. All 10% enriched pizzas revealed viscoelastic and springiness properties similar to the control, contrary to 30% fortification level. Therefore, the use of 10% special flour in pizza should meet both technological industrial processing and consumer acceptance. Orange stalks are the most promising ingredients for high levels of fortification in pizzas.

Brassica Genus Seeds: A Review on Phytochemical Screening and Pharmacological Properties

Traditionally, Brassica species are widely used in traditional medicine, human food, and animal feed. Recently, special attention has been dedicated to Brassica seeds as source of health-promoting phytochemicals. This review provides a summary of recent research on the Brassica seed phytochemistry, bioactivity, dietary importance, and toxicity by screening the major online scientific database sources and papers published in recent decades by Elsevier, Springer, and John Wiley. The search was conducted covering the period from January 1964 to July 2022. Phytochemically, polyphenols, glucosinolates, and their degradation products were the predominant secondary metabolites in seeds. Different extracts and their purified constituents from seeds of Brassica species have been found to possess a wide range of biological properties including antioxidant, anticancer, antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, antidiabetic, and neuroprotective activities. These valuable functional properties of Brassica seeds are related to their richness in active compounds responsible for the prevention and treatment of various chronic diseases such as obesity, diabetes, cancer, and COVID-19. Currently, the potential properties of Brassica seeds and their components are the main focus of research, but their toxicity and health risks must also be accounted for.

Cardiovascular benefits of Eruca sativa mill. Defatted seed meal extract: Potential role of hydrogen sulfide

Eruca sativa Mill. is an edible plant belonging to the Brassicaceae botanical family with a long story as a medicinal material, mainly linked to the presence of glucoerucin. One of the main products of this glucosinolate is erucin, a biologicallly active isothiocyanate recently recognized as a hydrogen sulfide (H₂S) donor. In this work, an Eruca sativa extract has been obtained from a defatted seed meal (DSM), achieving a powder rich in thiofunctionalized glucosinolates, glucoerucin, and glucoraphanin, accounting for 95% and 5% of the total glucosinolate content (17% on a dry weight basis), associated with 13 identified phenolic acids and flavonoids accounting for 2.5%. In a cell‐free model, Eruca sativa DSM extract slowly released H₂S. Moreover, this extract promoted significant hypotensive effects in hypertensive rats, and evoked dose‐dependent cardioprotection in in vivo model of acute myocardial infarct, obtained through a reversible coronary occlusion. This latter effect was sensitive to blockers of mitochondrial KATP and Kv7.4 potassium channels, suggesting a potential role of these mitochondrial channels in the protective effects of Eruca sativa DSM extract. Accordingly, Eruca sativa DSM extract reduced calcium uptake and apoptotic cell death in isolated cardiac mitochondria. Taken together, these results demonstrate that Eruca sativa DSM extract is endowed with an interesting nutraceutical profile on the cardiovascular system due to, at least in part, its H₂S releasing properties. These results pave the way for future investigations on active metabolites.

Beneficial Effects of Eruca sativa Defatted Seed Meal on Visceral Pain and Intestinal Damage Resulting from Colitis in Rats

Most therapies used in patients affected by inflammatory bowel diseases are ineffective in preventing the development of chronic visceral hypersensitivity, mainly due to inflammation-induced enteric neuroplasticity. Glucosinolates, secondary metabolites mainly of Brassicaceae with anti-inflammatory and neuroprotective properties, are effective in treating both neuropathic and arthritis pain through H₂S release and Kv7 potassium channel activation. The aim of this work was to investigate the protective and anti-hyperalgesic efficacy of a defatted seed meal from Eruca sativa Mill. (Brassicaceae), rich in glucosinolates, in a rat model of colitis induced by 2,4-dinitrobenzene sulfonic acid (DNBS). The mechanisms of action were also investigated. Visceral pain was assessed by measuring the abdominal response to colorectal distension. Fifteen days after colitis induction, the acute administration of E. sativa defatted seed meal (0.1–1 g kg⁻¹ p.o.) dose-dependently relieved pain. This effect was hampered by co-administering an H₂S scavenger or a selective Kv7 blocker. Administering E. sativa (1 g kg⁻¹) for 14 days, starting after DNBS injection, contributed to counteracting visceral pain persistence in the post-inflammatory phase of colitis by promoting colon healing from the damage and reducing enteric gliosis. E. sativa defatted seed meal might be employed as a nutraceutical tool for supporting abdominal pain relief in patients.

