Withanolide modulates the potential crosstalk between apoptosis and autophagy in different colorectal cancer cell lines

Withaferin A reduces pulmonary eosinophilia and IL-25 production in a mouse model of allergic airways disease

BACKGROUND

Several studies report that ashwagandha, a traditional Ayurvedic supplement, has anti-inflammatory properties. Type 2 (T2) asthma is characterized by eosinophilic airway inflammation.

OBJECTIVE

We hypothesized that allergen-induced eosinophilic airway inflammation in mice would be reduced following administration of Withaferin A (WFA), the primary active phytochemical in Ashwagandha.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

C57BL/6J mice were given 10 total intra-peritoneal injections of 2 mg/kg WFA or vehicle control, concurrent with 6 total intranasal administrations of 50 μg house dust mite extract (HDM) or saline control over 2 weeks.

RESULTS

We observed that treatment with WFA reduced allergen-induced peribronchial inflammation and airway eosinophil counts compared to mice treated with controls. In addition, we observed that treatment with WFA reduced lung levels of interleukin-25 (IL-25) but increased lung gene expression levels of its co-receptor, Il17ra, in HDM-challenged mice compared to HDM-challenged mice that received the vehicle control.

CONCLUSION

This study pinpoints a potential mechanism by which WFA modulates allergen-induced airway eosinophilia via the IL-25 signaling pathway. Future studies will investigate the effects of WFA administration on lung eosinophilia and IL-25 signaling in the context of chronic allergen-challenge.

Alkaline Phosphatase and ATG4B Sequentially Activated Fluorescent Probe for Cancer Cell-Specific Live Imaging of Autophagy

Tracking autophagy in cancer cells is crucial for enhancing cancer therapies. Existing methods are often inefficient and cannot distinguish cancer from normal cells during autophagy. Herein, a sequentially activated peptide probe, NBD-1p-Dabcyl, was developed for achieving cancer cell-specific imaging of autophagy. The probe self-assembled and fluoresced brightly upon sequential processing by alkaline phosphatase (ALP) and autophagy-related protease (ATG4B), where NBD-1p-Dabcyl was dephosphorylated by ALP to give NBD-1-Dabcyl, which was then processed by ATG4B into nanofibers emitting strong fluorescence. Notably, the bright fluorescence of NBD was observed in cancer cells MDA-MB-231 and HeLa, while normal cells NIH3T3 exhibited weaker fluorescence, allowing differentiation between cancer and normal cells using a rapamycin (Rap)-induced autophagy cell model. The enhanced fluorescence in cancer cells was attributed to the higher activities of intracellular ALP and ATG4B. Next, NBD-1p-Dabcyl was used to assess the inhibition efficiency of an autophagy inhibitor NSC 185058 in MDA-MB-231 cells, where a strong correlation between fluorescence intensity and inhibitor concentration suggested that NBD-1p-Dabcyl could predict the activity of autophagy inhibitors. Finally, animal experiments revealed that NBD-1p-Dabcyl effectively facilitated in situ fluorescence imaging of autophagy in tumor tissues. The design of this sequentially activated peptide probe offers a practical approach for monitoring autophagy in cancer cells, enabling high-throughput screening of autophagy inhibitors for cancer therapy.

Structural and functional characterization of genes and enzymes involved in withanolide biosynthesis in Physalis alkekengi L

Physalis alkekengi L. is recognized as a significant source of various secondary metabolites, particularly C28 steroidal lactones known as withanolides and physalins, renowned for their therapeutic properties with a rich history in traditional medicine. In this study, we characterized the sequences of key downstream genes (PaFPPS, PaSQS, PaSQE, PaCAS, PaHYD1, and PaDWF5-1) involved in the biosynthesis of withanolides, marking the first characterization of these genes in P. alkekengi. Our findings revealed highly conserved amino acid sequences in P. alkekengi, with maximum similarity observed with Withania somnifera. Notably, essential domains crucial for enzyme function were preserved in P. alkekengi, indicating conserved enzyme activity. Comparative analysis of secondary structures, 3D topologies, and evolutionary studies supported ancestral homology. Investigations into the differential gene expression of these genes across seven tissues (young leaves, stems, roots, flowers, mature green fruit, breaker fruit, and red ripe fruit) highlighted higher expression levels in P. alkekengi leaves. These gene expression patterns were corroborated by phytochemical analyses using chromatographic techniques. High-Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC) confirmed the production of two key withanolides, withanolide A and withanone, in P. alkekengi, with maximum production observed in leaves and flowers. These findings suggest that P. alkekengi holds promise as an alternative to W. somnifera for large-scale industrial production of withanolides, particularly withanolide A. Using P. alkekengi eliminates the need to sacrifice the plant, which is typically required in traditional extraction methods from the roots of W. somnifera.

