Chemokine receptors in Atlantic salmon

Dual-seq transcriptomics of Aeromonas salmonicida infection in Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) primary macrophages reveals lysosome and apoptosis impairments

A. salmonicida subsp. salmonicida is one of the oldest-known marine pathogens causing furunculosis in freshwater to marine fish species. A. salmonicida causes septicemia and fish death due to a systemic shock. Early stages of A. salmonicida infection, including intracellular macrophage infection, are not fully comprehended. Here, we conducted a dual RNA-seq study and functional analyses in Atlantic salmon primary macrophages infected with A. salmonicida to identify relevant genes for fish cellular immunity and A. salmonicida pathogenesis. At 1-h post-infection (hpi), A. salmonicida modulated the expression of genes associated with inflammation, fatty acids synthesis, and apoptosis. While at 2 hpi A. salmonicida hijacked pathways related to myeloid cell differentiation, cytoskeleton and actin filament organization, lysosome maturation, and apoptosis. In contrast, A. salmonicida upregulated genes encoding for hemolysin, aerolysin, type IVa pili, and T3SS effectors. In conclusion, these results suggest that A. salmonicida induces endocytosis, impairs lysosome maturation, and reduces apoptosis.

Effects of Environmentally Friendly Aquaculture Chamber Coatings on Enzyme Activities, Histology, and Transcriptome in the Liver of Larimichthys crocea

Aquaculture vessels have emerged as a sustainable alternative to traditional offshore aquaculture. However, the biological impacts of protective coatings used for vessel interiors are still poorly understood. This study assessed acute stress responses of Larimichthys crocea to epoxy-based aquaculture coatings using actual culture (1-fold) and high-exposure (80-fold) concentrations. Liver analyses included antioxidant enzymes, histopathology, and transcriptomics over 12-96 h. Firstly, the effect of the 80-fold concentration group on the activities of catalase (CAT), superoxide dismutase (SOD), and peroxidase (POD) was more significant in the liver of L. crocea compared to the 1-fold concentration group. Similarly, histological observations revealed that the 80-fold concentration group produced more significant pathological changes in the liver than the 1-fold concentration group, including hepatocyte damage and vacuolization. Subsequently, through high-throughput sequencing, a total of 714.02 million clean reads were obtained, with 693.71 million of these reads successfully mapped onto the reference genome of L. crocea, identifying 13,709 differentially expressed genes (DEGs). KEGG pathway enrichment analysis showed that many DEGs following coating-treated were involved in protein processing in endoplasmic reticulum, oxidative phosphorylation, cytokine-cytokine receptor interaction, FoxO signaling pathway, and toll-like receptor signaling pathway. Finally, fifteen DEGs were selected for quantitative real-time PCR (qRT-PCR) analysis, and the results showed a significant correlation with RNA-seq results, verifying the reliability and accuracy of the high-throughput sequencing data. This study preliminarily revealed the stress responses induced by aquaculture vessel coatings in L. crocea and provided fundamental data into the scientific use of coatings on aquaculture vessels.

CC and CXC chemokines in turbot (Scophthalmus maximus L.): Identification, evolutionary analyses, and expression profiling after Aeromonas salmonicida infection

Chemokines are a superfamily of structurally related cytokines, which exert essential roles in guiding cell migration in development, homeostasis, and immunity. CC and CXC chemokines are the two major subfamilies in teleost species. In this study, a total of seventeen CC and CXC chemokines, with inclusion of twelve CC and five CXC chemokines, were systematically identified from the turbot genome, making turbot the teleost harboring the least number of CC and CXC chemokines among all teleost species ever reported. Phylogeny, synteny, and genomic organization analyses were performed to annotate these genes, and multiple chemokine genes were identified in the turbot genome, due to the tandem duplications (CCL19 and CCL20), the whole genome duplications (CCL20, CCL25, and CXCL12), and the teleost-specific members (CCL34-36, CCL44, and CXCL18). In addition, chemokines were ubiquitously expressed in nine examined healthy tissues, with high expression levels observed in liver, gill, and spleen. Moreover, most chemokines were significantly differentially expressed in gill and spleen after Aeromonas salmonicida infection, and exhibited tissue-specific and time-dependent manner. Finally, protein-protein interaction network (PPI) analysis indicated that turbot chemokines interacted with a few immune-related genes such as interleukins, cathepsins, stats, and TLRs. These results should be valuable for comparative immunological studies and provide insights for further functional characterization of chemokines in teleost.