Glucosinolate Bioactivation by Apis mellifera Workers and Its Impact on Nosema ceranae Infection at the Colony Level

The microsporidian fungus Nosema ceranae represents one of the primary bee infection threats worldwide and the antibiotic fumagillin is the only registered product for nosemosis disease control, while few alternatives are, at present, available. Natural bioactive compounds deriving from the glucosinolate-myrosinase system (GSL-MYR) in Brassicaceae plants, mainly isothiocyanates (ITCs), are known for their antimicrobial activity against numerous pathogens and for their health-protective effects in humans. This work explored the use of Brassica nigra and Eruca sativa defatted seed meal (DSM) GSL-containing diets against natural Nosema infection in Apis mellifera colonies. DSM patties from each plant species were obtained by adding DSMs to sugar candy at the concentration of 4% (w/w). The feeding was administered in May to mildly N. ceranae-infected honey bee colonies for four weeks at the dose of 250 g/week. In the treated groups, no significant effects on colony development and bee mortality were observed compared to the negative controls. The N. ceranae abundance showed a slight but significant decrease. Furthermore, the GSL metabolism in bees was investigated, and MYR hydrolytic activity was qualitatively searched in isolated bee midgut and hindgut. Interestingly, MYR activity was detected both in the bees fed DSMs and in the control group where the bees did not receive DSMs. In parallel, ITCs were found in gut tissues from the bees treated with DSMs, corroborating the presence of a MYR-like enzyme capable of hydrolyzing ingested GSLs. On the other hand, GSLs and other GSL hydrolysis products other than ITCs, such as nitriles, were found in honey produced by the treated bees, potentially increasing the health value of the final product for human consumption. The results are indicative of a specific effect on the N. ceranae infection in managed honey bee colonies depending on the GSL activation within the target organ.

Current Methods for the Extraction and Analysis of Isothiocyanates and Indoles in Cruciferous Vegetables

Cruciferous vegetables are characterized by the presence of sulfur-containing secondary plant metabolites known as glucosinolates (GLS). The consumption of cruciferous vegetables such as broccoli, cabbage, rocket salad, and cauliflower has been related to the prevention of non-communicable diseases. Their beneficial effects are attributed to the enzymatic degradation products of GLS, e.g., isothiocyanates and indoles. Owing to these properties, there has been a shift in the last few years towards the research of these compounds and a wide range of methods for their extraction and analytical determination have been developed. The aim of this review is to present the sample preparation and extraction procedures of isothiocyanates and indoles from cruciferous vegetables and the analytical methods for their determination. The majority of the references that have been reviewed are from the last decade. Although efforts towards the application of eco-friendly non-conventional extraction methods have been made, the use of conventional solvent extraction is mainly applied. The major analytical techniques employed for the qualitative and quantitative analysis of isothiocyanates and indoles are high-performance liquid chromatography and gas chromatography coupled with or without mass spectrometry detection. Nevertheless, the analytical determination of isothiocyanates presents several problems due to their instability and the absence of chromophores, making the simultaneous determination of isothiocyanates and indoles a challenging task.

Seed Meals from Brassica nigra and Eruca sativa Control Artificial Nosema ceranae Infections in Apis mellifera

Nosema ceranae is a widespread parasite responsible for nosemosis Type C in Apis mellifera honey bees, reducing colony survival. The antibiotic fumagillin is the only commercial treatment available, but concerns are emerging about its persistence, safety, and pathogen resistance. The use of natural substances from Brassicaceae defatted seed meals (DSMs) with known antimicrobial and antioxidant properties was explored. Artificially infected bees were fed for 8 days with candies enriched with two concentrations, 2% and 4%, of two DSMs from Brassica nigra and Eruca sativa, containing a known amount of different glucosinolates (GSLs). The food palatability, GSL intake, bee survival, and treatment effects on N. ceranae spore counts were evaluated. Food consumption was higher for the two 2% DSM patties, for both B. nigra and E. sativa, but the GSL intake did not increase by increasing DSM to 4%, due to the resulting lower palatability. The 2% B. nigra patty decreased the bee mortality, while the higher concentration had a toxic effect. The N. ceranae control was significant for all formulates with respect to the untreated control (312,192.6 +/- 14,443.4 s.e.), and was higher for 4% B. nigra (120,366.3 +/- 13,307.1 s.e.). GSL hydrolysis products, the isothiocyanates, were detected and quantified in bee gut tissues. Brassicaceae DSMs showed promising results for their nutraceutical and protective effects on bees artificially infected with N. ceranae spores at the laboratory level. Trials in the field should confirm these results.

