Bisphenol A(BPA), BPS and BPB-induced oxidative stress and apoptosis mediated by mitochondria in human neuroblastoma cell lines

Low-dose BPA-induced neuronal energy metabolism dysfunction and apoptosis mediated by PINK1/parkin mitophagy pathway in juvenile rats

Bisphenol A (BPA) is related to neurological disorders involving mitochondrial dysfunction, while the mechanism remains elusive. Therefore, we explored it through in vitro and in vivo experiments. In vitro, hippocampal neurons derived from neonatal rats of different genders were exposed to 1-100 nM and 100 μM BPA, autophagy activator Rapa and inhibitor 3-MA for 7 d. The results suggested that even nanomolar BPA (1-100 nM) disturbed Ca2+ homeostasis and damaged the integrity of mitochondrial cristae in neurons (p < 0.05). Furthermore, BPA increased the number of autophagic lysosomes, LC3II/LC3I ratio, and p62 expression, and decreased parkin expression (p < 0.05), suggesting that the entry of damaged mitochondria into autophagic pathway was prompted, while the autophagic degradation pathway was blocked. This further disrupts neuronal energy metabolism and promotes neuronal apoptosis. However, Rapa attenuated the adverse effects caused by BPA, while 3-MA exacerbated these reactions. In vivo, exposure of juvenile rats to 0.5, 50, 5000 μg/kg‧bw/day BPA during PND 7-21 markedly impaired the structure of hippocampal mitochondria, increased the number of autophagosomes, the rate of neuronal apoptosis, and the expression levels of pro-apoptotic proteins Cyt C, Bax, Bak1, and Caspase3, and decreased the expression of anti-apoptotic protein Bcl2 (p < 0.05). Particularly, male rats are more sensitive to low-dose BPA than females. Overall, environmental-doses BPA can induce the imbalance of energy metabolism in hippocampal neurons via PINK1/parkin mitophagy, thereby inducing their apoptosis. Importantly, this study provides a theoretical basis for attenuating BPA-related neurological diseases.

Health risks of Bisphenol-A exposure: From Wnt signaling perspective

Human beings are routinely exposed to chronic and low dose of Bisphenols (BPs) due to their widely pervasiveness in the environment. BPs hold similar chemical structures to 17β-estradiol (E2) and thyroid hormone, thus posing threats to human health by rendering the endocrine system dysfunctional. Among BPs, Bisphenol-A (BPA) is the best-known and extensively studied endocrine disrupting compound (EDC). BPA possesses multisystem toxicity, including reproductive toxicity, neurotoxicity, hepatoxicity and nephrotoxicity. Particularly, the central nervous system (CNS), especially the developing one, is vulnerable to BPA exposure. This review describes our current knowledge of BPA toxicity and the related molecular mechanisms, with an emphasis on the role of Wnt signaling in the related processes. We also discuss the role of oxidative stress, endocrine signaling and epigenetics in the regulation of Wnt signaling by BPA exposure. In summary, dysfunction of Wnt signaling plays a key role in BPA toxicity and thus can be a potential target to alleviate EDCs induced damage to organisms.

Bisphenol A and its structural analogues exhibit differential potential to induce mitochondrial dysfunction and apoptosis in human granulosa cells

Bisphenol A (BPA) is an endocrine disruptor strongly associated with ovarian dysfunction. BPA is being substituted by structurally similar chemicals, such as bisphenol S (BPS), bisphenol F (BPF), and bisphenol AF (BPAF). However, the toxicity of these analogues in female reproduction remains largely unknown. This study evaluated the effects of BPA and its analogues BPS, BPF, and BPAF on the mitochondrial mass and function, oxidative stress, and their potential to induce apoptosis of human granulosa cells (KGN cells). BPA and its analogues, especially BPA and BPAF, significantly decreased mitochondrial activity and cell viability. The potential of bisphenols to reduce mitochondrial mass and function differed in the following order: BPAF > BPA > BPF > BPS. Flow cytometry revealed that exposure to bisphenols significantly increased mitochondrial ROS levels and increased mitochondrial Ca2+ levels. Thus, bisphenols exposure causes mitochondrial stress in KGN cells. At the same time, bisphenols exposure significantly induced apoptosis. These results thus emphasize the toxicity of these bisphenols to cells. Our study suggests the action mechanism of BPA and its analogues in damage caused to ovarian granulosa cells. Additionally, these novel analogues may be regrettable substitutes, and the biological effects and potential risks of BPA alternatives must be evaluated.

SWATH-MS reveals that bisphenol A and its analogs regulate pathways leading to disruption in insulin signaling and fatty acid metabolism

Bisphenol A (BPA) is an endocrine-disrupting chemical (EDC), associated with obesity and insulin resistance. The FDA prohibited the use of BPA-based polycarbonate resins in infant formula packaging; thus, its analogs, viz. Bisphenol S (BPS) and Bisphenol F (BPF) were considered alternatives in epoxy resins, plastics, and food cans. As these analogs might evoke a similar response, we investigated the role of Bisphenols (BPA, BPF, and BPS), on insulin signaling in CHO-HIRc-myc-GLUT4eGFP cells at environmentally relevant concentrations of 2 nM and 200 nM. Insulin signaling demonstrated that Bisphenols reduced phosphorylation of IR and AKT2, GLUT4 translocation, and glucose uptake. This was accompanied by increased oxidative stress. Furthermore, SWATH-MS-based proteomics of 3T3-L1 cells demonstrated that Bisphenol-treated cells regulate proteins in insulin resistance, adipogenesis, and fatty acid metabolism pathways differently. All three Bisphenols induced differentially expressed proteins enriched similar pathways, although their abundance differed for each Bisphenol. This might be due to their varying toxicity level, structural differences, and estrogen-mimetic activity. This study has important implications in addressing health concerns related to EDCs. Given that the analogs of BPA are considered alternatives to BPA, the findings of this study suggest they are equally potent in altering fatty acid metabolism and inducing insulin resistance.

Establishments of G3BP1-GFP stress granule monitoring system for real-time stress assessment in human neuroblastoma cells

Acute stress caused by short-term exposure to deleterious chemicals can induce the aggregation of RNA-binding proteins (RBPs) in the cytosol and the formation of stress granules (SGs). The cytoplasmic RBP, Ras GTPase-activating protein-binding protein 1 (G3BP1) is a critical organizer of SG, and its aggregation is considered a hallmark of cellular stress. However, assembly of SG is a highly dynamic process that involves RBPs; hence, existing methods based on fixation processes or overexpression of RBPs exhibit limited efficacy in detecting the assembly of SG under stress conditions. In this study, we established a G3BP1- Green fluorescent protein (GFP) reporter protein in a human neuroblastoma cell line to overcome these limitations. GFP was introduced into the G3BP1 genomic sequence via homologous recombination to generate a G3BP1-GFP fusion protein and further analyze the aggregation processes. We validated the assembly of SG under stress conditions using the G3BP1-GFP reporter system. Additionally, this system supported the evaluation of bisphenol A-induced SG response in the established human neuroblastoma cell line. In conclusion, the established G3BP1-GFP reporter system enables us to monitor the assembly of the SG complex in a human neuroblastoma cell line in real time and can serve as an efficient tool for assessing potential neurotoxicity associated with short-term exposure to chemicals.

Biotoxicity responses of zebrafish in environmentally relevant concentration of di (2-ethylhexyl) phthalate

As an emerging environmental contaminant, di (2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP) is widely present in the aquatic environment, however, the effects and underlying mechanisms of DEHP on the aquatic organisms are poorly understood. This study systematically investigated the ecotoxicity induced by chronic exposure to environmental relevant concentrations of DEHP (0.03 mg/L, 0.1 mg/L, and 0.3 mg/L) on zebrafish brain. Results indicated that DEHP exposure significantly increased the levels of ROS and disturbance of the antioxidant enzymes activities in the brain, which may further enhance lipid peroxidation and DNA damage. Furthermore, acetylcholinesterase activity was first stimulated and inhibited by exposure to DEHP, and the antioxidant and apoptosis related genes were mainly upregulated. Risk assessment indicated that the ecotoxicity of DEHP on the zebrafish showed an "enhancement-reduction" trend as the exposure time was prolonged. Overall, these results provided new insights and useful information to ecological risk assessment and environmental management of DEHP pollution.