Comparative Transcriptome Analysis of Spleen Reveals Potential Regulation of Genes and Immune Pathways Following Administration of Aeromonas salmonicida subsp. masoucida Vaccine in Atlantic Salmon (Salmo salar)

Aeromonas salmonicida is a global fish pathogen. Aeromonas salmonicida subsp. masoucida (ASM) is classified as atypical A. salmonicida and caused huge losses to salmonid industry in China. Hence, it is of great significance to develop ASM vaccine and explore its protection mechanism in salmonids. In this regard, we conducted RNA-seq analysis with spleen tissue of Atlantic salmon after ASM vaccination to reveal genes, their expression patterns, and pathways involved in immune protections. In our results, a total of 441.63 million clean reads were obtained, and 389.37 million reads were mapped onto the Atlantic salmon reference genome. In addition, 1125, 2126, 1098, 820, and 1351 genes were significantly up-regulated, and 747, 2626, 818, 254, and 908 genes were significantly down-regulated post-ASM vaccination at 12 h, 24 h, 1 month, 2 months, and 3 months, respectively. Subsequent pathway analysis revealed that many differentially expressed genes (DEGs) following ASM vaccination were involved in cytokine-cytokine receptor interaction (TNFRSF11b, IL-17RA, CCR9, and CXCL11), HTLV-I infection (MR1 and HTLV-1), MAPK signaling pathway (MAPK, IL8, and TNF-α-1), PI3K-Akt signaling pathway (PIK3R3, THBS4, and COL2A1), and TNF signaling pathway (PTGS2, TNFRSF21-l, and CXCL10). Finally, the results of qRT-PCR showed a significant correlation with RNA-seq results, suggesting the reliability of RNA-seq for gene expression analysis. This study provided insights into regulation of gene expression and their involved pathways in Atlantic salmon spleen in responses to vaccine, and set the foundation for further study on the vaccine protective mechanism in Atlantic salmon as well as other teleost species.

The CC and CXC chemokine receptors in turbot (Scophthalmus maximus L.) and their response to Aeromonas salmonicida infection

Chemokines are crucial regulators of cell mobilization for development, homeostasis, and immunity. Chemokines signal through binding to chemokine receptors, a superfamily of seven-transmembrane domain G-coupled receptors. In the present study, eleven CC chemokine receptors (CCRs) and seven CXC chemokine receptors (CXCRs) were identified from turbot genome. Phylogenetic and syntenic analyses were performed to annotate these genes, indicating the closest relationship between the turbot chemokine receptors and their counterparts of Japanese flounders (Paralichthys olivaceus). Evolutionary analyses revealed that the tandem duplications of CCR8 and CXCR3, the whole genome duplications of CCR6, CCR9, CCR12, and CXCR4, and the teleost-specific CCR12 led to the expansion of turbot chemokine receptors. In addition, turbot chemokine receptors were ubiquitously expressed in nine examined healthy tissues, with high expression levels observed in spleen, gill, and head kidney. Moreover, most turbot chemokine receptors were significantly differentially expressed in spleen and gill after Aeromonas salmonicida infection, and exhibited general down-regulations at early time points and then gradually up-regulated. Finally, protein-protein interaction network (PPI) analyses indicated that chemokine receptors interacted with a few immune-related genes such as interleukins, Grk genes, CD genes, etc. These results should be valuable for comparative immunological studies and provide insights for further functional characterization of chemokine receptors in turbots.