Current analytical methods for determination of glucosinolates in vegetables and human tissues

Numerous epidemiological studies have indicated the potential effects of glucosinolates and their metabolites against cancer as well as other non-communicable diseases, such as cardiovascular disease and neurodegenerative disorders. However, information on the presence and quantity of glucosinolates in commonly consumed vegetables and in human fluids is sparse, largely because well-standardised methods for glucosinolate determination are not available, resulting in published data being inconsistent and conflicting. Thus, studies published since 2002 on the most recent developments of glucosinolate extraction and identification have been collected and reviewed with emphasis on determination of the intact glucosinolates by LC-MS and LC-MS/MS. This overview highlights the glucosinolate extraction methods used, the stability of glucosinolates during extraction, the availability of stable isotope labelled internal standards and the use of NMR for purity analysis, as well as the current analytical techniques that have been applied for glucosinolate analysis, e.g. liquid chromatography with mass spectrometric detection (LC-MS). It aims to interpret the findings with a focus on the development of a validated method, which will help to determine the glucosinolate content of vegetative plants and human tissues, and the identification and determination of selected glucosinolate metabolites.

Chemical Characterization of Three Accessions of Brassica juncea L. Extracts from Different Plant Tissues

Indian mustard or Brassica juncea (B. juncea) is an oilseed plant used in many types of food (as mustard or IV range salad). It also has non-food uses (e.g., as green manure), and is a good model for phytoremediation of metals and pesticides. In recent years, it gained special attention due to its biological compounds and potential beneficial effects on human health. In this study, different tissues, namely leaves, stems, roots, and flowers of three accessions of B. juncea: ISCI 99 (Sample A), ISCI Top (Sample B), and “Broad-leaf” (Sample C) were analyzed by HPLC-PDA/ESI-MS/MS. Most polyphenols identified were bound to sugars and phenolic acids. Among the three cultivars, Sample A flowers turned were the richest ones, and the most abundant bioactive identified was represented by Isorhamnetin 3,7-diglucoside (683.62 µg/100 mg dry weight (DW) in Sample A, 433.65 µg/100 mg DW in Sample B, and 644.43 µg/100 mg DW in Sample C). In addition, the most complex samples, viz. leaves were analyzed by GC-FID/MS. The major volatile constituents of B. juncea L. leaves extract in the three cultivars were benzenepropanenitrile (34.94% in Sample B, 8.16% in Sample A, 6.24% in Sample C), followed by benzofuranone (8.54% in Sample A, 6.32% in Sample C, 3.64% in Sample B), and phytone (3.77% in Sample B, 2.85% in Sample A, 1.01% in Sample C). The overall evaluation of different tissues from three B. juncea accessions, through chemical analysis of the volatile and non-volatile compounds, can be advantageously taken into consideration for future use as dietary supplements and nutraceuticals in food matrices.

Eruca sativa Mill. seed extract promotes anti-obesity and hypoglycemic effects in mice fed with a high-fat diet

Obesity is currently considered a major source of morbidity, with dramatic complications on health status and life expectancy. Several studies demonstrated the positive effects of Brassicaceae vegetables on obesity and related diseases, partially attributing these beneficial properties to glucosinolates and their derivatives isothiocyanates. Recently, isothiocyanates have been described as a hydrogen sulfide (H₂ S)-releasing moiety, suggesting that H₂ S may be at least in part responsible for the beneficial effects of Brassicaceae. In this work, the metabolic effects of an extract obtained from Eruca sativa Mill. seeds (E.S., Brassicaceae), containing high levels of glucoerucin, were evaluated in an experimental model of obesity. Male balb/c mice were fed for 10 weeks with standard (Std) diet or high fat (HF) diet supplemented with E.S. E.S. significantly contained the body weight gain in this obesity model, improving also glucose homeostasis. Interestingly, lower values of white adipose tissue mass and a significant reduction of adipocytes size were also observed. Moreover, E.S. enhanced the adipocytes metabolism, improving the citrate synthase activity and reduced triglyceride levels in mice fed with HF diet. Taken together, these results suggest that E.S. is endowed with an interesting translational and nutraceutical value in the prevention of metabolic disorders, suggesting that H₂ S could be a key player.