Bisphenol S impairs mitochondrial function by targeting Myo19/oxidative phosphorylation pathway contributing to axonal and dendritic injury

Exposure to bisphenol S (BPS) is known to adversely affect neuronal development. As pivotal components of neuronal polarization, axons and dendrites are indispensable structures within neurons, crucial for the maintenance of nervous system function. Here, we investigated the impact of BPS exposure on axonal and dendritic development both in vivo and in vitro. Our results revealed that exposure to BPS during pregnancy and lactation led to a reduction in the complexity, density, and length of axons and dendrites in the prefrontal cortex (PFC) of offspring. Employing RNA sequencing technology to elucidate the underlying mechanisms of axonal and dendritic damage induced by BPS, Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) analysis highlighted a significant alteration in the oxidative phosphorylation (OXPHOS) pathway, essential for mitochondrial function. Subsequent experiments demonstrate BPS-induced impairment in mitochondrial function, including damaged morphology, decreased adenosine triphosphate (ATP) and superoxide dismutase (SOD) levels, and increased reactive oxygen species and malondialdehyde (MDA). These alterations coincided with the downregulated expression of OXPHOS pathway-related genes (ATP6V1B1, ATP5K, NDUFC1, NDUFC2, NDUFA3, COX6B1) and Myosin 19 (Myo19). Notably, Myo19 overexpression restored the BPS-induced mitochondrial dysfunction by alleviating the inhibition of OXPHOS pathway. Consequently, this amelioration was associated with a reduction in BPS-induced axonal and dendritic injury observed in cultured neurons of the PFC.

Environmental toxicology of bisphenol A: Mechanistic insights and clinical implications on the neuroendocrine system

Bisphenol A (BPA) is a widely used environmental estrogen found in a variety of products, including food packaging, canned goods, baby bottle soothers, reusable cups, medical devices, tableware, dental sealants, and other consumer goods. This substance has been found to have detrimental effects on both the environment and human health, particularly on the reproductive, immune, embryonic development, nervous, endocrine, and respiratory systems. This paper aims to provide a comprehensive review of the effects of BPA on the neuroendocrine system, with a primary focus on its impact on the brain, neurons, oligodendrocytes, neural stem cell proliferation, DNA damage, and behavioral development. Additionally, the review explores the clinical implications of BPA, specifically examining its role in the onset and progression of various diseases associated with the neuroendocrine metabolic system. By delving into the mechanistic analysis and clinical implications, this review aims to serve as a valuable resource for studying the impacts of BPA exposure on organisms.

Potential involvement of ferroptosis in BPA-induced neurotoxicity: An in vitro study

BACKGROUND

Ferroptosis is a newly recognized cell death pathway having distinct characteristics compared to traditional cell death pathways such as apoptosis, necroptosis, or autophagy. However, the potential involvement of ferroptosis in bisphenol A (BPA)-induced neurotoxicity has not been well explored so far. In present study, we analyzed the relationship between ferroptosis and BPA-induced neurotoxicity.

METHODS

In this study, a human neuroblastoma cell line, SH-SY5Y, was treated with BPA, ferrostatin-1 (FS-1, ferroptosis inhibitor) and RSL-3 (ferroptosis inducer). The cell viability was measured using MTT assay. Additionally, the levels of lipid peroxidation, total iron content, reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation, and nitrite content were measured to evaluate the key markers of ferroptosis. To further confirm the involvement of ferroptosis in BPA-induced neurotoxicity, other ferroptosis markers such as glutathione peroxidase (GPx) activity, total glutathione contents and antioxidant parameters were also evaluated.

RESULTS

The cell viability of SH-SY5Y cells was down-regulated by BPA treatment in a concentration-dependent manner, the cell viability at 0.1 µM concentration was 97.63% whereas at highest BPA concentration i.e. 10 µM, the cell viability was 86.05% (p < 0.0001). Also the antioxidant parameters including catalase and superoxide dismutase activity of neuronal cells were down-regulated upon BPA exposure. However, the levels of lipid peroxidation, total iron, reactive oxygen species, and nitrite contents were increased in a concentration-dependent manner which could be rescued by FS-1 and exacerbated by RSL-3. The total iron in SH-SY5Y cells at 0.1 µM concentration was found to be 1.2 fold (p < 0.05) of control and at highest BPA concentration total iron was about 1.41 fold (p < 0.001) of control.

CONCLUSIONS

The present study indicated that, ferroptosis plays an important role in the progression of BPA-induced neurotoxicity, and ferroptosis may become a novel target in the treatment of various neurological disorders.

Bisphenol A induces placental ferroptosis and fetal growth restriction via the YAP/TAZ-ferritinophagy axis

Exposure to bisphenol A (BPA) during gestation leads to fetal growth restriction (FGR), whereby the underlying mechanisms remain unknown. Here, we found that FGR patients showed higher levels of BPA in the urine, serum, and placenta; meanwhile, trophoblast ferroptosis was observed in FGR placentas, as indicated by accumulated intracellular iron, impaired antioxidant molecules, and increased lipid peroxidation products. To investigate the role of ferroptosis in placental and fetal growth, BPA stimulation was performed both in vivo and in vitro. BPA exposure during gestation was associated with FGR in mice; also, it induces ferroptosis in mouse placentas and human placental trophoblast. Pretreatment with ferroptosis inhibitor ferritin-1 (Fer-1) alleviated BPA-induced oxidative damage and cell death. Notably, BPA reduced the trophoblastic expression of Yes-associated protein (YAP) and transcriptional coactivator with PDZ-binding motif (TAZ), which regulated tissue growth and organ size. YAP or TAZ siRNA enhanced BPA-induced ferroptosis, suggesting that trophoblast ferroptosis is dependent on YAP/TAZ downregulation after BPA stimulation. Consistently, the protein levels of YAP/TAZ were also reduced in FGR placentas. Further results revealed that silencing YAP/TAZ promoted BPA-induced ferroptosis through autophagy. Pretreatment with autophagy inhibitor chloroquine (CQ) attenuated BPA-induced trophoblast ferroptosis. Ferritinophagy, an autophagic degradation of ferritin (FTH1), was observed in FGR placentas. Similarly, BPA reduced the protein level of FTH1 in placental trophoblast. Pretreatment with iron chelator desferrioxamine (DFO) and NCOA4 (an autophagy cargo receptor) siRNA weakened the ferroptosis of trophoblast after exposure to BPA, indicating that autophagy mediates ferroptosis in BPA-stimulated trophoblast by degrading ferritin. In summary, ferroptosis was featured in BPA-associated FGR and trophoblast injury; the regulation of ferroptosis involved the YAP/TAZ-autophagy-ferritin axis.

Bisphenol A induces placental ferroptosis and fetal growth restriction via the YAP/TAZ-ferritinophagy axis

Exposure to bisphenol A (BPA) during gestation leads to fetal growth restriction (FGR), whereby the underlying mechanisms remain unknown. Here, we found that FGR patients showed higher levels of BPA in the urine, serum, and placenta; meanwhile, trophoblast ferroptosis was observed in FGR placentas, as indicated by accumulated intracellular iron, impaired antioxidant molecules, and increased lipid peroxidation products. To investigate the role of ferroptosis in placental and fetal growth, BPA stimulation was performed both in vivo and in vitro. BPA exposure during gestation was associated with FGR in mice; also, it induces ferroptosis in mouse placentas and human placental trophoblast. Pretreatment with ferroptosis inhibitor ferritin-1 (Fer-1) alleviated BPA-induced oxidative damage and cell death. Notably, BPA reduced the trophoblastic expression of Yes-associated protein (YAP) and transcriptional coactivator with PDZ-binding motif (TAZ), which regulated tissue growth and organ size. YAP or TAZ siRNA enhanced BPA-induced ferroptosis, suggesting that trophoblast ferroptosis is dependent on YAP/TAZ downregulation after BPA stimulation. Consistently, the protein levels of YAP/TAZ were also reduced in FGR placentas. Further results revealed that silencing YAP/TAZ promoted BPA-induced ferroptosis through autophagy. Pretreatment with autophagy inhibitor chloroquine (CQ) attenuated BPA-induced trophoblast ferroptosis. Ferritinophagy, an autophagic degradation of ferritin (FTH1), was observed in FGR placentas. Similarly, BPA reduced the protein level of FTH1 in placental trophoblast. Pretreatment with iron chelator desferrioxamine (DFO) and NCOA4 (an autophagy cargo receptor) siRNA weakened the ferroptosis of trophoblast after exposure to BPA, indicating that autophagy mediates ferroptosis in BPA-stimulated trophoblast by degrading ferritin. In summary, ferroptosis was featured in BPA-associated FGR and trophoblast injury; the regulation of ferroptosis involved the YAP/TAZ-autophagy-ferritin axis.