CXC chemokines and their receptors in black rockfish (Sebastes schlegelii): Characterization, evolution analyses, and expression pattern after Aeromonas salmonicida infection

Chemokines are crucial regulators of cell mobilization for development, homeostasis, and immunity. Chemokines signal through binding to chemokine receptors, a superfamily of seven-transmembrane domain G-coupled receptors. In the present study, seventeen CXC chemokine ligands (SsCXCLs) and nine CXC chemokine receptors (SsCXCRs) were systematically identified from Sebastes schlegelii genome. Phylogeny, synteny, and evolutionary analyses were performed to annotate these genes, indicating that the tandem duplications (CXCL8, CXCL11, CXCL32, CXCR2, and CXCR3), the whole genome duplications (CXCL8, CXCL12, CXCL18, and CXCR4), and the teleost-specific members (CXCL18, CXCL19, and CXCL32) led to the expansion of SsCXCLs and SsCXCRs. In addition, SsCXCLs and SsCXCRs were ubiquitously expressed in nine examined healthy tissues, with high expression levels observed in head kidney, liver, gill and spleen. Moreover, most SsCXCLs and SsCXCRs were significantly differentially expressed in head kidney, liver, and gill after Aeromonas salmonicida infection, and exhibited tissue-specific and time-dependent manner. Finally, protein-protein interaction network (PPI) analysis indicated that SsCXCLs and SsCXCRs interacted with a few immune-related genes such as interleukins, cathepsins, CD genes, and TLRs, etc. These results should be valuable for comparative immunological studies and provide insights for further functional characterization of chemokines and receptors in teleost.

Expression and subcellular analyses of CCR8a/b genes with the identification of response to SGIV viral infect in orange-spotted grouper (Epinephelus coioides)

Chemokine receptors are a superfamily of seven transmembrane domain G-coupled receptors, and they play important roles in immune surveillance, inflammation, and development. Recently, nine CC chemokine receptors (CCRs) were identified and cloned from orange-spotted grouper (Epinephelus coioides) and annotated by phylogenetic and syntenic analyses. We detected mRNA transcripts for CCRs in healthy tissues of E. coioides, and CCR genes were highly expressed in the immune-relevant tissues. Analysis of gene expression after Singapore grouper iridovirus (SGIV) infection indicated that CCR genes are regulated in a gene-specific manner. CCR8a and CCR8b were significantly upregulated in the spleen and liver of resistant fish, indicating potential roles in immunity against the pathogen. Fluorescence microscopy revealed that CCR8a and CCR8b were expressed predominantly in the cytoplasm. Overexpression of CCR8a and CCR8b in grouper cells significantly inhibited the replication of SGIV, demonstrating that they delayed the occurrence of cytopathic effects induced by SGIV infection and inhibited viral gene transcription. CCR8a and CCR8b overexpression also significantly increased the expression of interferon (IFN)-related cytokines and activated IFN response element and IFN promoter activities. These results demonstrated that CCR8a and CCR8b might have an antiviral function against SGIV infect.

Dynamic and Differential Expression of Duplicated Cxcr4/Cxcl12 Genes Facilitates Antiviral Response in Hexaploid Gibel Carp

Chemokine receptor cxcr4 and its ligand cxcl12 have evolved two paralogs in the teleost lineage. In this study, we have identified four duplicated cxcr4 and cxcl12 genes from hexaploid gibel carp, Carassius gibelio, respectively. Cgcxcr4bs and Cgcxcl12as were dynamically and differentially expressed in immune-related tissues, and significantly up-regulated in head kidney and spleen after crucian carp herpesvirus (CaHV) infection. Blocking Cxcr4/Cxcl12 axis by injecting AMD3100 brought more severe bleeding symptom and lower survival rate in CaHV-infected fish. AMD3100 treatment also suppressed the up-regulation of key antiviral genes in head kidney and spleen, and resulted in more acute replication of CaHV in vivo. Consistently, the similar suppression of up-regulated expression of key antiviral genes were also observed in CAB cells treated by AMD3100 after poly(I:C) stimulation. Finally, MAPK3 and JAK/STAT were identified as the possible pathways that CgCxcr4s and CgCxcl12s participate in to promote the antiviral response in vitro.