TMP: A dual modulator of apoptosis and autophagy via SHP-1 regulation in hepatocellular carcinoma

BACKGROUND

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) poses a significant health burden due to its high incidence, and current treatment effectiveness is hindered by drug resistance. Thus, investigation of novel therapeutic approaches derived from natural sources is crucial for improving patient outcomes.

AIMS

This study aimed to explore the potential of Tetramethylpyrazine (TMP), bioactive alkaloid (ligustrazine) isolated from Chuanxiong (Ligusticum Wallichii), in targeting HCC by inducing apoptosis and enhancing autophagy. The study focused on elucidating the molecular mechanisms underlying anti-cancer effects of TMP.

MAIN METHODS

To determine the influence of TMP on apoptosis and autophagy, Western blot analysis, annexin V assay, cell cycle analysis, acridine orange staining, and immunocytochemistry were performed. Next, the activation of the STAT3 signaling pathway and the anti-cancer effects of TMP in vivo were examined in an orthotopic HCCLM3-Lu mouse model.

KEY FINDINGS

TMP treatment induced apoptosis in HCCLM3 and Hep3B cells by activating key apoptotic factors while inhibiting proteins associated with cell survival and angiogenesis. Additionally, TMP enhanced autophagy by promoting the formation of autophagosomes and stimulating autophagy-related proteins. Furthermore, TMP suppressed the activation of the STAT3 signaling pathway by upregulating SHP-1, thereby inhibiting tumorigenesis and activating cell death pathways. Additionally, our in vivo research demonstrated that TMP significantly inhibited tumor growth and triggered the activation of both apoptosis and autophagy in tumor tissues.

SIGNIFICANCE

Our findings of this study demonstrate that TMP exerts a dual-action mechanism by modulating both apoptosis and autophagy, thus offering a promising strategy to overcome drug resistance in HCC.

Thiouracil and triazole conjugate induces autophagy through the downregulation of Wnt/β-catenin signaling pathway in human breast cancer cells

Autophagy is vital for maintaining cellular homeostasis by breaking down unnecessary organelles and proteins within cells. Its activity varies abnormally in several diseases, including cancer, making it a potential target for therapeutic strategies. The Wnt/β-catenin signaling pathway significantly impacts cancer by stabilizing β-catenin protein and promoting the transcription of its target genes. Therefore, we aimed to identify candidate substances targeting this signaling pathway. We designed and tested a thiouracil conjugate, discovering that TTP-8 had anti-tumor effects on human breast cancer cell lines MCF-7 and MDA-MB231. Our findings showed that TTP-8 upregulated the expression of LC3 protein, a marker of autophagy in breast cancer cells, suggesting that TTP-8 might induce autophagy. Further analysis confirmed an increase in autophagy-related proteins, with consistent results obtained from flow cytometry and confocal microscopy. Interestingly, the induction of LC3 expression by TTP-8 was even more pronounced in MCF-7 and MDA-MB231 cells transfected with β-catenin siRNA. Thus, our research supports the idea that the Wnt/β-catenin signaling pathway influences the regulation of autophagy-related proteins, thereby inducing autophagy. This suggests that TTP-8 could serve as a novel agent for treating breast cancer.