Effect of Lactobacillus acidophilus Fermented Broths Enriched with Eruca sativa Seed Extracts on Intestinal Barrier and Inflammation in a Co-Culture System of an Enterohemorrhagic Escherichia coli and Human Intestinal Cells

Lactic acid bacteria (LAB) “fermentates” confer a beneficial effect on intestinal function. However, the ability of new fermentations to improve LAB broth activity in preventing pathogen-induced intestinal inflammation and barrier dysfunction has not yet been studied. The objective of this study was to determine if broths of LAB fermented with Eruca sativa or Barbarea verna seed extracts prevent gut barrier dysfunction and interleukin-8 (CXCL8) release in vitro in human intestinal Caco-2 cells infected with enterohemorrhagic Escherichia coli (EHEC) O157:H7. LAB broths were assayed for their effects on EHEC growth and on Caco-2 viability; thereafter, their biological properties were analysed in a co-culture system consisting of EHEC and Caco-2 cells. Caco-2 cells infected with EHEC significantly increased CXCL8 release, and decreased Trans-Epithelial Electrical Resistance (TEER), a barrier-integrity marker. Notably, when Caco-2 cells were treated with LAB broth enriched with E. sativa seed extract and thereafter infected, both CXCL8 expression and epithelial dysfunction reduced compared to in untreated cells. These results underline the beneficial effect of broths from LAB fermented with E. sativa seed extracts in gut barrier and inflammation after EHEC infection and reveal that these LAB broths can be used as functional bioactive compounds to regulate intestinal function.

Relationship between mustard pungency and allyl-isothiocyanate content: A comparison of sensory and chemical evaluations

The correlation of sensory and chemically evaluated pungency of mustard products was investigated via a time-intensity (TI) study and quantification of allyl isothiocyanate (AITC) contents using high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). Sweet, medium hot, hot, and extra hot commercial mustard products from different brands were examined. Notably, we found significant differences (p < 0.05) between the maximum perceived pungency intensity of various mustard products. The maximum perceived intensity (I_max ), the duration of the decreasing phase (DUR_Dec ), and the area under the curve (AUC) values increased proportionally to the increase in the sample AITC content and were also higher in products classified as hot than in sweet mustards. The AITC concentration varied greatly between products from different brands and also between different sensory evaluated pungency levels. Furthermore, sensory evaluations and analytical results were correlated using regression analysis. The best correlation (correlation coefficient 0.891) was observed between the AITC concentration and AUC, when compared to that between the AITC concentration and DUR_Dec (correlation coefficient 0.856) or the I_max value (correlation coefficient 0.803). The calculated regression model indicates that a higher AITC content induces an intensified trigeminal pungency sensation and that the sensory and chemical evaluations of mustard products were positively correlated. Therefore, by using this regression model, the sensory rating of mustard products may be predicted by chemical analysis of the AITC contents. PRACTICAL APPLICATION: This research paper provides a method to quantify the pungency inducing irritant allyl isothiocyanate in commercial mustard products and demonstrates a correlation between sensory and chemical data. Therefore, the amounts of sensory tests in product quality assurance can be reduced and replaced or at least supported by chemical quantification of pungent substances (especially AITC) in mustard products.

Health Benefits of Plant-Derived Sulfur Compounds, Glucosinolates, and Organosulfur Compounds

The broad spectrum of the mechanism of action of immune-boosting natural compounds as well as the complex nature of the food matrices make researching the health benefits of various food products a complicated task. Moreover, many routes are involved in the action of most natural compounds that lead to the inhibition of chronic inflammation, which results in a decrease in the ability to remove a pathogen asymptomatically and is connected to various pathological events, such as cancer. A number of cancers have been associated with inflammatory processes. The current review strives to answer the question of whether plant-derived sulfur compounds could be beneficial in cancer prevention and therapy. This review focuses on the two main sources of natural sulfur compounds: alliaceous and cruciferous vegetables. Through the presentation of scientific data which deal with the study of the chosen compounds in cancer (cell lines, animal models, and human studies), the discussion of food processing’s influence on immune-boosting food content is presented. Additionally, it is demonstrated that there is still a need to precisely demonstrate the bioavailability of sulfur-containing compounds from various types of functional food, since the inappropriate preparation of vegetables can significantly reduce the content of beneficial sulfur compounds. Additionally, there is an urgent need to carry out more epidemiological studies to reveal the benefits of several natural compounds in cancer prevention and therapy.

Functional Ingredients From Brassicaceae Species: Overview and Perspectives

Brassicaceae vegetables are important crops consumed worldwide due to their unique flavor, and for their broadly recognized functional properties, which are directly related to their phytochemical composition. Isothiocyanates (ITC) are the most characteristic compounds, considered responsible for their pungent taste. Besides ITC, these vegetables are also rich in carotenoids, phenolics, minerals, and vitamins. Consequently, Brassica's phytochemical profile makes them an ideal natural source for improving the nutritional quality of manufactured foods. In this sense, the inclusion of functional ingredients into food matrices are of growing interest. In the present work, Brassicaceae ingredients, functionality, and future perspectives are reviewed.

