Human health impacts of exposure to phthalate plasticizers: An overview of reviews

Investigation on the interaction between catalase and typical phthalates with different side chain lengths

Phthalates (PAEs), a category of plasticizers released from plastic products, have been widely detected in various environmental media and pose potential ecological risks to humans. Although the exposure risks of PAEs to organisms have been studied, the differences in the interactions between PAEs with different side chain lengths and biomolecules remain poorly understood at molecule levels. In this study, three commonly used PAEs (dimethyl phthalate (DMP), diethyl phthalate (DEP), di-n-butyl phthalate (DBP)) were employed to investigate the influence of their side chain lengths on interactions with catalase (CAT), a key antioxidant enzyme. The effects of PAEs on CAT enzyme activity and their interaction mechanisms were investigated using multi-spectral technique and molecular docking techniques. The results indicate that the order of reduced enzyme activity by PAEs is DMP > DEP > DBP, which inversely correlates with the alkyl chain length of PAEs. Molecular docking analysis reveal that DBP failing to bind to the central cavity of CAT likely contributes to its minimal impact on enzyme activity. The multiple spectrums demonstrate that the binding affinity of PAEs to CAT and the changes of CAT conformational structure align with the observed decline in enzyme activity as alkyl chain length increased. Since enzyme activity ties to its structure, the structural alterations in CAT induced by PAEs would inevitably affect its functional expression in vivo. This study offers a comprehensive assessment on the possible toxicity of PAEs with different side chain lengths at the molecular levels, providing insights into their ecological risks.

Tracing the influence of seasonal variation on bioaccumulation and trophodynamics of phthalate esters (PAEs) in marine food web: A case study in Bohai Bay, North China

The ubiquity of phthalate esters (PAEs) leads to public concerns about the safety of seafood consumption. However, their bioaccumulation and trophodynamics in marine food webs remain unclear, especially in different seasons. Herein, we collected 18 species (n = 135) in summer and 17 species (n = 146) in winter from Bohai Bay (BHB). ∑6PAEs in organisms in summer were significantly higher than those in winter. Di-(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP) was the predominant PAE with a mean of 1112 ng·g-1 lipid weight (lw) and 375 ng·g-1 lw in summer and winter, respectively. The bioaccumulation factors (BAFs) and biota-sediment accumulation factors (BSAFs) of DEHP in summer were significantly higher than those in winter. A parabolic relationship was found between log Kow and log BAFlw or BSAFlw of PAEs. Food webs in two seasons were constructed based on the δ15N of each organism. Except for diethyl phthalate (DEP), other PAEs underwent biodilution and the biodilution of these PAEs was more obvious in summer compared to winter. Non-carcinogenic risks of 6 PAEs were negligible, but DEHP could pose incremental lifetime carcinogenic risks in some marine samples, especially in summer. This study provides insights into the seasonal variation of bioaccumulation and trophodynamics of PAEs.

Associations between urinary phthalate metabolites and reproductive, adrenal, and gonadotropic hormones in peripubertal children: the Hokkaido study

Phthalates have raised concerns regarding the disruption of hormone synthesis and signaling. The purpose of this study was to investigate the associations between urinary phthalate metabolites and 18 hormones, including reproductive, adrenal, and gonadotropic hormones, in peripubertal children. The study comprised a cross-sectional analysis of participants in the Hokkaido Birth Cohort Study. We collected data from 429 school children aged 9-12 living in Sapporo, Japan. Ten phthalate metabolites and 14 steroid hormones were analyzed using LC-MS/MS, whereas four peptide hormones were detected using immunoassays. Multivariable linear regression, quantile-based g-computation (qg-computation), and Bayesian kernel machine regression (BKMR) were used to investigate the associations between the individual phthalate metabolites and the phthalate mixtures with hormone levels, as well as with puberty based on hormone levels. In girls, we found that higher phthalate metabolite levels, as well as phthalate mixtures, were significantly associated with lower dehydroepiandrostenedione-sulfate (DHEA-S) and higher (androstenedione + testosterone)/DHEA-S. The higher phthalate mixture showed lower levels of LH, FSH, and cortisol levels among girls, whereas higher 11-deoxycortisol levels. In boys, a higher phthalates mixture was significantly associated with a higher estradiol/testosterone ratio, whereas lower levels of insulin-like factor-3 (INSL3), testosterone, (androstenedione + testosterone)/DHEA-S, testosterone/androstenedione, and cortisol/cortisone. Higher phthalate mixtures were associated with lower prevalence of puberty in girls. These findings indicate that phthalate exposure may disrupt the hormones in children during puberty.