A new isoxazolyl-urea derivative induces apoptosis, paraptosis, and ferroptosis by modulating MAPKs in pancreatic cancer cells

MAPK pathway regulates the major events including cell division, cell death, migration, invasion, and angiogenesis. Small molecules that modulate the MAPK pathway have been demonstrated to impart cytotoxicity in cancer cells. Herein, the synthesis of a new isoxazolyl-urea derivative (QR-4) has been described and its effect on the growth of pancreatic cancer cells has been investigated. QR-4 reduced the cell viability in a panel of pancreatic cancer cells with minimal effect on normal hepatocytes. QR-4 induced the cleavage of PARP and procaspase-3, reduced the expression of antiapoptotic proteins, increased SubG1 cells, and annexin V/PI-stained cells indicating the induction of apoptosis. QR-4 also triggered paraptosis as witnessed by the reduction of mitochondrial membrane potential, decrease in the expression of Alix, increase in the levels of ATF4 and CHOP, and enhanced ER stress. QR-4 also modulated ferroptosis-related events such as elevation in iron levels, alteration in GSH/GSSG ratio, and increase in the expression of TFRC with a parallel decrease in the expression of GPX4 and SLC7A11. The mechanistic approach revealed that QR-4 increases the phosphorylation of all three forms of MAPKs (JNK, p38, and ERK). Independent application of specific inhibitors of these MAPKs resulted in a partial reversal of QR-4-induced effects. Overall, these reports suggest that a new isoxazolyl-urea imparts cell death via apoptosis, paraptosis, and ferroptosis by regulating the MAPK pathway in pancreatic cancer cells.

Oxazine drug-seed induces paraptosis and apoptosis through reactive oxygen species/JNK pathway in human breast cancer cells

Small molecule-driven JNK activation has been found to induce apoptosis and paraptosis in cancer cells. Herein pharmacological effects of synthetic oxazine (4aS, 7aS)-3-((4-(4‑chloro-2-fluorophenyl)piperazin-1-yl)methyl)-4-phenyl-4, 4a, 5, 6, 7, 7a-hexahydrocyclopenta[e] [1,2]oxazine (FPPO; BSO-07) on JNK-driven apoptosis and paraptosis has been demonstrated in human breast cancer (BC) MDA-MB231 and MCF-7 cells respectively. BSO-07 imparted significant cytotoxicity in BC cells, induced activation of JNK, and increased intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS) levels. It also enhanced the expression of apoptosis-associated proteins like PARP, Bax, and phosphorylated p53, while decreasing the levels of Bcl-2, Bcl-xL, and Survivin. Furthermore, the drug altered the expression of proteins linked to paraptosis, such as ATF4 and CHOP. Treatment with N-acetyl-cysteine (antioxidant) or SP600125 (JNK inhibitor) partly reversed the effects of BSO-07 on apoptosis and paraptosis. Advanced in silico bioinformatics, cheminformatics, density Fourier transform and molecular electrostatic potential analysis further demonstrated that BSO-07 induced apoptosis and paraptosis via the ROS/JNK pathway in human BC cells.

Activation of autophagy, paraptosis, and ferroptosis by micheliolide through modulation of the MAPK signaling pathway in pancreatic and colon tumor cells

Micheliolide (MCL), a naturally occurring sesquiterpene lactone, has demonstrated significant anticancer properties through the induction of various programmed cell death mechanisms. This study aimed to explore MCL's effects on autophagy, paraptosis, and ferroptosis in pancreatic and colon cancer cells, along with its modulation of the MAPK signaling pathway. MCL was found to substantially suppress cell viability in these cancer cells, particularly in MIA PaCa-2 and HT-29 cell lines. The study identified that MCL induced autophagy by enhancing the levels of autophagy markers such as Atg7, p-Beclin-1, and Beclin-1, which was attenuated by the autophagy inhibitor 3-MA. Furthermore, MCL was found to facilitate paraptosis, indicated by decreased Alix and in-creased ATF4 and CHOP levels. It also promoted ferroptosis, as demonstrated by the reduced expression of SLC7A11, elevated TFRC levels, and increased intracellular iron. Additionally, MCL activated the MAPK signaling pathway, marked by the phosphorylation of JNK, p38, and ERK, linked with an increase in ROS production that is vital in regulating these cell death mechanisms. These findings propose that MCL is a versatile anticancer agent, capable of activating various cell death pathways by modulating MAPK signaling and ROS levels. These results emphasize the therapeutic promise of MCL in treating cancer, pointing to the necessity of further in vivo investigations to confirm these effects and determine its potential clinical uses.