Inhibition of nuclear factor kappa B as a mechanism of Danshensu during Toll-like receptor 2-triggered inflammation in macrophages

Danshensu (DSS) is a water-soluble phenolic compound in Danshen (Salvia Miltiorrhiza Radix et Rhizoma). Although various pharmacological activities have been recognized, little is known regarding its anti-inflammatory effect and related molecular mode of action. In the current study, bone marrow-derived macrophages (BMMs) were activated by a Toll-like receptor 2 (TLR2) agonist Pam3CSK4 with or without DSS intervention. Production of pro-inflammatory cytokines interleukin-6 (IL-6) and interleukin-12 (IL-12) was detected by both enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) and real-time quantitative PCR (RT-qPCR). Activation of signaling pathways involving nuclear factor kappa B (NF-κB) and mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPKs) was assessed by Western blot. Additionally, RNA sequencing (RNA-seq) combined with bioinformatics analyses was applied to investigate the molecular mechanisms of DSS. Emphasis was placed on the construction of the protein-protein interaction (PPI) network and transcription factor (TF) enrichment analysis of data including co-regulated differentially expressed genes (DEGs) in the Pam3CSK4 vs. control and DSS vs. Pam3CSK4 groups. The RT-qPCR and ELISA results showed that DSS effectively inhibited the expressions of IL-6 and IL-12, indicating a significant anti-inflammatory effect. Western blot verified that DSS suppressed the phosphorylation of p65, which was in accordance with the results of the TF enrichment analysis. Additionally, the PPI network analysis showed several key molecules, including lactoferrin (Ltf), CC-chemokine receptor 7 (Ccr7), interferon-gamma (IFN-γ) and C-X-C motif chemokine ligand 9 (Cxcl9), to be regulatory genes that responded to DSS treatment. Overall, our study revealed that DSS has a pronounced anti-inflammatory effect involving TLR2 and macrophages through the NF-κB signaling pathway, which supports the novel application of DSS in the treatment of relevant diseases including atherosclerosis and ischemic or ischemic/perfusion injury of the heart and brain.

Expansion of fish CCL20_like chemokines by genome and local gene duplication: Characterisation and expression analysis of 10 CCL20_like chemokines in rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss)

Mammalian CCL20, or macrophage inflammatory protein-3α, can function as a homeostatic and inflammatory chemokine. In relation to the latter, it is responsible for the chemoattraction of lymphocytes and dendritic cells to mucosal immune sites under inflammatory and pathological conditions. CK1, CK8A and CK8B are rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) CC chemokines that were reported previously to be phylogenetically related to mammalian CCL20. In the current study, an additional seven CCL20_L paralogues in rainbow trout are reported, that are divided into three subgroups and have been designated here as: CCL20_L1a (also referred to as CK1), CCL20_L1b1-2, CCL20_L2a (CK8A), CCL20_L2b (CK8B), CCL20_L3a, and CCL20_L3b1-4. Multiple CCL20_L genes were also identified in other salmonids that arose from both whole genome duplication and local gene duplication. Phylogenetic tree, homology and synteny analysis support that CCL20_L1-3 found in salmonids are also present in most teleosts arose from the 3 R whole genome duplication and in some species, local gene duplication. Like mammalian CCL20, rainbow trout CCL20_L molecules possess a high positive net charge with a pI of 9.34-10.16, that is reported to be important for antimicrobial activity. Rainbow trout CCL20_L paralogues are differentially expressed and in general highly expressed in mucosal tissues, such as gills, thymus and intestine. The expression levels of rainbow trout CCL20_L paralogues are increased during development and following PAMP/cytokine stimulation. For example, in RTS-11 cells CCL20_L3b1 and CCL20_L3b2 are highly up-regulated by LPS, Poly I:C, recombinant(r) IFNa and rIL-1β. Trout CCL20_L paralogues are also increased after Yersinia ruckeri infection or Poly I:C stimulation in vivo, with CCL20_L3b1 and CCL20_L3b2 again highly up-regulated. Overall, this is the first report of the complete CCL20 chemokine subfamily in rainbow trout, and the analysis of their expression and modulation in vitro and in vivo. These results suggest that teleosts possess divergent CCL20_L molecules that may have important roles in anti-viral/anti-bacterial defence and in mucosal immunity.