Are the BPA analogues an alternative to classical BPA? Comparison between 2D and alternative 3D in vitro neuron model to assess cytotoxic and genotoxic effects

BPA is used in a wide range of consumer products with very concern toxicological properties. The European Union has restricted its use to protect human health. Industry has substituted BPA by BPA analogues. However, there is a lack of knowledge about their impacts. In this work, BPA and 5 BPA analogues (BPS, BPAP, BPAF, BPFL and BPC) have been studied in classical SH-SY5Y and the alternative 3D in vitro models after 24 and 96 h of exposure. Cell viability, percentage of ROS, cell cycle phases as well as the morphology of the spheroids were measured. The 2D model was more sensitive than the 3D models with differences in cell viability higher than 60% after 24 h of exposure, and different mechanisms of ROS production. After chronic exposure, both models were more affected in comparison to the 24 h exposure. After a recovery time (96 h), the spheroids exposed to 2.5-40 µM were able to recover cell viability and the morphology. Among the BPs tested, BPFL>BPAF>BPAP and >BPC revealed higher toxicological effects, while BPS was the only one with lower effects than BPA. To conclude, the SH-SY5Y 3D model is a suitable candidate to perform more reliable in vitro neurotoxicity tests.

Effect of bisphenol A on the neurological system: a review update

Bisphenol A (BPA) is an endocrine-disrupting chemical (EDC) and one of the most produced synthetic compounds worldwide. BPA can be found in epoxy resins and polycarbonate plastics, which are frequently used in food storage and baby bottles. However, BPA can bind mainly to estrogen receptors, interfering with various neurologic functions, its use is a topic of significant concern. Nonetheless, the neurotoxicity of BPA has not been fully understood despite numerous investigations on its disruptive effects. Therefore, this review aims to highlight the most recent studies on the implications of BPA on the neurologic system. Our findings suggest that BPA exposure impairs various structural and molecular brain changes, promoting oxidative stress, changing expression levels of several crucial genes and proteins, destructive effects on neurotransmitters, excitotoxicity and neuroinflammation, damaged blood-brain barrier function, neuronal damage, apoptosis effects, disruption of intracellular Ca2+ homeostasis, increase in reactive oxygen species, promoted apoptosis and intracellular lactate dehydrogenase release, a decrease of axon length, microglial DNA damage, astrogliosis, and significantly reduced myelination. Moreover, BPA exposure increases the risk of developing neurologic diseases, including neurovascular (e.g. stroke) and neurodegenerative (e.g. Alzheimer's and Parkinson's) diseases. Furthermore, epidemiological studies showed that the adverse effects of BPA on neurodevelopment in children contributed to the emergence of serious neurological diseases like attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), autism spectrum disorder (ASD), depression, emotional problems, anxiety, and cognitive disorders. In summary, BPA exposure compromises human health, promoting the development and progression of neurologic disorders. More research is required to fully understand how BPA-induced neurotoxicity affects human health.

Toxic effects of bisphenol S on mice heart and human umbilical cord endothelial cells

Bisphenol S (BPS) exerts toxic effects on hippocampal HT22 cells, endocrine secretion, and reproductive capacity. However, whether BPS exerts toxic effects on the heart requires further investigation. Therefore, we investigated the effects of BPS on mouse heart tissues and predicted possible underlying molecular mechanisms of action. Our study showed that BPS induced apoptosis, increased oxidative stress response. Using electron microscopy, we found that BPS disrupted sarcomere arrangement in myocardial cells and caused reduction in the number of plasmalemmal vesicles in endothelial cells in the mouse heart tissues. Also, BPS increased expression levels of P-NF-κB in mouse heart tissues. Furthermore, we found that BPS induced reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation, NF-κB activation, promoted apoptosis, elevated expression of BAX and Caspase 3, and decreased expression of Bcl-2 in H9c2 cells and HUVECs. However, after the addition of n-acetylcysteine or pyrrolidinedithiocarbamate, ROS generation, NF-κB activation, apoptosis, and expression of BAX and Caspase 3 were reduced, whereas expression of Bcl-2 was elevated. Our results demonstrated that BPS induced apoptosis of myocardial and endothelial cells through oxidative stress by activation of NF-κB signaling pathway.

Bisphenol A contamination in aquatic environments: a review of sources, environmental concerns, and microbial remediation

The production of polycarbonate, a high-performance transparent plastic, employs bisphenol A, which is a prominent endocrine-disrupting compound. Polycarbonates are frequently used in the manufacturing of food, bottles, storage containers for newborns, and beverage packaging materials. Global production of BPA in 2022 was estimated to be in the region of 10 million tonnes. About 65-70% of all bisphenol A is used to make polycarbonate plastics. Bisphenol A leaches from improperly disposed plastic items and enters the environment through wastewater from plastic-producing industries, contaminating, sediments, surface water, and ground water. The concentration BPA in industrial and domestic wastewater ranges from 16 to 1465 ng/L while in surface water it has been detected 170-3113 ng/L. Wastewater treatment can be highly effective at removing BPA, giving reductions of 91-98%. Regardless, the remaining 2-9% of BPA will continue through to the environment, with low levels of BPA commonly observed in surface water and sediment in the USA and Europe. The health effects of BPA have been the subject of prolonged public and scientific debate, with PubMed listing more than 17,000 scientific papers as of 2023. Bisphenol A poses environmental and health hazards in aquatic systems, affecting ecosystems and human health. While several studies have revealed its presence in aqueous streams, environmentally sound technologies should be explored for its removal from the contaminated environment. Concern is mostly related to its estrogen-like activity, although it can interact with other receptor systems as an endocrine-disrupting chemical. Present review article encompasses the updated information on sources, environmental concerns, and sustainable remediation techniques for bisphenol A removal from aquatic ecosystems, discussing gaps, constraints, and future research requirements.

Low-dose bisphenols exposure sex-specifically induces neurodevelopmental toxicity in juvenile rats and the antagonism of EGCG

Bisphenols (BPs) can negatively affect neurobehaviors in rats, whereas the mechanism remains unclear. Here, the mechanism of BPs-induced neurodevelopmental toxicity and its effective detoxification measures were investigated in vitro and in vivo. In in vitro experiments, primary hippocampal neurons from neonatal rats of different genders were treated with bisphenol A (BPA), bisphenol S (BPS) and bisphenol B (BPB) at 1 nM-100 μM, epigallocatechin gallate (EGCG) and G15, an antagonist of G protein-coupled estrogen receptor (GPER) for 7 d. Results indicated that BPs affected neuronal morphogenesis, impaired GABA synthesis and Glu/GABA homeostasis. Neuronal morphogenetic damage induced by low-doses BPA may be mediated by GPER. Neurotoxicity of BPS is weaker than BPA and BPB. In in vivo studies, exposure to BPA (0.5 μg/kg·bw/day) on PND 10-40 caused oxidative stress and inflammation in rat hippocampus, disrupted neuronal morphogenesis and neurotransmitter homeostasis, ultimately impaired spatial memory of rats. Males are more sensitive to BPA exposure than females. Both in vivo and in vitro studies indicated that EGCG, a phytoestrogen, can alleviate BPA-induced neurotoxicity. Taken together, low-doses BPA exposure sex-specifically disrupted neurodevelopment and further impaired learning and memory ability in rats, which may be mediated by GPER. Promisingly, EGCG effectively mitigated the BPA-induced neurodevelopmental toxicity.

Bisphenol S stimulates Leydig cell proliferation but inhibits differentiation in pubertal male rats through multiple mechanisms

Bisphenol S (BPS) is a novel bisphenol A (BPA) analogue, a ubiquitous environmental pollutant that disrupts male reproductive system. Whether BPS affects Leydig cell maturation in male puberty remains unclear. Male Sprague-Dawley rats (age of 35 days) were daily gavaged to 0, 1, 10, 100, and 200 mg/kg/day from postnatal days 35-56. BPS at 1-10 mg/kg/day and higher doses markedly reduced serum testosterone and progesterone levels but it at 200 mg/kg/day significantly increased estradiol level. BPS at 100 and 200 mg/kg/day significantly elevated serum luteinizing hormone (LH) levels. BPS at 1-10 mg/kg/day and higher doses significantly reduced inhibin A and inhibin B levels. BPS at 100 and 200 mg/kg/day markedly increased CYP11A1+ Leydig cell number, but did not affect HSD11B1+ (a mature Leydig cell marker) cell number. BPS at 10 mg/kg/day and higher doses significantly downregulated the expression of Cyp11a1 and at 100 and 200 mg/kg/d significantly lowered Cyp17a1, Hsd11b1, and Nr5a1 in the testes. BPS at 100 and/or 200 mg/kg/day significantly elevated Lhb in the pituitary. BPS at 100 and 200 mg/kg/day significantly increased the phosphorylation of AKT1, AKT2, and CREB without affecting total AKT1, AKT2, and CREB levels. BPS at 1-100 μM significantly suppressed testosterone production and induced proliferation of primary immature Leydig cells after 24 h of treatment and these actions were reversed by estrogen receptor α antagonist, ICI 182780, and partially reversed by vitamin E. BPS at 0.1-10 μM significantly increased oxidative stress of Leydig cells in vitro. BPS also directly inhibited 17β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase 3 activity at 10-100 μM. In conclusion, BPS causes hypergonadotropic androgen deficiency in male rats during pubertal exposure via activating ESR1 and inducing ROS in immature Leydig cells and directly inhibiting 17β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase 3 activity.