Withaferin A reduces pulmonary eosinophilia and IL-25 production in a mouse model of allergic airways disease

Several studies report that ashwagandha, a traditional Ayurvedic supplement, has anti-inflammatory properties. Type 2 (T2) asthma is characterized by eosinophilic airway inflammation. We hypothesized that allergen-induced eosinophilic airway inflammation in mice would be reduced following administration of Withaferin A (WFA), the primary active phytochemical in Ashwagandha. C57BL/6J mice were given 10 total intra-peritoneal injections of 2 mg/kg WFA or vehicle control, concurrent with 6 total intranasal administrations of 50 μg house dust mite extract (HDM) or saline control over 2 weeks. We observed that treatment with WFA reduced allergen-induced peribronchial inflammation and airway eosinophil counts compared to mice treated with controls. In addition, we observed that treatment with WFA reduced lung levels of interleukin-25 (IL-25) but increased lung gene expression levels of its co-receptor, Il17ra, in HDM-challenged mice compared to HDM-challenged mice that received the vehicle control. This study pinpoints a potential mechanism by which WFA modulates allergen-induced airway eosinophilia via the IL-25 signaling pathway. Future studies will investigate the effects of WFA administration on lung eosinophilia and IL-25 signaling in the context of chronic allergen-challenge.

Fangchinoline targets human renal cell carcinoma cells through modulation of apoptotic and non‑apoptotic cell deaths

The process of apoptosis is one of the essential processes involved in maintenance of homeostasis in the human body. It can aid to remove misfolded proteins or cellular organelles. This sequence is especially necessary in cancer cells. However, specifically targeting already apoptotic pathways can induce drug resistance in cancer cells and hence drugs can induce cell death by alternative mechanism. We investigated whether fangchinoline (FCN) can target renal carcinoma cells by inducing multiple cell death mechanisms. Both paraptosis, autophagy, and apoptosis were induced by FCN through stimulation of diverse molecular signaling pathways. FCN induced ROS production with GSH/GSSG imbalance, and ER stress. In addition, formation of autophagosome and autophagy related markers were stimulated by FCN. Moreover, FCN induced cell cycle arrest and PARP cleavage. Except for blocking protein synthesis, these three cell death pathways were found to be complementarily working together with each other. FCN also exhibited synergistic effects with paclitaxel in inducing programmed cell death in RCC cells. Our data indicates that FCN could induce apoptotic cell death and non-apoptotic cell death pathways and can be con-tribute to development of novel cancer prevention or therapy.

Withanolides: Promising candidates for cancer therapy

Natural products have played a significant role throughout history in the prevention and treatment of numerous diseases, particularly cancers. As a natural product primarily derived from various medicinal plants in the Withania genus, withanolides have been shown in several studies to exhibit potential activities in cancer treatment. Consequently, understanding the molecular mechanism of withanolides could herald the discovery of new anticancer agents. Withanolides have been studied widely, especially in the last 20 years, and attracted the attention of numerous researchers. Currently, over 1200 withanolides have been classified, with approximately a quarter of them having been reported in the literature to be able to modulate the survival and death of cancer cells through multiple avenues. To what extent, though, has the anticancer effects of these compounds been studied? How far are they from being developed into clinical drugs? What are their potential, characteristic features, and challenges? In this review, we elaborate on the current knowledge of natural compounds belonging to this class and provide an overview of their natural sources, anticancer activity, mechanism of action, molecular targets, and implications for anticancer drug research. In addition, direct targets and clinical research to guide the design and implementation of future preclinical and clinical studies to accelerate the application of withanolides have been highlighted.

Biological landscape and nanostructural view in development and reversal of oxaliplatin resistance in colorectal cancer

The treatment of cancer patients has been mainly followed using chemotherapy and it is a gold standard in improving prognosis and survival rate of patients. Oxaliplatin (OXA) is a third-platinum anti-cancer agent that reduces DNA synthesis in cancer cells to interfere with their growth and cell cycle progression. In spite of promising results of using OXA in cancer chemotherapy, the process of drug resistance has made some challenges. OXA is commonly applied in treatment of colorectal cancer (CRC) as a malignancy of gastrointestinal tract and when CRC cells increase their proliferation and metastasis, they can obtain resistance to OXA chemotherapy. A number of molecular factors such as CHK2, SIRT1, c-Myc, LATS2 and FOXC1 have been considered as regulators of OXA response in CRC cells. The non-coding RNAs are able to function as master regulator of other molecular pathways in modulating OXA resistance. There is a close association between molecular mechanisms such as apoptosis, autophagy, glycolysis and EMT with OXA resistance, so that apoptosis inhibition, pro-survival autophagy induction and stimulation of EMT and glycolysis can induce OXA resistance in CRC cells. A number of anti-tumor compounds including astragaloside IV, resveratrol and nobiletin are able to enhance OXA sensitivity in CRC cells. Nanoparticles for increasing potential of OXA in CRC suppression and reversing OXA resistance have been employed in cancer chemotherapy. These subjects are covered in this review article to shed light on molecular factors resulting in OXA resistance.