The CXC chemokines and CXC chemokine receptors in orange-spotted grouper (Epinephelus coioides) and their expression after Singapore grouper iridovirus infection

Chemokines comprise a group of small molecular weight (6-14 kDa) cytokines; chemokine receptors are a superfamily of seven transmembrane domain G-coupled receptors. Both chemokines and their receptors have important roles in immune surveillance, inflammation, and development. Recently, 9 CXC chemokine ligands (CXCLs) and 8 CXC chemokine receptors (CXCRs) were identified and cloned from orange-spotted grouper (Epinephelus coioides) and annotated by phylogenetic and syntenic analyses. We detected mRNA transcripts for CXCLs and CXCRs in healthy tissues of E. coioides. Our data show that CXCL genes are highly expressed in the spleen, kidney and liver and that CXCR genes are ubiquitously expressed, rather than being expressed only in immune organs. Analysis of gene expression after Singapore grouper iridovirus infection indicated that CXCL and CXCR genes are regulated in a gene-specific manner. CXCL8 and CXCL12a were significantly upregulated in the spleen, kidney and liver of resistant fish, indicating potential roles in immunity against the pathogen. Additionally, CXCR4a was upregulated in all three organs in resistant fish, suggesting that CXCL8 or CXCL12a may participate in the immune response via interaction with CXCR4a. In addition, the new orange-spotted grouper receptor CXCR1b was found to be upregulated in the spleen and kidney of resistant fish, indicating that this receptor plays an important role in immune responses to viral infection. These results are valuable for comparative immunological studies and provide insight into the roles of these genes in viral infection.

Analysis of Manifestation of CC and CXC Chemokine Genes in Olive Flounders (Paralichthys olivaceus) Artificially Infected with VHSV during the Early Developmental Stage

Chemokines is a small protein that plays a major role in inflammatory reactions and viral infections as a chemotactic factor of cytokines involved in innate immunity. Most of the chemokines belong to the chemokine groups CC and CXC. To investigate the immune system of the olive flounder (Paralichthys olivaceus), an expression pattern specifically induced in the early developmental stages of analysis is examined using qRT-PCR. We also examined tissue-specific expression of both CC and CXC chemokine in healthy olive flounder samples. CC and CXC chemokine shows increased expression after immune-related organs are formed compared to expression during early development. CC chemokine was more highly expressed in the fin, but CXC chemokine showed higher expression in the gills, spleen, intestines, and stomach. Spatial and temporal expression analysis of CC and CXC chemokine were performed following viral hemorrhagic septicemia virus (VHSV) infection. CC chemokine showed high expression in the gills, which are respiratory organs, whereas CXC chemokine was more highly expressed in the kidneys, an immune-related organ. These results suggest that CC and CXC chemokine play an important role in the immune response of the olive flounder, and may be used as basic data for the immunological activity and gene analysis of it as well as other fish.

Under control: The innate immunity of fish from the inhibitors' perspective

The innate immune response involves a concerted network of induced gene products, preformed immune effectors, biochemical signalling cascades and specialised cells. However, the multifaceted activation of these defensive measures can derail or overshoot and, if left unchecked, overwhelm the host. A plenty of regulatory devices therefore mediate the fragile equilibrium between pathogen defence and pathophysiological manifestations. Over the past decade in particular, an almost complete set of teleostean sequences orthologous to mammalian immunoregulatory factors has been identified in various fish species, which prove the remarkable conservation of innate immune-control concepts among vertebrates. This review will present the current knowledge on more than 50 teleostean regulatory factors (plus additional fish-specific paralogs) that are of paramount importance for controlling the clotting cascade, the complement system, pattern-recognition pathways and cytokine-signalling networks. A special focus lies on those immunoregulatory features that have emerged as potential biomarker genes in transcriptome-wide research studies. Moreover, we report on the latest progress in elucidating control elements that act directly with immune-gene-encoding nucleic acids, such as transcription factors, hormone receptors and micro- and long noncoding RNAs. Investigations into the function of teleostean inhibitory factors are still mainly based on gene-expression profiling or overexpression studies. However, in support of structural and in-vitro analyses, evidence from in-vivo trials is also available and revealed many biochemical details on piscine immune regulation. The presence of multiple gene copies in fish adds a degree of complexity, as it is so far hardly understood if they might play distinct roles during inflammation. The present review addresses this and other open questions that should be tackled by fish immunologists in future.