Quantification of microplastics in agricultural soils by total organic carbon -solid sample combustion analysis

Accurate quantification of microplastics (MPs) in soils is a significant challenge due to the complex nature of the organo-mineral matrix. Fine mineral particles and organic matter often interfere with the efficiency of extraction, identification and quantification of MPs from soils. Here, an optimized MP extraction and quantification method is proposed, using total organic carbon analyser-solid sample combustion unit (TOC-SSM) analysis. The approach entails a field survey, digestion of organic matter by Piranha solution, density separation, and quantification. This method achieves a high total recovery rate of 97.39 ± 14.25 (SE) % for particles sized between 300 and 600 µm, and 94.80 ± 13.48 (SE) % for particles less than 300 µm with spiked soil as samples. The optimised method is then applied to strawberry farm soils that use plastic mulch films to quantify MP contamination levels. Our results indicate MP concentrations of 12.24 ± 3.65 (SE) mg kg-1 (for particles of 300-2000 µm in size) and 2.62 ± 0.66 (SE) mg kg-1 (for particles smaller than 300 µm). With improved simplicity and the ability to provide the actual weight of plastics for the extraction and quantification of MPs, this work offers a potential approach for assessing low-density plastics in the northeastern Australian agricultural soils with a dominant MP contamination, specifically polyethylene (PE).

Revealing the Impact of Mono(2-ethylhexyl) Phthalate (MEHP) on Prostate Cancer Based on Network Toxicology and Molecular Docking Approaches

Mono(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (MEHP) is a ubiquitous environmental contaminant and endocrine-disrupting chemical (EDC), identified as a potential carcinogen. Emerging studies have begun to elucidate the impact of MEHP on prostate cancer (PCa), yet its pathogenic effects and the underlying molecular mechanisms remain unclear. This study seeks to explore the molecular basis through which MEHP affects the onset and progression of PCa. Using network toxicology and bioinformatics, we identified MEHP-related pathogenic genes in PCa. An innovative predictive model was developed by employing multiple machine learning ensemble algorithms, and its performance was validated using the area under the receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve. Furthermore, at the single-cell resolution, the role of key MEHP-associated molecules, including several critical genes, in the oncogenic progression of PCa was identified. Through the construction of an environmental pollutant-key gene-PCa network, we investigated the interactions between environmental pollutants and the key genes VGF, ASPN, FOXS1, APLN, and AMH. Molecular docking studies demonstrated that the APLN, FOXS1, and ASPN genes exhibited favorable binding energies and high affinities for MEHP. The findings of this study provide a theoretical foundation for understanding the pathogenic role of MEHP in PCa and its potential molecular mechanisms. They also promote the application of network toxicology, molecular docking, machine learning, and single-cell analysis in the study of environmental pollutants.

An automated liquid-liquid extraction platform for high-throughput sample preparation of urinary phthalate metabolites in human biomonitoring

Automated sample preparation reduces variation caused by human factors and improves efficiency, throughput, and reliability, making it especially important in large-scale epidemiological biomonitoring applications. In this study, we demonstrated an automated liquid-liquid extraction platform that streamlines sample preparation for human biomonitoring of urinary phthalate metabolites. This platform integrates temperature-controlled enzymatic hydrolysis, adds extraction solvents, conducts shaking extraction, performs centrifugal separation, and transfers liquids. We optimized extraction solvents for liquid-liquid extraction of urinary phthalate metabolites and compared the extraction efficiency between manual and automated methods. The analytical performance of the platform was validated and compared with those obtained by manual liquid-liquid extraction and solid-phase extraction methods. We applied the automated liquid-liquid platform for determining urinary phthalate metabolites in the human biomonitoring of 232 health participants and evaluated their association with oxidative stress levels. Urinary phthalate metabolite concentrations showed a clear declining trend with increasing age. Males had significantly higher total urinary concentrations of phthalate metabolites than females. Monobutyl phthalate was the dominant metabolite in urine samples, followed by mono-isobutyl phthalate and monoethyl phthalate, with minor gender differences observed among individual metabolites. Trend tests and Bayesian Kernel Machine Regression analysis showed a significant positive association between urinary phthalate metabolites and the oxidative stress markers 8-hydroxyguanosine and 8-hydroxy-2'-deoxyguanosine, and monobutyl phthalate was identified as the most significant metabolite for the elevated 8-hydroxy-2'-deoxyguanosine levels. The automated liquid-liquid extraction platform exhibited high efficiency and reliability in preparing urinary samples for phthalate metabolite analysis, showing great promise in large-scale sample preparation of human biomonitoring applications.