Molecular targets and mechanisms of anti-cancer effects of withanolides

Withanolides are a class of natural products with a steroidal lactone structure that exhibit a broad spectrum of anti-cancer effects. To date, several studies have shown that their possible mechanisms in cancer development and progression are associated with the regulation of cell proliferation, apoptosis, metastasis, and angiogenesis. Withanolides can also attenuate inflammatory responses, as well as modulate the genomic instability and energy metabolism of cancer cells. In addition, they may improve the safety and efficacy of cancer treatments as adjuvants to traditional cancer therapeutics. Herein, we summarize the molecular targets and mechanisms of withanolides in different cancers, as well as their current clinical studies on them.

Withaferin A: A Dietary Supplement with Promising Potential as an Anti-Tumor Therapeutic for Cancer Treatment - Pharmacology and Mechanisms

Cancer, as the leading cause of death worldwide, poses a serious threat to human health, making the development of effective tumor treatments a significant challenge. Natural products continue to serve as crucial resources for drug discovery. Among them, Withaferin A (WA), the most active phytocompound extracted from the renowned dietary supplement Withania somnifera (L.) Dunal, exhibits remarkable anti-tumor efficacy. In this manuscript, we aim to comprehensively summarize the pharmacological characteristics of WA as a potential anti-tumor drug candidate, with the objective of contributing to its further development and the discovery of prospective drugs. Through an extensive review of literature from PubMed, Science Direct, and Web of Science, we have gathered substantial evidence showcasing WA's significant anti-tumor effects against a wide range of cancers in both in vitro and in vivo studies. Mechanistically, WA exerts its anti-tumor influence by inducing cell cycle arrest, apoptosis, autophagy, and ferroptosis. Additionally, it inhibits cell proliferation, cancer stem cells, tumor metastasis, and also suppresses epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) and angiogenesis. Several studies have identified direct target proteins of WA, such as vimentin, Hsp90, annexin II and mFAM72A, while BCR-ABL, Mortalin (mtHsp70), Nrf2, and c-MYB are potential targets of WA. Notwithstanding its remarkable anti-tumor efficacy, there are some limitations associated with WA, including potential toxicity and poor oral bioavailability, which need to be addressed when considering it as an anti-tumor candidate agent. Nevertheless, I given its promising anti-tumor attributes, WA remains an encouraging candidate for future drug development. Unveiling the exact target and comprehensive mechanism of WA's action represents a crucial research direction to pursue in the future.

Multi-target withaferin-A analogues as promising anti-kinetoplastid agents through the programmed cell death

Leishmaniasis and Chagas disease, two of the most prevalent neglected tropical diseases, are a world health problem. The harsh reality of these infective diseases is the absence of effective and safe therapies. In this framework, natural products play an important role in overcoming the current need to development new antiparasitic agents. The present study reports the synthesis, antikinetoplastid screening, mechanism study of fourteen withaferin A derivatives (2-15). Nine of them (2-6, 8-10 and 12) showed a potent dose-dependent inhibitory effect on the proliferation of Leishmania amazonensis and L. donovani promastigotes and Trypanosoma cruzi epimastigotes with IC₅₀ values ranging from 0.19 to 24.01 µM. Outstandingly, the fully acetylated derivative 10 (4,27-diacetylwithaferin A) was the most potent compound showing IC₅₀ values of 0.36, 2.82 and 0.19 µM against L. amazonensis, L. donovani and T. cruzi, respectively. Furthermore, analogue 10 exhibited approximately 18 and 36-fold greater antikinetoplastid activity, on L. amazonensis and T. cruzi, than the reference drugs. The activity was accompanied by significantly lower cytotoxicity on the murine macrophage cell line. Moreover, compounds 2, 3, 5-7, 9 and 10 showed more potent activity than the reference drug against the intracellular amastigotes forms of L. amazonensis and T.cruzi, with a good selectivity index on a mammalian cell line. In addition, withaferin A analogues 3, 5-7, 9 and 10 induce programmed cell death through a process of apoptosis-like and autophagy. These results strengthen the anti-parasitic potential of withaferin A-related steroids against neglected tropical diseases caused by Leishmania spp. and T. cruzi parasites.