Estrogen receptor α mediates alternariol-induced apoptosis and modulation of the invasiveness of ovarian cancer cells

Mycotoxins are secondary metabolites of fungi that may affect both human and animal health. Some of them possess estrogenic activity, due to direct binding to estrogen receptors (ERs) and hence disturb the hormonal balance of the organism. Alternariol (AOH) was previously reported as genotoxic, estrogenic and immunomodulatory agent. However, detailed mechanism of its action has not been fully elucidated. Estrogen receptor α (ERα) was previously reported to modulate the proliferation and invasiveness of ovarian cancer cells. Thus, we decided to verify whether estrogenic-like mycotoxin may affect ovarian cancer cells via ERα. The results showed that AOH induces apoptosis and oxidative stress and that these effects are partially modulated by ERα. Moreover, AOH decreases the invasion and migration of ovarian cancer cells and promotes changes in the expression of genes and proteins that are associated with the invasiveness of cancer i.e. MMP9, SNAIL1/2, ZEB1/2, VIM, CDH1 and CDH2. In conclusion, we postulate that AOH might significantly affect the viability and invasiveness of ovarian cancer cells via modulation of ERα and therefore possibly act as an endocrine disruptive agent in ovarian cancer cells.

Puerarin Prevents Bisphenol S Induced Lipid Accumulation by Reducing Liver Lipid Synthesis and Promoting Lipid Metabolism in C57BL/6J Mice

Bisphenol S (BPS) is an environmental pollutant that can accumulate in the human body and cause harm. Puerarin (PUE) is a flavonoid with anti-inflammatory and antioxidant effects. In this study, we used 50 mg/kg/d BPS as a poison and PUE as an intervention for model mice for 42 d. BPS exposure significantly increased the levels of the impairment of the mice's liver function, T-CHO, TG, LDL-C, ALT, and AST in the BPS group were significantly increased (p < 0.05). Additionally, BPS exposure caused inflammatory cell infiltration in the mice liver tissue and enhanced oxidative stress response, the level of MDA was significantly increased (p < 0.05). The expression of CD36 and pparγ was stimulated after BPS exposure. Moreover, the expression of cpt1a and cpt1b, which promote fatty acid oxidation, was downregulated. After PUE intervention, the levels of genes and proteins involved in lipid synthesis (PPARγ, SREBP1C, and FASN) and metabolism (Cpt1a, Cpt1b, and PPARα) in mice returned to those of the control group, or much higher than those in the BPS group. Therefore, we hypothesized that BPS causes lipid accumulation in the liver by promoting lipid synthesis and reducing lipid metabolism, whereas PUE reduces lipid synthesis and promotes lipid metabolism. Conclusively, our results imply that long-term exposure to BPS in mice affects liver lipid metabolism and that PUE intervention could maintain the liver function of mice at normal metabolic levels.

Influence of bisphenol A and its analog bisphenol S on cocaine- and amphetamine-regulated transcript peptide-positive enteric neurons in the mouse gastrointestinal tract

Introduction

Bisphenol A (BPA) is used in large quantities for the production of plastics and is present in various everyday objects. It penetrates living organisms and shows multidirectional adverse influence on many internal organs. For this reason, BPA is often replaced in plastic production by other substances. One of them is bisphenol S (BPS), whose effects on the enteric nervous system (ENS) have not been explained.

Methods

Therefore, the present study compares the influence of BPA and BPS on the number of enteric neurons immunoreactive to cocaine-and amphetamine-regulated transcript (CART) peptide located in the ENS of the stomach, jejunum and colon with the use of double immunofluorescence method.

Results

The obtained results have shown that both bisphenols studied induced an increase in the number of CART-positive enteric neurons, and the severity of changes depended on the type of enteric ganglion, the dose of bisphenols and the segment of the digestive tract. The most visible changes were noted in the myenteric ganglia in the colon. Moreover, in the colon, the changes submitted by BPS are more noticeable than those observed after BPA administration. In the stomach and jejunum, bisphenol-induced changes were less visible, and changes caused by BPS were similar or less pronounced than those noted under the impact of BPA, depending on the segment of the gastrointestinal tract and ganglion type studied.

Discussion

The results show that BPS affects the enteric neurons containing CART in a similar way to BPA, and the BPS impact is even stronger in the colon. Therefore, BPS is not neutral for the gastrointestinal tract and ENS.

Proteomics and disease network associations evaluation of environmentally relevant Bisphenol A concentrations in a human 3D neural stem cell model

Bisphenol A (BPA) exposure is associated with a plethora of neurodevelopmental abnormalities and brain disorders. Previous studies have demonstrated BPA-induced perturbations to critical neural stem cell (NSC) characteristics, such as proliferation and differentiation, although the underlying molecular mechanisms remain under debate. The present study evaluated the effects of a repeated-dose exposure of environmentally relevant BPA concentrations during the in vitro 3D neural induction of human induced pluripotent stem cells (hiPSCs), emulating a chronic exposure scenario. Firstly, we demonstrated that our model is suitable for NSC differentiation during the early stages of embryonic brain development. Our morphological image analysis showed that BPA exposure at 0.01, 0.1 and 1 µM decreased the average spheroid size by day 21 (D21) of the neural induction, while no effect on cell viability was detected. No alteration to the rate of the neural induction was observed based on the expression of key neural lineage and neuroectodermal transcripts. Quantitative proteomics at D21 revealed several differentially abundant proteins across all BPA-treated groups with important functions in NSC proliferation and maintenance (e.g., FABP7, GPC4, GAP43, Wnt-8B, TPPP3). Additionally, a network analysis demonstrated alterations to the glycolytic pathway, potentially implicating BPA-induced changes to glycolytic signalling in NSC proliferation impairments, as well as the pathophysiology of brain disorders including intellectual disability, autism spectrum disorders, and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS). This study enhances the current understanding of BPA-related NSC aberrations based mostly on acute, often high dose exposures of rodent in vivo and in vitro models and human GWAS data in a novel human 3D cell-based model with real-life scenario relevant prolonged and low-level exposures, offering further mechanistic insights into the ramifications of BPA exposure on the developing human brain and consequently, later life neurological disorders.

Bisphenol A aggravate selenium deficiency-induced apoptosis via miR-215-3p/Dio1 to activate ROS/PI3K/AKT pathway in chicken arterial

Both bisphenol A (BPA) and selenium (Se) deficiency can affect the expression of microRNAs (miRNAs), which can specifically regulate its target mRNA and induce apoptosis, and play a significant role in cardiovascular injury diseases. To explore the mechanism of apoptosis induced by BPA and Se deficiency in chicken arterial endothelial tissue and the role of miRNAs in this process, the model of BPA exposure/Se deficiency in chicken and PAEC cells have been employed. The targeting relationship between miR-215-3p and iodothyronine deiodinase 1 (Dio1) in PAEC was verified by double luciferase gene report. The level of miR-215-3p was detected by qRT-PCR. The oxidative stress level of arterial endothelial cells was detected by oxidative stress kit and DCFH-DA probe method. The PI3K/AKT pathway, mitochondrial dynamics, and apoptosis-related genes were detected by qRT-PCR and western blot. The mitochondrial ATP level and nitric oxide synthases (NOSs) level were detected with the kit. TUNEL, acridine orange/ethidium bromide, and flow cytometry were used to detect the level of apoptosis. The results showed that BPA exposure and Se deficiency led to overexpression of miR-215-3p, aggravated oxidative stress, inhibited activation of PI3K/AKT pathway, promoted mitochondrial division, increased expression of apoptosis related genes, and finally led to apoptosis of chicken arterial endothelial cells. We also established knockdown/overexpression models of miR-215-3p and Dio1 in vitro, and found that overexpression of miR-215-3p and knockout of Dio1 can induce apoptosis. Interestingly, miR-215-3p-Inhibitor and N-acetyl- l-cysteine (NAC) partially prevented apoptosis caused by BPA exposure and Se deficiency, and LY294002 aggravated apoptosis. These results suggest that BPA exposure aggravates the apoptosis of Se deficient arterial endothelial cells in chickens by regulating the ROS/PI3K/AKT pathway activated by miR-215-3p/Dio1. The miR-215-3p/Dio1 axis provides a new way to understand the toxic mechanism of BPA exposure and Se deficiency, and reveals a new regulatory model of apoptosis damage in vascular diseases.