The CC and CXC chemokine receptors in channel catfish (Ictalurus punctatus) and their involvement in disease and hypoxia responses

Chemokines are vital regulators of cell mobilization for immune surveillance, inflammation, and development. Chemokines signal through binding to their receptors that are a superfamily of seven-transmembrane domain G-coupled receptors. Recently, a complete repertoire of both CC and CXC chemokines have been identified in channel catfish, but nothing is known about their receptors. In this study, a set of 29 CC chemokine receptor (CCR) genes and 8 CXC chemokine receptor (CXCR) genes were identified and annotated from the channel catfish genome. Extensive phylogenetic and comparative genomic analyses were conducted to annotate these genes, revealing fish-specific CC chemokine receptors, and lineage-specific tandem duplications of chemokine receptors in the teleost genomes. With 29 genes, the channel catfish genome harbors the largest numbers of CC chemokine receptors among all the genomes characterized. Analysis of gene expression after bacterial infections indicated that the chemokine receptors were regulated in a gene-specific manner. Most differentially expressed chemokine receptors were up-regulated after Edwardsiella ictaluri and Flavobacterium columnare infection. Among which, CXCR3 and CXCR4 were observed to participate in immune responses to both bacterial infections, indicating their potential roles in catfish immune activities. In addition, CXCR3.2 was significantly up-regulated in ESC-susceptible fish, and CXCR4b was mildly induced in ESC-resistant fish, further supporting the significant roles of CXCR3 and CXCR4 in catfish immune responses. CXCR4b and CCR9a were both up-regulated not only after bacterial infection, but also after hypoxia stress, providing the linkage between bacterial infection and low oxygen stresses. These results should be valuable for comparative immunological studies and provide insights into their roles in disease and stress responses.

Transcriptome analysis of plasmid-induced genes sheds light on the role of type I IFN as adjuvant in DNA vaccine against infectious salmon anemia virus

A previous study showed that a plasmid expressing IFNa (pIFNa) strongly enhanced protection and antibody production of a DNA vaccine against infectious salmon anemia virus (ISAV) in Atlantic salmon. The vaccine consisted of a plasmid (pHE) expressing the virus hemagglutinin-esterase as an antigen. To increase the understanding of the adjuvant effect of pIFNa, we here compared transcriptome responses in salmon muscle at the injection site at week 1 and 2 after injection of pIFNa, pHE, plasmid control (pcDNA3.3) and PBS, respectively. The results showed that the IFNa plasmid mediates an increase in gene transcripts of at least three major types in the muscle; typical IFN-I induced genes (ISGs), certain chemokines and markers of B- cells, T-cells and antigen-presenting cells. The latter suggests recruitment of cells to the plasmid injection site. Attraction of lymphocytes was likely caused by the induction of chemokines homologous to mammalian CCL5, CCL8, CCL19 and CXCL10. IFN may possibly also co-stimulate activation of lymphocytes as suggested by studies in mammals. A major finding was that both pcDNA3.3 and pHE caused responses similar to pIFNa, but at lower magnitude. Plasmid DNA may thus by itself have adjuvant activity as observed in mammalian models. Notably, pHE had a lower effect on many immune genes including ISGs and chemokines than pcDNA3.3, which suggests an inhibitory effect of HE expression on the immune genes. This hypothesis was supported by an Mx-reporter assay. The present study thus suggests that a main role for pIFNa as adjuvant in the DNA vaccine against ISAV may be to overcome the inhibitory effect of HE- expression on plasmid-induced ISGs and chemokines.

Issues with RNA-seq analysis in non-model organisms: A salmonid example

High throughput sequencing (HTS) is useful for many purposes as exemplified by the other topics included in this special issue. The purpose of this paper is to look into the unique challenges of using this technology in non-model organisms where resources such as genomes, functional genome annotations or genome complexity provide obstacles not met in model organisms. To describe these challenges, we narrow our scope to RNA sequencing used to study differential gene expression in response to pathogen challenge. As a demonstration species we chose Atlantic salmon, which has a sequenced genome with poor annotation and an added complexity due to many duplicated genes. We find that our RNA-seq analysis pipeline deciphers between duplicates despite high sequence identity. However, annotation issues provide problems in linking differentially expressed genes to pathways. Also, comparing results between approaches and species are complicated due to lack of standardized annotation.