Simultaneous Analysis of Glucosinolates and Isothiocyanates by Reversed-Phase Ultra-High-Performance Liquid Chromatography-Electron Spray Ionization-Tandem Mass Spectrometry

A new method to simultaneously analyze various glucosinolates (GSLs) and isothiocyanates (ITCs) by reversed-phase ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography-electron spray ionization-tandem mass spectrometry has been developed and validated for 14 GSLs and 15 ITCs. It involved derivatization of ITCs with N-acetyl-l-cysteine (NAC). The limits of detection were 0.4-1.6 μM for GSLs and 0.9-2.6 μM for NAC-ITCs. The analysis of Sinapis alba, Brassica napus, and Brassica juncea extracts spiked with 14 GSLs and 15 ITCs indicated that the method generally had good intraday (≤10% RSD) and interday precisions (≤16% RSD). Recovery of the method was unaffected by the extracts and within 71-110% for GSLs and 66-122% for NAC-ITCs. The method was able to monitor the enzymatic hydrolysis of standard GSLs to ITCs in mixtures. Furthermore, GSLs and ITCs were simultaneously determined in Brassicaceae plant extracts before and after myrosinase treatment. This method can be applied to further investigate the enzymatic conversion of GSLs to ITCs in complex mixtures.

Glucosinolate structural diversity, identification, chemical synthesis and metabolism in plants

The glucosinolates (GSLs) is a well-defined group of plant metabolites characterized by having an S-β-d-glucopyrano unit anomerically connected to an O-sulfated (Z)-thiohydroximate function. After enzymatic hydrolysis, the sulfated aglucone can undergo rearrangement to an isothiocyanate, or form a nitrile or other products. The number of GSLs known from plants, satisfactorily characterized by modern spectroscopic methods (NMR and MS) by mid-2018, is 88. In addition, a group of partially characterized structures with highly variable evidence counts for approximately a further 49. This means that the total number of characterized GSLs from plants is somewhere between 88 and 137. The diversity of GSLs in plants is critically reviewed here, resulting in significant discrepancies with previous reviews. In general, the well-characterized GSLs show resemblance to C-skeletons of the amino acids Ala, Val, Leu, Trp, Ile, Phe/Tyr and Met, or to homologs of Ile, Phe/Tyr or Met. Insufficiently characterized, still hypothetic GSLs include straight-chain alkyl GSLs and chain-elongated GSLs derived from Leu. Additional reports (since 2011) of insufficiently characterized GSLs are reviewed. Usually the crucial missing information is correctly interpreted NMR, which is the most effective tool for GSL identification. Hence, modern use of NMR for GSL identification is also reviewed and exemplified. Apart from isolation, GSLs may be obtained by organic synthesis, allowing isotopically labeled GSLs and any kind of side chain. Enzymatic turnover of GSLs in plants depends on a considerable number of enzymes and other protein factors and furthermore depends on GSL structure. Identification of GSLs must be presented transparently and live up to standard requirements in natural product chemistry. Unfortunately, many recent reports fail in these respects, including reports based on chromatography hyphenated to MS. In particular, the possibility of isomers and isobaric structures is frequently ignored. Recent reports are re-evaluated and interpreted as evidence of the existence of "isoGSLs", i.e. non-GSL isomers of GSLs in plants. For GSL analysis, also with MS-detection, we stress the importance of using authentic standards.

Eruca sativa Meal against Diabetic Neuropathic Pain: An H2S-Mediated Effect of Glucoerucin

The management of pain in patients affected by diabetic neuropathy still represents an unmet therapeutic need. Recent data highlighted the pain-relieving efficacy of glucosinolates deriving from Brassicaceae. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the anti-hyperalgesic efficacy of Eruca sativa defatted seed meal, along with its main glucosinolate, glucoerucin (GER), on diabetic neuropathic pain induced in mice by streptozotocin (STZ). The mechanism of action was also investigated. Hypersensitivity was assessed by paw pressure and cold plate tests after the acute administration of the compounds. Once bio-activated by myrosinase, both E. sativa defatted meal (1 g kg⁻¹ p.o.) and GER (100 µmol kg⁻¹ p.o., equimolar to meal content) showed a dose-dependent pain-relieving effect in STZ-diabetic mice, but the meal was more effective than the glucosinolate. The co-administration with H₂S scavengers abolished the pain relief mediated by both E. sativa meal and GER. Their effect was also prevented by selectively blocking Kv7 potassium channels. Repeated treatments with E. sativa meal did not induce tolerance to the anti-hypersensitive effect. In conclusion, E. sativa meal can be suggested as a new nutraceutical tool for pain relief in patients with diabetic neuropathy.