Graphene and gold nanoparticle-based bionanocomposite for the voltammetric determination of bisphenol A in (micro)plastics

The monitoring of endocrine disruptors in the environment is one of the main strategies in the investigation of potential risks associated with exposure to these chemicals. Bisphenol A is one of the most prevalent endocrine-disrupting compounds and is prone to leaching out from polycarbonate plastic in both freshwater and marine environments. Additionally, microplastics also can leach out bisphenol A during their fragmentation in the water environment. In the quest for a highly sensitive sensor to determine bisphenol A in different matrices, an innovative bionanocomposite material has been achieved. This material is composed of gold nanoparticles and graphene, and was synthesized using a green approach that utilized guava (Psidium guajava) extract for reduction, stabilization, and dispersion purposes. Transmission electron microscopy images revealed well-spread gold nanoparticles with an average diameter of 31 nm on laminated graphene sheets in the composite material. An electrochemical sensor was developed by depositing the bionanocomposite onto a glassy carbon surface, which displayed remarkable responsiveness towards bisphenol A. Experimental conditions such as the amount of graphene, extract: water ratio of bionanocomposite and pH of the supporting electrolyte were optimized to improve the electrochemical performance. The modified electrode displayed a marked improvement in current responses for the oxidation of bisphenol A as compared to the uncovered glassy carbon electrode. A calibration plot was established for bisphenol A in 0.1 mol L^-1 Britton-Robinson buffer (pH 4.0), and the detection limit was determined to equal to 15.0 nmol L^-1. Recovery data from 92 to 109% were obtained in (micro)plastics samples using the electrochemical sensor and were compared with UV-vis spectrometry, demonstrating its successful application with accurate responses.

Exposure to Bisphenol A induces abnormal fetal heart development by promoting ferroptosis

BACKGROUND

Bisphenol A (BPA), a common endocrine-disrupting chemical (EDC), has been revealed to be closely associated with the induction of abnormal heart development, obesity, prediabetes, and other metabolic disorders. However, the underlying mechanism of maternal BPA exposure on fetal heart development abnormalities is not clear.

METHODS

To explore the adverse effects of BPA and its potential mechanism on heart development, C57BL/6 J mice and human cardiac AC-16 cells were used to conduct in vivo and in vitro studies. For the in vivo study, mice were exposed to low-dose BPA (40 mg/(kg·bw)) and high-dose BPA (120 mg/(kg·bw)) for 18 d during pregnancy. In vitro study, human cardiac AC-16 cells were exposed to BPA of various concentrations (0.01, 0.1, 1, 10, and 100 µM) for 24 h. Cell viability and ferroptosis were evaluated using 2,5-diphenyl-2 H-tetrazolium bromide (MTT), immunofluorescence staining, and western blotting.

RESULTS

In BPA-treated mice, the alterations of fetal cardiac structure were observed. Increased NK2 homeobox 5(Nkx2.5) was detected in vivo with the induction of ferroptosis, revealing that BPA induced abnormal fetal heart development. Furthermore, the results showed that SLC7A11 and SLC3A2 decreased in low- and high-dose BPA-treated groups, suggesting that system Xc- mediated BPA-induced abnormal fetal heart development via inhibiting the expression of GPX4. Observing AC-16 cells confirmed that cell viability declined significantly with various concentrations of BPA. Moreover, BPA exposure suppressed GPX4 expression by inhibiting System Xc- (the decrease of SLC3A2 and SLC7A11). Collectively, system Xc- modulating cell ferroptosis might play important in abnormal fetal heart development induced by BPA exposure.

Bisphenol S exposure promotes cell apoptosis and mitophagy in murine osteocytes by regulating mtROS signaling

Bisphenol S (BPS), a safer alternative to bisphenol A, is commonly used as a plasticizer to manufacture various food-packaging materials. The accumulated BPS inhibits osteoblastic bone formation and promotes osteoclastogenesis, thereby accelerating remarkable bone destruction, but it is unclear whether BPS affects osteocytes, comprising over 95% of all bone cells. This study aimed to investigate the biological effect of BPS on osteocytes in vitro, as well as the detailed mechanism. Results showed that BPS (200, 400 μmol/L) exposure caused dose-dependently cell death of osteocytes MLO-Y4, and increased cell apoptosis. BPS induced loss of mitochondrial membrane potential (MMP) and mitochondria impairment. Furthermore, BPS upregulated expressions of mitophagy-related proteins including microtubule-associated protein light chain 3 (LC-3) II and PTEN-induced putative kinase (PINK) 1, accompanied by elevation of autophagy flux and the accumulation of acidic vacuoles; whereas p62 level was downregulated after BPS treatment. Additionally, BPS triggered the production of intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS) and mitochondrial ROS (mtROS), while it decreased expression levels of nuclear factor E2-related factor 2 (Nrf2) and quinone oxidoreductase 1 (NQO1). The specific mtROS scavenger MitoTEMPO reversed cell apoptosis and mitophagy, suggesting that mtROS contributes to BPS exposure-induced apoptosis and mitophagy in MLO-Y4 cells. Our data first provide novel evidence that apoptosis and mitophagy as cellular mechanisms for the toxic effect of BPS on osteocytes, thereby helping our understanding of the potential role of osteocytes in the adverse effect of BPS and its analogs on bone growth, and supporting strategies targeting bone destruction caused by BPS.

Potential Treatment Options for Neuroblastoma with Polyphenols through Anti-Proliferative and Apoptotic Mechanisms

Neuroblastoma (NB) is an extracranial tumor of the peripheral nervous system arising from neural crest cells. It is the most common malignancy in infants and the most common extracranial solid tumor in children. The current treatment for high-risk NB involves chemotherapy and surgical resection followed by high-dose chemotherapy with autologous stem-cell rescue and radiation treatment. However, those with high-risk NB are susceptible to relapse and the long-term side effects of standard chemotherapy. Polyphenols, including the sub-class of flavonoids, contain more than one aromatic ring with hydroxyl groups. The literature demonstrates their utility in inducing the apoptosis of neuroblastoma cells, mostly in vitro and some in vivo. This review explores the use of various polyphenols outlined in primary studies, underlines the pathways involved in apoptotic activity, and discusses the dosage and delivery of these polyphenols. Primary studies were obtained from multiple databases with search the terms “neuroblastoma”, “flavonoid”, and “apoptosis”. The in vitro studies showed that polyphenols exert an apoptotic effect on several NB cell lines. These polyphenols include apigenin, genistein, didymin, rutin, quercetin, curcumin, resveratrol, butein, bisphenols, and various plant extracts. The mechanisms of the therapeutic effects include calpain-dependent pathways, receptor-mediated apoptosis, and, notably, and most frequently, mitochondrial apoptosis pathways, including the mitochondrial proteins Bax and Bcl-2. Overall, polyphenols demonstrate potency in decreasing NB proliferation and inducing apoptosis, indicating significant potential for further in vivo research.

Safer alternatives? Bisphenol F and Bisphenol S induce oxidative stress in Drosophila melanogaster larvae and trigger developmental damage

Bisphenol F (BPF) and Bisphenol S (BPS) are safe alternatives substances? Here Drosophila melanogaster were exposed during development (larval stage) to BPF and BPS (0.25, 0.5 and 1 mM). Upon reaching the last larval stage (3rd stage), markers of oxidative stress and metabolism of both substances were evaluated, along with investigation of mitochondrial and cell viability. This study is attributed to an unprecedented fact: BPF and BPS exposed larvae, both at concentrations of 0.5 and 1 mM, showed higher cytochrome P-450 (CYP450) activity. The GST activity increased in all BPF and BPS concentrations, and reactive species, lipid peroxidation, superoxide dismutase, and catalase activity increased in larvae (BPF and BPS; 0.5, and 1 mM); nonetheless, mitochondrial and cell viability decreased with 1 mM of BPF and BPS. In addition, the reduced number of pupae formed in the 1 mM BPF and BPS groups and melanotic mass formation may be attributed to oxidative stress. From the pupae formed, the hatching rate reduced in the 0.5 and 1 mM BPF and BPS groups. Thus, the possible presence of toxic metabolites may be related to the larval oxidative stress condition, which is detrimental to the complete development of Drosophila melanogaster.