Mechanism of S-Palmitoylation in Polystyrene Nanoplastics-Induced Macrophage Cuproptosis Contributing to Emphysema through Alveolar Epithelial Cell Pyroptosis

More than microplastics, nanoplastics may pose a greater toxic effect on humans due to their unique physicochemical properties. Currently, research on lung diseases caused by respiratory exposure to nanoplastics is scarce, with epigenetic mechanisms warranting further investigation. In the present study, we exposed rats to polystyrene nanoplastics (PS-NPs) via an oral-nasal exposure system and found that PS-NPs exposure resulted in emphysema. Mechanistically, PS-NPs entered macrophages and competitively bound to sigma nonopioid intracellular receptor 1 (SIGMAR1), leading to an increase in free zDHHC palmitoyltransferase 14 (zDHHC14). This, in turn, caused elevated palmitoylation of solute carrier family 31 member 1 (SLC31A1) in macrophages, inhibiting its ubiquitination and degradation, thereby enhancing SLC31A1 expression. The increased expression of SLC31A1 promoted cuproptosis of macrophages and elevated tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) secretion, which activated the NLR family pyrin domain containing 3/matrix metallopeptidase 9 (NLRP3/MMP-9) pathway in alveolar epithelial cells (AECs). This process mediated pyroptosis and degradation of extracellular matrix (ECM), resulting in the destruction of alveolar structure and development of emphysema. The findings demonstrate a previously unknown molecular mechanism by which PS-NPs induce emphysema. The findings have implications for the prevention and treatment of respiratory system damage caused by nanoparticles.

Dysregulation of microRNA (miRNA) Due to Phthalate/Phthalate Metabolite Exposure and Associated Health Effects: A Narrative Review

Phthalates, a group of synthetic non-persistent organic chemicals commonly used as solvents and plasticisers, have been associated with a range of detrimental health effects. These endocrine disrupting chemicals (ECDs) may exert their effects through epigenetic changes such as altered microRNA (miRNA) expression. miRNAs are short non-coding endogenous RNA transcripts that are preferentially expressed in various tissues and cell types and can circulate in body fluids, thereby regulating gene expression and acting as mediators for intercellular communication. As miRNAs mostly target protein-coding transcripts, they are involved in nearly all networks that regulate developmental and pathological processes. In this review, we provide an overview of human, in vivo and in vitro studies assessing altered miRNA expression due to phthalate exposure and their biological effects. Importantly, this study suggests that the mechanism of phthalate action may in part be mediated by epigenetic changes, affecting a large number of different proteins. This is indicative that alterations in miRNA expression induced by phthalate exposure are then implicated in a wide range of health conditions, including reproductive dysfunction, oncogenesis, metabolic disorders, and neurodevelopmental outcomes. Exposure to phthalates and their metabolites predominantly results in the upregulation of miRNAs. Dysregulation of miR-34a, miR-15b, miR-141, miR-184, miR-19a, miR-125, and miR-let-7 were observed across several studies. More research involving human participants combined with mechanistic studies integrating mRNA target analysis would be beneficial in understanding the downstream effects of phthalate exposure on gene expression and grasping the broader biological implications.

Anorexigenic and anxiogenic effects of the plasticiser DEHP (di-2-ethylhexyl phthalate) in goldfish: Involvement of PPAR signalling and feeding-related neuropeptides

Di-2-ethylhexyl phthalate (DEHP), a widely used plasticiser, is a pervasive environmental contaminant with potential detrimental effects on aquatic organisms. The objective of this study was to provide an integrative analysis of how DEHP alters energy balance, temporal homeostasis and fish welfare - interrelated aspects critical to animal survival - to address critical gaps in our understanding of its toxicological effects. Goldfish (Carassius auratus) were chronically (14 days) treated with DEHP. Energy balance was assessed through locomotor activity, metabolic rate, feed intake, and growth indices. Daily of locomotor and metabolic rate rhythms were examined to explore potential circadian disruptions. Anxiety-like behaviours were also examined to assess welfare. DEHP decreased feed intake and food-anticipatory activity (FAA), suggesting an anorexigenic effect, which may have been mediated by increased expression of anorexigenic genes in the hypothalamus and liver, along with decreased expression of orexigenic npy (neuropeptide Y) gene in the hypothalamus. Growth parameters remained unchanged, probably due to compensatory reductions in energy expenditure, as indicated by decreased locomotor activity and metabolic rate. Daily rhythms in these two parameters were preserved, suggesting no disruption in temporal homeostasis. DEHP increased hepatic expression of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor (PPAR)-related genes, suggesting that PPARs activation is a potential mode of action for DEHP in fish. Anxiety levels were elevated, as evidenced by increased thigmotaxis and scototaxis in behavioural tests, which may be mediated by changes in hypothalamic neuropeptides. These findings highlight the adverse effects of DEHP on energy regulation and animal welfare, providing novel insights into its broader physiological consequences in fish.