Targeting Autophagy Using Long Non-Coding RNAs (LncRNAs): New Landscapes in the Arena of Cancer Therapeutics

Cancer has become a global health hazard accounting for 10 million deaths in the year 2020. Although different treatment approaches have increased patient overall survival, treatment for advanced stages still suffers from poor clinical outcomes. The ever-increasing prevalence of cancer has led to a reanalysis of cellular and molecular events in the hope to identify and develop a cure for this multigenic disease. Autophagy, an evolutionary conserved catabolic process, eliminates protein aggregates and damaged organelles to maintain cellular homeostasis. Accumulating evidence has implicated the deregulation of autophagic pathways to be associated with various hallmarks of cancer. Autophagy exhibits both tumor-promoting and suppressive effects based on the tumor stage and grades. Majorly, it maintains the cancer microenvironment homeostasis by promoting viability and nutrient recycling under hypoxic and nutrient-deprived conditions. Recent investigations have discovered long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs) as master regulators of autophagic gene expression. lncRNAs, by sequestering autophagy-related microRNAs, have been known to modulate various hallmarks of cancer, such as survival, proliferation, EMT, migration, invasion, angiogenesis, and metastasis. This review delineates the mechanistic role of various lncRNAs involved in modulating autophagy and their related proteins in different cancers.

Brassinin Induces Apoptosis, Autophagy, and Paraptosis via MAPK Signaling Pathway Activation in Chronic Myelogenous Leukemia Cells

Brassinin (BSN), a potent phytoalexin found in cruciferous vegetables, has been found to exhibit diverse anti-neoplastic effects on different cancers. However, the impact of BSN on chronic myelogenous leukemia (CML) cells and the possible mode of its actions have not been described earlier. We investigated the anti-cytotoxic effects of BSN on the KBM5, KCL22, K562, and LAMA84 CML cells and its underlying mechanisms of action in inducing programmed cell death. We noted that BSN could induce apoptosis, autophagy, and paraptosis in CML cells. BSN induced PARP cleavage, subG1 peak increase, and early apoptosis. The potential action of BSN on autophagy activation was confirmed by an LC3 expression and acridine orange assay. In addition, BSN induced paraptosis through increasing the reactive oxygen species (ROS) production, mitochondria damage, and endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress. Moreover, BSN promoted the activation of the MAPK signaling pathway, and pharmacological inhibitors of this signaling pathway could alleviate all three forms of cell death induced by BSN. Our data indicated that BSN could initiate the activation of apoptosis, autophagy, and paraptosis through modulating the MAPK signaling pathway.

Natural flavonoids exhibit potent anticancer activity by targeting microRNAs in cancer: A signature step hinting towards clinical perfection

Cancer prevalence and its rate of incidence are constantly rising since the past few decades. Owing to the toxicity of present-day antineoplastic drugs, it is imperative to explore safer and more effective molecules to combat and/or prevent this dreaded disease. Flavonoids, a class of polyphenols, have exhibited multifaceted implications against several diseases including cancer, without showing significant toxicity towards the normal cells. Shredded pieces of evidence suggest that flavonoids can enhance drug sensitivity and suppress proliferation, metastasis, and angiogenesis of cancer cells by modulating several oncogenic or oncosuppressor microRNAs (miRNAs, miRs). They play pivotal roles in regulation of various biological and pathological processes, including various cancers. In the present review, the structure, chemistry and miR targeting efficacy of quercetin, luteolin, silibinin, genistein, epigallocatechin gallate, and cyanidin against several cancer types are comprehensively discussed. miRs are considered as next-generation medicine of recent times, and their targeting by naturally occurring flavonoids in cancer cells could be deemed as a signature step. We anticipate that our compilations related to miRNA-mediated regulation of cancer cells by flavonoids might catapult the clinical investigations and affirmation in the future.