In vitro and in silico assessment of GPER-dependent neurocytotoxicity of emerging bisphenols

To rapidly assess the toxicity of bisphenols (BPs) via the activation of G protein-coupled estrogen receptor (GPER), eight BPs action on GPER were evaluated by molecular docking and molecular dynamics (MD) simulation and then confirmed with IMR-32 cells. The target BPs significantly promoted the production of reactive oxygen species (ROS), reduced cell viability, activated the expression of apoptosis-related proteins and increased the apoptosis rate of IMR-32 cells. Intracellular Ca²⁺ level increased significantly after the treatments with bisphenol A (BPA), bisphenol E (BPE), bisphenol C (BPC) and bisphenol AP (BPAP), suggesting the activation of GPER. Moreover, the stable binding conformations between GPER and BPA, BPE, BPC and BPAP and their dynamic changes of GPER-BPs via MD simulation also suggest that these BPs may activate GPER. The interaction between bisphenol G/bisphenol P/bisphenol PH and GPER are weak, which is consistent with their low GPER activity in vitro. Notably, after the pretreatment of GPER antagonist, Ca²⁺ accumulation and ROS production induced by BPA, BPE, BPC and BPAP in IMR-32 cells were attenuated. Overall, MD simulation and in vitro results mutually verified the activation of GPER by BPs, and MD simulation can rapidly evaluate the neurocytotoxicity of BPs.

Resveratrol, Endocrine Disrupting Chemicals, Neurodegenerative Diseases and Depression: Genes, Transcription Factors, microRNAs, and Sponges Involved

We aimed to examine the molecular basis of the positive effect of resveratrol against amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), Parkinson's disease (PD), cognitive impairment (CI), and depression induced by a mixture of bisphenol A (BPA), BPS, and BPF. The CTD, GeneMania, Metascape, SwissADME, Cytoscape, MIENTURNET, miRNAsong, and Autodock Vina were the fundamental tools for analysis. Resveratrol exerts its protective effects on selected diseases induced by a mixture of BPA, BPS, and BPF through the following genes: PTGS2 and GSR for ALS; INS, IL6, BDNF, and SOD1 for PD; BDNF, CASP3, TNF, INS, IGF1, IL1B for CI; and BDNF, PTGS2, and IL6 for depression. Detoxification was noted as the most important for ALS, dopamine metabolism for PD, apoptosis for CI, and the selenium micronutrient network for depression. hsa-miR-377-3p, hsa-miR-1-3p, hsa-miR-128-3p, and hsa-miR-204-5p were highlighted. We created and tested in silico sponges that inhibited these miRNAs. NFE2L2, BACH1, PPARG, and NR4A3 were listed as the key transcription factors implicated in resveratrol's protective effect against harmful studied chemicals. Furthermore, resveratrol's physicochemical properties and pharmacokinetics are consistent with its therapeutic benefits in ALS, PD, CI, and depression, owing to its high gastrointestinal absorption, drug-likeness, non-P-glycoprotein substrate, and capacity to penetrate the blood-brain barrier.

Protective effects of cyanidin-3-O-glucoside on BPA-induced neurodevelopmental toxicity in zebrafish embryo model

Bisphenol A (BPA) is ubiquitous in the environment and poses a threat to wildlife and human health. It has been reported that BPA may cause the neurotoxicity during gestational and neonatal periods. Cyanidin-3-O-glucoside (C3G) is one of the most abundant anthocyanins that has shown multiple bio-functions. In this study, the protective effects and possible mechanism of C3G against BPA-induced neurodevelopment toxicity in zebrafish embryos/larvae were studied. The results showed that co-exposure of C3G (25 μg/mL) significantly attenuated BPA-induced deficit in locomotor behavior and restored the BPA-induced aberrant changes in brain morphology of zebrafish larvae. Further studies showed that the defects of central nervous development and the downregulated neurogenesis relative genes induced by BPA were significantly counteracted by co-exposure with 5 μg/mL of C3G. In addition, C3G (25 μg/mL) mitigated the decline of glutathione (GSH) content and enzymatic activities of superoxide dismutase (SOD), glutathione peroxidase (GPx) and catalase (CAT), attenuated oxidative stress and cell apoptosis induced by BPA in zebrafish. The enhancements of the expression of genes involved in the Nrf2-ARE pathway (Nrf2, HO-1, NQO1, GCLC, and GCLM) were also observed by co-exposure of C3G. The results indicate that C3G exerts protective effects on BPA-induced neurodevelopmental toxicity through improving transcription of neurogenesis related genes, enhancing antioxidative defense system and reducing cell apoptosis by regulation of apoptotic genes in zebrafish larvae. The results suggest that anthocyanins may play important role against the exogenous toxicity for vertebrates.

Hematological changes, redox imbalance, and changes in Na+/K+-ATPase activity caused by bisphenol-A and the integrated biomarker responses in Labeo rohita (Hamilton, 1822)

Bisphenol-A (BPA) is a plasticizer commonly used in the plastics industry to manufacture plastic materials. It is abundant in aquatic ecosystems, resulting in increased contamination and lower concentrations that may represent a significant threat to the aquatic system. Hence in the present study, an Indian major carp, Labeo rohita, was exposed to two different BPA concentrations (1 and 10 μg/L) for 30 days. Compared to control, the chronic effects resulted in significant alterations in red blood cell (RBC) and white blood cells (WBC) count. The exposure to BPA caused significant changes in antioxidant activity in gill, liver, and kidney tissues (inferred by catalase, glutathione peroxidase, and glutathione S-transferase activity) in L. rohita. Regarding lipid peroxidation (LPO), we observed an increase in liver and kidney alteration, while LPO was noted in gill tissue compared to the control. Furthermore, increased Na⁺/K⁺-ATPase activity was observed in gills at the end of the 10th day and a gradual decrease at the end of the 30th day. These results indicated that exposure to BPA alters the RBC and WBC levels, antioxidant enzyme activity (gills, liver, and kidney), and Na⁺/K⁺-ATPase activity in the gill of L. rohita exposed to BPA (at 1 and 10 μg/L). Therefore, our findings will help us gain better insight into the toxicity of BPA in freshwater ichthyofauna.

Carboxyl-functionalized polyimides for efficient bisphenol A removal: Influence of wettability and porosity on adsorption capacity

Bisphenol A (BPA) removal from drinking water is greatly concerned for human and living things' safety. In this study, we synthesized three carboxyl-functionalized copolyimides and their homopolymer counterparts and evaluated their potential for removing BPA from an aqueous solution. The polymers were prepared via polycondensation reaction by reacting 4,4'-(hexafluoroisopropylidene)diphthalic anhydride (6FDA) with various ratios of 3,5-diaminobenzoic acid (DABA) and 3,5-diamino-2,4,6-trimethylbenzoic acid (TrMCA). The effect of porosity, hydrophilicity, and methyl group content on BPA adsorption capacity has been investigated systemically. 6FDA-DABA demonstrated the highest BPA adsorption capacity with maximum adsorption of 67 mg g^-1 and removal efficiency of approximately 90%. The anti-synergistic regime was observed between polymer porosity and hydrophilicity. As the content of the methyl group increases, the Brunauer-Emmett-Teller (BET) surface area increases, and the polymer hydrophilicity decreases, leading to a notable reduction in BPA adsorption capacity. The adsorption kinetics isotherms of BPA on 6FDA-based polyimides followed the pseudo-first-order kinetics, except for 6FDA-DABA, which was found to follow the pseudo-second-order. The BPA removal capacity was determined using both Langmuir and Freundlich isotherm models. The Langmuir model was more suitable than the Freundlich for the adsorption of BPA on the carboxyl-functionalized polyimides. To our knowledge, the prepared polyimides represent the first examples of utilizing polyimides for BPA removal. Investigating the structure/property relationship between polymers and their performance will pave the way to molecular engineering state-of-the-art polymer materials for efficient environmental remediation applications.

Modulation of Unfolded Protein Response Restores Survival and Function of β-Cells Exposed to the Endocrine Disruptor Bisphenol A

Diabetes is a metabolic disease that currently affects nearly half a billion people worldwide. β-cells dysfunction is one of the main causes of diabetes. Exposure to endocrine-disrupting chemicals is correlated with increased diabetes incidence. We hypothesized that treatment with bisphenol A (BPA) induces endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress that activates the unfolded protein response (UPR), leading to impaired function of the β-cells, which over time, can cause diabetes. In this study, we aimed to evaluate UPR pathways activation under BPA treatment in β-cells and possible recovery of ER homeostasis. MIN6 cells (mouse insulinoma cell line) and isolated pancreatic islets from NOR (non-obese diabetes resistant) mice were treated with BPA. We analyzed the impact of BPA on β-cell viability, the architecture of the early secretory pathway, the synthesis and processing of insulin and the activation of UPR sensors and effectors. We found that the addition of the chemical chaperone TUDCA rescues the deleterious effects of BPA, resulting in improved viability, morphology and function of the β-cells. In conclusion, we propose that modulators of UPR can be used as therapeutic interventions targeted towards regaining β-cells homeostasis.