Anticancer properties of erucin, an H2 S-releasing isothiocyanate, on human pancreatic adenocarcinoma cells (AsPC-1)

Plants of the Brassicaceae family are well-known for containing the glucosinolate myrosinase system, which is able to release isothiocyanates after plant biotic and abiotic lesions. Erucin (ERU; 1-isothiocyanato-4-(methylthio)-butane), an isothiocyanate particularly abundant in arugula (Eruca sativa Mill., Eruca vesicaria L., etc.), derives from the hydrolysis of the glucosinolate glucoerucin by the enzyme myrosinase. Many other natural isothiocyanates influence cancer cells and, in particular, induce antiproliferative effects at relatively high concentrations. Similar antiproliferative effects have also been shown by the newly emerging gasotransmitter hydrogen sulfide (H₂ S) and by H₂ S-releasing compounds. In a previous study, our group demonstrated that isothiocyanates release H₂ S in biological environments. In this work, we demonstrated the H₂ S-donor properties of ERU in pancreatic adenocarcinoma cells (AsPC-1) and delineated its profile as a chemopreventive or anticancer agent. Indeed, ERU showed significant antiproliferative effects: ERU inhibited AsPC-1 cell viability at relatively high concentrations (30-100 μM). Moreover, ERU inhibited cell migration, altered the AsPC-1 cell cycle, and exhibited proapoptotic effects. Finally, ERU inhibited ERK1/2 phosphorylation. This mechanism is particularly important in AsPC-1 cells because they are characterized by a mutation in KRAS that determines KRAS hyperactivation followed by MAP-kinase hyperphosphorylation, which plays a pivotal role in pancreatic cancer proliferation, growth, and survival.

Supercritical CO₂ Extraction of Eruca sativa Using Cosolvents: Phytochemical Composition by LC-MS Analysis

Background: Eruca sativa Mill. is a good source of glucosinolates (GLS), phenolic compounds and unsaturated fatty acids, being a valuable material for the production of functional-foods or nutraceutical ingredients. Extraction by supercritical CO₂ (SCO₂) can be used and the limitations due to the apolar nature of CO₂ can be overcome using co-solvents. In this paper different cosolvents and conditions were used for SCO₂ extraction and the composition of the obtained extracts was studied by LC-MS. Results: Water resulted the ideal co-solvent, allowing the extraction of glucosinolates in comparable amounts to the classical procedure with boiling water, as it can be carried out at mild temperatures (45 °C vs. >100 °C). Increasing the pressure improved the GLS extraction. On the other hand polyphenol extraction under the studied conditions was not influenced by pressure and temperature variations. The in vitro antioxidant effect of the obtained extracts was also measured, showing significant activity in the DPPH and FC tests. Conclusions: The GLS, flavonoids and lipids composition of the obtained extracts was studied, showing the presence of numerous antioxidant constituents useful for nutraceutical applications. The extraction method using SCO₂ and water as co-solvent presents advantages in terms of safety because these solvents are generally recognised as safe. Water as cosolvent at 8% resulted useful for the extraction of both glucosinolates and phenolics in good amount and is environmentally acceptable as well as safe for food production.

Chromatographic column evaluation for the untargeted profiling of glucosinolates in cauliflower by means of ultra-high performance liquid chromatography coupled to high resolution mass spectrometry