Molecular characterization and expression analysis of four fish-specific CC chemokine receptors CCR4La, CCR4Lc1, CCR4Lc2 and CCR11 in rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss)

The chemokine and chemokine receptor networks regulate leukocyte trafficking, inflammation, immune cell differentiation, cancer and other biological processes. Comparative immunological studies have revealed that both chemokines and their receptors have expanded greatly in a species/lineage specific way. Of the 10 human CC chemokine receptors (CCR1-10) that bind CC chemokines, orthologues only to CCR6, 7, 9 and 10 are present in teleost fish. In this study, four fish-specific CCRs, termed as CCR4La, CCR4Lc1, CCR4Lc2 and CCR11, with a close link to human CCR1-5 and 8, in terms of amino acid homology and syntenic conservation, have been identified and characterized in rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss). These CCRs were found to possess the conserved features of the G protein-linked receptor family, including an extracellular N-terminal, seven TM domains, three extracellular loops and three intracellular loops, and a cytoplasmic carboxyl tail with multiple potential serine/threonine phosphorylation sites. Four cysteine residues known to be involved in forming two disulfide bonds are present in the extracellular domains and a DRY motif is present in the second intracellular loop. Signaling mediated by these receptors might be regulated by N-glycosylation, tyrosine sulfation, S-palmitoylation, a PDZ ligand motif and di-leucine motifs. Studies of intron/exon structure revealed distinct fish-specific CCR gene organization in different fish species/lineages that might contribute to the diversification of the chemokine ligand-receptor networks in different fish lineages. Fish-specific trout CCRs are highly expressed in immune tissues/organs, such as thymus, spleen, head kidney and gills. Their expression can be induced by the pro-inflammatory cytokines, IL-1β, IL-6 and IFNγ, by the pathogen associated molecular patterns, PolyIC and peptidoglycan, and by bacterial infection. These data suggest that fish-specific CCRs are likely to have an important role in immune regulation in fish.

Matrine alleviates lipopolysaccharide-induced intestinal inflammation and oxidative stress via CCR7 signal

The aim of this study was to investigate the protective effects of matrine on lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced inflammation and oxidative stress in vivo and in vitro. The results showed that matrine improved intestinal inflammatory status and oxidative balance and enhanced chemokine receptor 7 (CCR7) expression. In LPS-challenged mice and Caco-2 cells, matrine alleviated LPS-induced inflammation and oxidative stress via downregulating pro-inflammatory cytokines (IL-1β and IL-17) and malondialdehyde (MDA) production. CCR7-siRNA transfection blocked the protective effects of matrine on LPS-induced inflammation and oxidative stress and exacerbated LPS caused injury. In conclusion, matrine alleviates LPS-induced intestinal inflammation and oxidative stress in mice and Caco-2 cells, which may be associated with CCR7 signal.

Identification and expression analysis of three XCR1-like receptors from Epinephelus coioides after Cryptocaryon irritans infection

The unique receptor XCR1 of the XC subfamily of chemokines is specially expressed in CD8α-like dendritic cells. This receptor has one ligand in mice (XCL1) and two ligands in humans (XCL1 and XCL2). In mammals, the XCR1-XCL1 complex performs a vital role in regulating the localization and function of T cells, dendritic cells, and other cell types. In this study, three XCR1-like receptors (EcXCR1, EcXCR1L, and EcCCR12) were identified from a transcriptome database of orange-spotted grouper. The open reading frames (ORFs) of EcXCR1, EcXCR1L, and EcCCR12 predictably encode 337, 348, and 358 amino acids, respectively. All receptors are seven trans-membrane proteins, and contain conserved functional regions, and conserved sites, that are crucial for the role of chemokine receptors in mammals. Conserved features include four cysteine residues in the extracellular regions, a "DRY" motif in the second intracellular loop, and common characteristics at the N-terminus that are important for ligand interaction. In healthy grouper, EcXCR1, EcXCR1L, and EcCCR12 were broadly expressed in all the tissues tested. EcXCR1 was expressed at high levels in the liver, and EcXCR1L, and EcCCR12 in the thymus. After grouper infection with Cryptocaryon irritans, EcXCR1 and EcCCR12 were up-regulated in the skin and the spleen, and EcCCR12 in the skin, gill, and spleen. EcXCR1L expression changed only slightly. These results imply that EcXCR1 and EcCCR12 may be involved in host defense against parasite infection. A polyclonal antibody was produced against EcCCR12, and used to detect EcCCR12-positive cells in peripheral blood. These results will contribute considerably to elucidate the biological role of piscine XCR1-like receptors and their ligands system in the future.