Evaluation of toxicological effects of bisphenol S with an in vitro human bone marrow mesenchymal stem cell: Implications for bone health

As the use of bisphenol A (BPA) has been restricted in consumer products, bisphenol S (BPS) is one major alternative to BPA for various materials, leading to growing concerns about its health risks in human beings. However, little is known about the toxic effects of BPS on bone health. We employed human bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells (hBMSCs) for the in vitro assessment of BPS on cell proliferation, differentiation, and self-renewal. Our study revealed that BPS at concentrations of 10^-10-10^-7 M increased cell viability but induced the morphological changes of hBMSCs. Moreover, BPS decreased ROS generation and increased Nrf2 expression. Furthermore, BPS not only activated ERα/β expression but also increased β-catenin expression and induced the replicative senescence of hBMSCs. Furthermore, we found that the upregulation of β-catenin induced by BPS was mediated, in part, by ER signaling. Overall, our results suggested BPS exposure caused the homeostatic imbalance of hBMSCs.

Bisphenol S Impairs Behaviors through Disturbing Endoplasmic Reticulum Function and Reducing Lipid Levels in the Brain of Zebrafish

The number of neurotoxic pollutants is increasing, but their mechanism of action is unclear. Here, zebrafish were exposed to 0, 1, 10, and 100 μg/L bisphenol S (BPS) for different durations beginning at 2 h postfertilization (hpf) to explore the neurotoxic mechanisms of BPS. Zebrafish larvae exposed to BPS displayed abnormal neurobehaviors. At 48 and 120 hpf, BPS inhibited yolk lipid consumption and reduced the lipid distribution in the zebrafish brain. Moreover, BPS downregulated the mRNA levels of genes involved in fatty acid elongation in the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) and activated ER stress pathways at 48 and 120 hpf, and KEGG analysis after RNA-seq showed that the protein processing pathway in the ER was significantly enriched after BPS exposure. Exposure to ER toxicants (thapsigargin and tunicamycin), two positive controls, induced neurotoxic effects on zebrafish embryos and larvae similar to those of BPS exposure. These data suggested that BPS and ER toxicants disturbed ER function and reduced brain lipid levels. Continued exposure to BPS into adulthood not only inhibited brain fatty acid elongation and ER function but also caused abnormal swelling of the ER in zebrafish. Our data provide new insights into the neurotoxic mechanism of BPS.

TET1 involved in bisphenol A induced TM3 Leydig cell toxicity by regulating Cav3.3 hydroxymethylation

Bisphenol A (BPA), an important environmental pollutant, is known to damage reproductive development. However, the underlying epigenetic mechanism in Leydig cells during BPA exposure has not been explored in detail. In this study, TM3 Leydig cells were treated with BPA (0, 20, 40 and 80 μM) for 72 h. The differentially expressed TET1 cell model was constructed to explore the mechanism of BPA-induced cytotoxicity. Results showed that BPA exposure significantly inhibited cell viability and increased apoptosis of TM3 Leydig cells. Meanwhile, the mRNA of TET1, Cav3.2 and Cav3.3 decreased significantly with the increase of BPA exposure. Importantly, TET1 significantly promoted proliferation of TM3 Leydig cells and inhibited apoptosis. Differentially expressed TET1 significantly affected BPA-induced toxicity in TM3 Leydig cells. Notably, TET1 elevated the mRNA levels of Cav3.2 and Cav3.3. MeDIP and hMeDIP confirmed that TET1 regulated the expression of Cav3.3 through DNA hydroxymethylation. Our study firstly presented that TET1 participated in BPA-induced toxicity in TM3 Leydig cells through regulating Cav3.3 hydroxymethylation modification. These findings suggest that TET1 acts as a potential epigenetic marker for reproductive toxicity induced by BPA exposure and may provide a new direction for the research on male reproductive damage.

Combination of Donepezil and Memantine Attenuated Cognitive Impairment Induced by Mixed Endocrine-Disrupting Chemicals: an In Silico Study

Little is known about the effects of endocrine-disrupting chemicals (EDCs) and the combination of memantine and donepezil on the pathogenesis of cognitive impairment. Here, we aimed to identify in silico the molecular mechanisms of the combination of memantine and donepezil that combat cognitive impairment induced by nine common EDCs using GeneMania, AutoDock Vina, Metascape, SwissADME, MIENTURNET, and miRNAsong. We observed that the mixture of memantine and donepezil had therapeutic effects on mixed EDC-induced cognitive impairment via five genes (TNF, ACHE, BAX, IL1B, and CASP3). With ACHE and TNF, donepezil and memantine both had a high docking score, respectively. The predominant connections among five mutual genes were physical interactions (77.6%). The major pathways associated with memantine and donepezil countering cognitive impairment generated by mixed EDCs were discovered to be "AGE-RAGE signaling pathway in diabetic complications," "pro-survival signaling of neuroprotectin D1," and "non-alcoholic fatty liver disease." The miRNAs and transcription factors implicated in memantine and donepezil protecting against mixed EDCs were hsa-miR-128-3p and hsa-miR-34a-5p, NFKB1, NFKB2, IRF8, and E2F4. The sponges' tertiary structure predictions for two major miRNAs were provided. The physicochemical and pharmacokinetic properties of memantine and donepezil highlighted the need for a therapeutic combination of these medications to treat cognitive impairment.

Impact of Bisphenol A on Structure and Function of Mitochondria: A Critical Review

Bisphenol A (BPA) is an industrial chemical used extensively to manufacture polycarbonate plastics and epoxy resins. Because of its estrogen-mimicking properties, BPA acts as an endocrine-disrupting chemical. It has gained attention due to its high chances of daily and constant human exposure, bioaccumulation, and the ability to cause cellular toxicities and diseases at extremely low doses. Several elegant studies have shown that BPA can exert cellular toxicities by interfering with the structure and function of mitochondria, leading to mitochondrial dysfunction. Exposure to BPA results in oxidative stress and alterations in mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA), mitochondrial biogenesis, bioenergetics, mitochondrial membrane potential (MMP) decline, mitophagy, and apoptosis. Accumulation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) in conjunction with oxidative damage may be responsible for causing BPA-mediated cellular toxicity. Thus, several reports have suggested using antioxidant treatment to mitigate the toxicological effects of BPA. The present literature review emphasizes the adverse effects of BPA on mitochondria, with a comprehensive note on the molecular aspects of the structural and functional alterations in mitochondria in response to BPA exposure. The review also confers the possible approaches to alleviate BPA-mediated oxidative damage and the existing knowledge gaps in this emerging area of research.

Bisphenol S induced dysregulations in liver; iron regulatory genes and inflammatory mediators in male Wistar rats

Bisphenol S (BPS), an analog of bisphenol A (BPA), has been frequently detected in consumer products, food wrappers, plastics, and thermal papers. Since the liver is a hub of metabolic and detoxification pathways, thus intimately related to BPS presence in the environment and body. The current study was designed to investigate the effects of BPS administration in an animal model. Twenty-five male Wistar rats weighing 175 ± 25 g were randomly divided into control and treated groups. The control group was further divided into group I (no treatment) and group II (corn oil), whereas the treatment group was divided into D-I (40 mg/kg/day), D-II (200 mg/kg/day), and D-III (400 mg/kg/day) groups, getting oral doses of BPS for 15 days. Data analysis showed a significant statistical increase in hepatic enzymes ALT (33.4%), AST (25.4%), and ALP (529.6%) in the D-III group along with the development of hypercholesterolemia and hypertriglyceridemia in all BPS groups. Aberrant mRNA expressions of some key hepatic iron regulatory genes and inflammatory mediators were evident through qRT-PCR. Bisphenol S caused congestion of central vein from mild to moderate in hepatic sections. In conclusion, our investigation insinuates BPS intoxication potential and therefore may not be a safe alternative to BPA.