The untargeted profiling is a promising approach for the characterization of secondary metabolites in biological matrices. Thanks to the recent rapid development of high-resolution mass spectrometry (HRMS) instrumentations, the number of applications by untargeted approaches for biological samples profiling has widely increased in the recent years. Despite the high potentialities of HRMS, however, a major issue in natural products analysis often arises in the upstream process of compounds separation. A separation technique is necessary to avoid phenomena such as signal suppression, and it is especially needed in the presence of isomeric metabolites, which are otherwise indistinguishable. Glucosinolates (GLSs), a group of secondary metabolites widely distributed among plants, resulted to be associated to the prevention of some serious diseases, such as cancer. This led to the development of several methods for the analysis of GLSs in vegetables tissues. The issue of GLSs chromatographic separation has been widely studied in the past because of the difficulty in the analysis of this highly polar and variable class of compounds. Several alternatives to reversed phase (RP) chromatography, sometimes not compatible with the coupling of liquid chromatography with mass spectrometry, have been tested for the analysis of intact GLSs. However, the availability of new stationary phases, in the last years, could allow the re-evaluation of RP chromatography for the analysis of intact GLSs. In this work, a thorough evaluation of four RP chromatographic columns for the analysis of GLSs in cauliflower (Brassica oleracea L. var. botrytis) extracts by an ultra-high performance liquid chromatographic system coupled via electrospray source to a hybrid quadrupole-Orbitrap mass spectrometer is presented. The columns tested were the following: one column Luna Omega polar C₁₈, one column Kinetex Biphenyl, one column Kinetex core-shell XB-C₁₈, two columns Kinetex core-shell XB-C₁₈. After a previous optimization of the extraction method, cauliflower extracts were analyzed testing four different mobile phases onto the four columns for a total of sixteen different chromatographic conditions. The chromatographic systems were evaluated based on the number of detected and tentatively identified GLSs. Luna Polar stationary phase resulted to be the most suitable for the analysis of GLSs compared to Kinetex XB and Kinetex Biphenyl columns stationary phase. However, two in series Kinetex XB columns increased the number of tentatively identified GLSs compared to one Kinetex XB, showing the importance of column length in the analysis of complex mixtures. The data obtained with the best chromatographic system were deeply analyzed by MS/MS investigation for the final identification. Fiflty-one GLSs were tentatively identified, 24 of which have never been identified in cauliflower. Finally the linearity of the analytes response over the analyzed range of concentration was checked, suggesting that the developed method is suitable for both qualitative and quantitative analysis of GLSs in phytochemical mixtures.

Hydroxyl and Methoxyl Derivatives of Benzylglucosinolate in Lepidium densiflorum with Hydrolysis to Isothiocyanates and non-Isothiocyanate Products: Substitution Governs Product Type and Mass Spectral Fragmentation

A system of benzylic glucosinolates was found and characterized in common pepperweed, Lepidium densiflorum Schrad. The major glucosinolate was the novel 4-hydroxy-3,5-dimethoxybenzylglucosinolate (3,5-dimethoxysinalbin), present at high levels in seeds, leaves, and roots. Medium-level glucosinolates were 3,4-dimethoxybenzylglucosinolate and 3,4,5-trimethoxybenzylglucosinolate. Minor glucosinolates included benzylglucosinolate, 3-hydroxy- and 3-methoxybenzylglucosinolate, 4-hydroxybenzylglucosinolate (sinalbin), the novel 4-hydroxy-3-methoxybenzylglucosinolate (3-methoxysinalbin), and indole-type glucosinolates. A biosynthetic connection is suggested. NMR, UV, and ion trap MS/MS spectral data are reported, showing contrasting MS fragmentation of p-hydroxyls and p-methoxyls. Additional investigations by GC-MS focused on glucosinolate hydrolysis products. Whereas glucosinolates generally yielded isothiocyanates, the dominating 3,5-dimethoxysinalbin with a free p-hydroxyl group produced the corresponding alcohol and syringaldehyde (4-hydroxy-3,5-dimethoxybenzaldehyde). After thermal deactivation of the endogenous myrosinase enzyme, massive accumulation of the corresponding nitrile was detected. This case study points out how non-isothiocyanate glucosinolate hydrolysis products are prevalent in nature and of interest in both plant-pathogen interactions and human health.

Postharvest application of brassica meal-derived allyl-isothiocyanate to kiwifruit: effect on fruit quality, nutraceutical parameters and physiological response

The use of natural compounds to preserve fruit quality and develop high value functional products deserves attention especially in the growing industry of processing and packaging ready-to-eat fresh-cut fruit. In this work, potential mechanisms underlying the effects of postharvest biofumigation with brassica meal-derived allyl-isothiocyanate on the physiological responses and quality of 'Hayward' kiwifruits were studied. Fruits were treated with 0.15 mg L-1 of allyl-isothiocyanate vapours for 5 h and then stored in controlled atmosphere (2% O2, 4.5% CO2) at 0 °C and 95% relative humidity, maintaining an ethylene concentration <0.02 μL L-1. The short- and long-term effects of allyl-isothiocyanate on fruit quality traits, nutraceutical attributes, glutathione content, antiradical capacity and the activity of antioxidant enzymes were investigated. The treatment did not influence the overall fruit quality after 120 days of storage, but interestingly it enhanced the ascorbic acid, polyphenols and flavan-3-ol content, improving the antioxidant potential of kiwifruit. The short-term effect of allyl-isothiocyanate was evidenced by an increase of superoxide dismutase activity and of oxidative glutathione redox state, which were restored 24 h after the treatment. The expression levels of genes involved in detoxification functions, ethylene, ascorbate and phenylpropanoid biosynthesis, were also significantly affected upon allyl-isothiocyanate application. These results suggest that allyl-isothiocyanate treatment probably triggered an initial oxidative burst, followed by an induction of protective mechanisms, which finally increased the nutraceutical and technological value of treated kiwifruits.