Functional Annotation of All Salmonid Genomes (FAASG): an international initiative supporting future salmonid research, conservation and aquaculture

We describe an emerging initiative - the 'Functional Annotation of All Salmonid Genomes' (FAASG), which will leverage the extensive trait diversity that has evolved since a whole genome duplication event in the salmonid ancestor, to develop an integrative understanding of the functional genomic basis of phenotypic variation. The outcomes of FAASG will have diverse applications, ranging from improved understanding of genome evolution, to improving the efficiency and sustainability of aquaculture production, supporting the future of fundamental and applied research in an iconic fish lineage of major societal importance.

Comparative study of CXC chemokines modulation in brown trout (Salmo trutta) following infection with a bacterial or viral pathogen

Chemokine modulation in response to pathogens still needs to be fully characterised in fish, in view of the recently described novel chemokines present. This paper reports the first comparative study of CXC chemokine genes transcription in salmonids (brown trout), with a particular focus on the fish specific CXC chemokines (CXCL_F). Adopting new primer sets, optimised to specifically target mRNA, a RT-qPCR gene screening was carried out. Constitutive gene expression was assessed first in six tissues from SPF brown trout. Transcription modulation was next investigated in kidney and spleen during septicaemic infection induced by a RNA virus (Viral Haemorrhagic Septicaemia virus, genotype Ia) or by a Gram negative bacterium (Yersinia ruckeri, ser. O1/biot. 2). From each target organ specific pathogen burden, measured detecting VHSV-glycoprotein or Y. ruckeri 16S rRNA, and IFN-γ gene expression were analysed for their correlation to chemokine transcription. Both pathogens modulated CXC chemokine gene transcript levels, with marked up-regulation seen in some cases, and with both temporal and tissue specific effects apparent. For example, Y. ruckeri strongly induced chemokine transcription in spleen within 24h, whilst VHS generally induced the largest increases at 3d.p.i. in both tissues. This study gives clues to the role of the novel CXC chemokines, in comparison to the other known CXC chemokines in salmonids.

Identification and expression analysis of an atypical chemokine receptor-2 (ACKR2)/CC chemokine binding protein-2 (CCBP2) in rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss)

Atypical chemokine receptors (ACKRs) have emerged as key components of the chemokine system, with an essential regulatory function in innate and adaptive immune responses and inflammation. In mammals ACKR2 is a 'scavenging' receptor for inflammatory CC chemokines and plays a central role in the resolution of in vivo inflammatory responses. An ACKR2 like gene has been identified and cloned in rainbow trout (Teleostei) in the present study, enabling the further identification of this molecule in another group of ray-finned teleost fish (Holostei), in a lobe-finned fish (Sarcopterygii-coelacanth), and in reptiles. The identity of these ACKR2 molecules is supported by their conserved structure, and by phylogenetic tree and synteny analysis. Trout ACKR2 is highly expressed in spleen and head kidney, suggesting a homeostatic role of this receptor in limiting the availability of its potential ligands. Trout ACKR2 expression can be modulated in vivo by bacterial and parasitic infections, and in vitro by PAMPs (poly I:C and peptidoglycan) and cytokines (IL-6, TNF-α, IFN-γ and IL-21) in a time dependent manner. These patterns of expression and modulation suggest that trout ACKR2 is regulated in a complex way and has an important role in control of the chemokine network in fish as in mammals.