Grifola frondosa Extract Containing Bioactive Components Blocks Skin Fibroblastic Inflammation and Cytotoxicity Caused by Endocrine Disrupting Chemical, Bisphenol A

Grifola frondosa (GF), a species of Basidiomycotina, is widely distributed across Asia and has been used as an immunomodulatory, anti-bacterial, and anti-cancer agent. In the present study, the pharmacological activity of the GF extract against an ecotoxicological industrial chemical, bisphenol A (BPA) in normal human dermal fibroblasts (NHDFs), was investigated. GF extract containing naringin, hesperidin, chlorogenic acid, and kaempferol showed an inhibitory effect on cell death and inflammation induced by BPA in the NHDFs. For the cell death caused by BPA, GF extract inhibited the production of reactive oxygen species responsible for the unique activation of the extracellular signal-regulated kinase. In addition, GF extract attenuated the expression of apoptosis-related proteins (Bax, Bcl-2, and cleaved caspase-3) and the pro-inflammatory cytokine IL-1β by the suppression of the redox-sensitive transcription factor, nuclear factor-kappa B (NF-κB) in BPA-treated NHDFs. For the inflammation triggered by BPA, GF extract blocked the inflammasome-mediated caspase-1 activation that leads to the secretion of IL-1β protein. These results indicate that the GF extract is a functional antioxidant that prevents skin fibroblastic pyroptosis induced by BPA.

State-of-the-art progress of metal-organic framework-based electrochemical and optical sensing platforms for determination of bisphenol A as an endocrine disruptor

Considering the low concentration levels of bisphenol compounds present in environmental, food, and biological samples, and the difficulty in analyzing the matrices, the main challenge is with the cleanup and extraction process, as well as developing highly sensitive determination methods. Recent advances in the field of metal-organic frameworks (MOFs) due to their large surface area, low weight, and other extraordinary physical, chemical, and mechanical features have made these porous materials a crucial agent in developing biosensing assays. This review focuses on MOFs across their definition, structural features, various types, synthetic routes, and their significant utilization in sensing assays for bisphenol A (BPA) determination. Additionally, recent improvements in characteristics and physio-chemical features of MOFs and their functional applications in developing electrochemical and optical sensing assays via different recognition elements for detecting BPA are comprehensively discussed. Finally, the existing boundaries of the current advances including future challenges concerning successful construction of sensing approaches by employing functionalized MOFs are addressed.

Genotoxic potential of bisphenol A: A review

Bisphenol A (BPA), as a major component of some plastic products, is abundant environmental pollutant. Due to its ability to bind to several types of estrogen receptors, it can trigger multiple cellular responses, which can contribute to various manifestations at the organism level. The most studied effect of BPA is endocrine disruption, but recently its prooxidative potential has been confirmed. BPA ability to induce oxidative stress through increased ROS production, altered activity of antioxidant enzymes, or accumulation of oxidation products of biomacromolecules is observed in a wide range of organisms - estrogen receptor-positive and -negative. Subsequently, increased intracellular oxidation can lead to DNA damage induction, represented by oxidative damage, single- and double-strand DNA breaks. Importantly, BPA shows several mechanisms of action and can trigger adverse effects on all organisms inhabiting a wide variety of ecosystem types. Therefore, the main aim of this review is to summarize the genotoxic effects of BPA on organisms across all taxa.

Bisphenol S Impairs Oestradiol Secretion during In Vitro Basal Folliculogenesis in a Mono-Ovulatory Species Model

Bisphenol S (BPS) affects terminal folliculogenesis by impairing steroidogenesis in granulosa cells from different species. Nevertheless, limited data are available on its effects during basal folliculogenesis. In this study, we evaluate in vitro the effects of a long-term BPS exposure on a model of basal follicular development in a mono-ovulatory species. We cultured ovine preantral follicles (180−240 μm, n = 168) with BPS (0.1 μM (possible human exposure dose) or 10 μM (high dose)) and monitored antrum appearance and follicular survival and growth for 15 days. We measured hormonal secretions (oestradiol (at day 13 [D13]), progesterone and anti-Müllerian hormone [D15]) and expression of key follicular development and redox status genes (D15) in medium and whole follicles, respectively. BPS (0.1 µM) decreased oestradiol secretion compared with the control (−48.8%, p < 0.001), without significantly impairing antrum appearance, follicular survival and growth, anti-Müllerian hormone and progesterone secretion and target gene expression. Thus, BPS could also impair oestradiol secretion during basal folliculogenesis as it is the case during terminal folliculogenesis. It questions the use of BPS as a safe BPA substitute in the human environment. More studies are required to elucidate mechanisms of action of BPS and its effects throughout basal follicular development.

The BDNF-TrkB-CREB Signalling Pathway Is Involved in Bisphenol S-Induced Neurotoxicity in Male Mice by Regulating Methylation

Bisphenol S (BPS), the most common substitute for bisphenol A in manufacturing, is associated with neurotoxicity, but its molecular mechanisms are unclear. Here, we studied the role of the BDNF-TrkB-CREB (brain-derived neurotrophic factor-tropomyosin-related kinase B-CAMP response element-binding protein) signalling pathway in bisphenol S-induced neurotoxicity via methylation regulation in male C57BL/6 mice. The mice were treated with sesame oil or 2, 20 and 200 mg/kg body weight BPS for 28 consecutive days, and the hippocampus was extracted. We recorded the body weight, organ index, and hippocampal pathology and ultrastructure of the mice. The BDNF, TrkB, CREB, phosphorylated (p)-CREB, DNMTs (DNA methyltransferases) levels were determined by qRT-PCR and/or Western blotting. BDNF promoter IV methylation level was detected by bisulfite sequencing PCR. BPS damaged the mouse hippocampus ultrastructure and reduced the number of synapses. Further, it increased the methylation rate of BDNF promoter IV; downregulated BDNF, CREB, p-CREB/CREB and DNMT1 expression; and upregulated DNMT3a and DNMT3b expression. Therefore, we speculate that the BDNF-TrkB-CREB pathway may be involved in BPS-induced neurotoxicity in male mice by regulating methylation.

Sex-specific changes in oxidative stress parameters and longevity produced by Bisphenol F and S compared to Bisphenol A in Drosophila melanogaster

Female and male Drosophila melanogaster were exposed separately for seven days to Bisphenol A (BPA), Bisphenol F (BPF), and Bisphenol S (BPS) at concentrations of 0.25, 0.5, and 1 mM. We observed that males exposed to 0.5 and 1 mM BPS showed lower catalase (CAT) activity and higher superoxide dismutase (SOD) and reactive species (RS); CAT activity decreased for BPF 0.5 and 1 mM. Nevertheless, BPA 0.5 and 1 mM decreased CAT activity, increased RS and lipid peroxidation (LPO), and reduced mitochondrial viability. None of the bisphenols altered the cell viability of male flies, although BPA 0.5 and 1 mM reduced longevity. In female flies, BPA and BPS 0.5 and 1 mM increased RS and LPO levels and decreased CAT activity and glutathione-S-transferase (GST), which may have contributed to lower mitochondrial and cell viability. Furthermore, BPS decreased SOD activity at the 1 mM concentration, and BPA reduced the SOD activity at concentrations of 0.5 and 1 mM. In the BPF 1 mM group, there was a reduction in GST activity and an increase in RS and LPO levels. The toxicological effects were different between sexes, and BPA was more harmful than BPF and BPS in male flies. Thus, our findings showed that females were more susceptible to oxidative cell damage when exposed to BPA and BPS than to BPF, and daily exposure to BPA and BPS at all concentrations reduced female longevity, as well as in BPF 1 mM.

Bisphenol A aggravates renal apoptosis and necroptosis in selenium-deficient chickens via oxidative stress and PI3K/AKT pathway

Bisphenol A (BPA) in the environment can have deleterious effects on humans and animals. BPA can exert nephrotoxicity by inducing oxidative stress. Selenium (Se) deficiency can specifically impair kidney tissues and additionally show a synergistic effect on the toxicity of several environmental chemicals. However, the toxic effects of BPA on the chicken kidney and whether Se deficiency produces synergistic effects on the toxicity of BPA remain poorly understood. Herein, we established BPA exposure models and Se deficiency model in vivo and in vitro, and described the discovery path of BPA aggravation on apoptosis and necroptosis in Se-deficient chicken kidneys via regulation of oxidative stress and phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase/threonine kinase (PI3K/AKT) signaling pathway. We found that BPA exposure increased reactive oxygen species and malondialdehyde levels, reduced activities of catalase, GPx, and superoxide dismutase, downregulated PI3K and AKT expressions, activated Bcl/Bax-Caspase 9-Caspase 3, and receptor-interacting protein kinase 1/mixed lineage kinase domain-like protein signaling pathways, resulting in apoptosis and necroptosis in the chicken kidney. In addition, Se deficiency significantly promoted the expression of renal apoptosis and necroptosis in BPA-exposed chicken kidneys. Altogether, our results showed that BPA aggravates apoptosis and necroptosis in Se-deficient chicken kidneys via regulation of oxidative stress and PI3K/AKT signaling pathway. Our findings elucidate the mechanism of BPA nephrotoxicity and Se deficiency exacerbation toxicity in chickens and will provide great significance for the protection of the ecological environment and animal health.