Influence of Sulforaphane Metabolites on Activities of Human Drug-Metabolizing Cytochrome P450 and Determination of Sulforaphane in Human Liver Cells

The influence of metabolites of sulforaphane, natural compounds present in broccoli (Brassica oleracea var. botrytis italica) and in other cruciferous vegetables, on drug-metabolizing cytochrome P450 (CYP) enzymes in human liver microsomes and possible entry of sulforaphane into human hepatic cells were investigated. Metabolites studied are compounds derived from sulforaphane by the mercapturic acid pathway (conjugation with glutathione and by following reactions), namely sulforaphane glutathione and sulforaphane cysteine conjugates and sulforaphane-N-acetylcysteine. Their possible effect on four drug-metabolizing CYP enzymes, CYP3A4 (midazolam 1'-hydroxylation), CYP2D6 (bufuralol 1'-hydroxylation), CYP1A2 (7-ethoxyresorufin O-deethylation), and CYP2B6 (7-ethoxy-4-(trifluoromethyl)coumarin O-deethylation), was tested. Inhibition of four prototypical CYP activities by sulforaphane metabolites was studied in pooled human liver microsomes. Sulforaphane metabolites did not considerably affect biological function of drug-metabolizing CYPs in human liver microsomes except for CYP2D6, which was found to be inhibited down to 73-78% of the original activity. Analysis of the entry of sulforaphane into human hepatocytes was done by cell disruption by sonication, methylene chloride extraction, and modified high-performance liquid chromatography method. The results have shown penetration of sulforaphane into the human hepatic cells.

HPLC-based kinetics assay facilitates analysis of systems with multiple reaction products and thermal enzyme denaturation

Glucosinolates are plant secondary metabolites abundant in Brassica vegetables that are substrates for the enzyme myrosinase, a thioglucoside hydrolase. Enzyme-mediated hydrolysis of glucosinolates forms several organic products, including isothiocyanates (ITCs) that have been explored for their beneficial effects in humans. Myrosinase has been shown to be tolerant of non-natural glucosinolates, such as 2,2-diphenylethyl glucosinolate, and can facilitate their conversion to non-natural ITCs, some of which are leads for drug development. An HPLC-based method capable of analyzing this transformation for non-natural systems has been described. This current study describes (1) the Michaelis-Menten characterization of 2,2-diphenyethyl glucosinolate and (2) a parallel evaluation of this analogue and the natural analogue glucotropaeolin to evaluate effects of pH and temperature on rates of hydrolysis and product(s) formed. Methods described in this study provide the ability to simultaneously and independently analyze the kinetics of multiple reaction components. An unintended outcome of this work was the development of a modified Lambert W(x) which includes a parameter to account for the thermal denaturation of enzyme. The results of this study demonstrate that the action of Sinapis alba myrosinase on natural and non-natural glucosinolates is consistent under the explored range of experimental conditions and in relation to previous accounts.

Bioavailability of Glucosinolates and Their Breakdown Products: Impact of Processing

Glucosinolates are a large group of plant secondary metabolites with nutritional effects, and are mainly found in cruciferous plants. After ingestion, glucosinolates could be partially absorbed in their intact form through the gastrointestinal mucosa. However, the largest fraction is metabolized in the gut lumen. When cruciferous are consumed without processing, myrosinase enzyme present in these plants hydrolyzes the glucosinolates in the proximal part of the gastrointestinal tract to various metabolites, such as isothiocyanates, nitriles, oxazolidine-2-thiones, and indole-3-carbinols. When cruciferous are cooked before consumption, myrosinase is inactivated and glucosinolates transit to the colon where they are hydrolyzed by the intestinal microbiota. Numerous factors, such as storage time, temperature, and atmosphere packaging, along with inactivation processes of myrosinase are influencing the bioavailability of glucosinolates and their breakdown products. This review paper summarizes the assimilation, absorption, and elimination of these molecules, as well as the impact of processing on their bioavailability.