Association of Phthalate Exposure with Respiratory and Allergic Symptoms and Type 2 and Non-Type 2 Inflammation: The Hokkaido Study

Phthalate exposure is linked to asthma and allergic symptoms, yet their individual and combined effects on symptoms and inflammatory biomarkers, type 2 (T2) and non-T2, remain unexplored. This study examined the association of phthalate metabolites with allergic symptoms (wheeze, allergic rhinoconjunctivitis, and eczema), T2 biomarker (fraction of exhaled nitric oxide (FeNO), blood eosinophil count, and total immunoglobulin E (IgE)), and non-T2 biomarker (absolute neutrophil count (ANC)) and also their association with oxidative stress biomarkers, such as 4-hydroxynonenal, hexanoyl-lysine, and 8-hydroxy-2-deoxyguanosine. Ten urinary phthalate metabolites were measured using UPLC-MS/MS in 421 children (aged 9-12 years) from The Hokkaido Cohort, Japan. Symptoms were defined using the International Study of Asthma and Allergies in Childhood questionnaire, and biomarkers were measured in blood. Logistic regression assessed individual metabolites, while quantile-g computation and Bayesian kernel machine regression analyzed mixture effects on binary outcomes. Individual analysis showed that MnBP (mono-n-butyl phthalate) was positively associated with allergic rhinoconjunctivitis and eosinophil ≥ 300 cells/μL, while ∑DBP (dibutyl phthalate) and OH-MiNP (mono-hydroxy-isononyl phthalate) were linked with FeNO ≥ 35 ppb. DEHP (di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate) metabolites were associated with a high prevalence of blood eosinophils ≥ 300 cells/μL. We found a positive association between phthalates and oxidative stress markers, but no link was observed between oxidative stress and inflammatory markers. Mixture analysis identified MnBP as a major contributor to the high FeNO level, with di-n-butyl phthalate (DnBP) and DEHP metabolites contributing to eosinophil count ≥ 300 cells/μL and ANC ≥ 4400 cells/μL. These findings suggest that phthalate exposure from DnBP and DEHP is associated with immune dysregulation by triggering both T2 and non-T2 inflammatory responses.

Impact of prenatal phthalate exposure on newborn metabolome and infant neurodevelopment

We evaluated associations among exposure to prenatal phthalate metabolites, perturbations of the newborn metabolome, and infant neurobehavioral functioning in mother-newborn pairs enrolled in the Atlanta African American Maternal-Child Cohort during 2016-2018. We quantified eight phthalate metabolites in prenatal urine samples collected between 8- and 14-weeks' (visit 1; n = 216) and 24- and 30-weeks' gestation (visit 2; n = 145) and metabolite features in newborn dried-blood spot samples collected at delivery. Associations between phthalate metabolite concentrations and metabolic feature intensities at both visits were examined using adjusted generalized linear models (MWAS). Then, an exploratory meet-in-the-middle (MITM) analysis was conducted in a subset with NICU Neonatal Neurobehavioral Scale (NNNS) scores (visit 1 n = 81; visit 2 n = 71). In both the MWAS and MITM, many of the confirmed metabolites are involved in tyrosine and tryptophan metabolism, including tryptophan, tyrosine, thyroxine, and serine. This analysis elucidates how prenatal phthalate exposure disrupts the newborn metabolome and infant neurobehavioral outcomes.

Periods of susceptibility for associations between phthalate exposure and preterm birth: Results from a pooled analysis of 16 US cohorts

BACKGROUND

Phthalate exposure during pregnancy has been associated with preterm birth, but mechanisms of action may depend on the timing of exposure.

OBJECTIVE

Investigate critical periods of susceptibility during pregnancy for associations between urinary phthalate metabolite concentrations and preterm birth.

METHODS

Individual-level data were pooled from 16 US cohorts (N = 6045, n = 539 preterm births). We examined trimester-averaged urinary phthalate metabolite concentrations. Most phthalate metabolites had 2248, 3703, and 3172 observations in the first, second, and third trimesters, respectively. Our primary analysis used logistic regression models with generalized estimating equations (GEE) under a multiple informant approach to estimate trimester-specific odds ratios (ORs) of preterm birth and significant (p < 0.20) heterogeneity in effect estimates by trimester. Adjusted models included interactions between each covariate and trimester.

RESULTS

Differences in trimester-specific associations between phthalate metabolites and preterm birth were most evident for di-2-ethylhexyl phthalate (DEHP) metabolites. For example, an interquartile range increase in mono (2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (MEHP) during the first and second trimesters was associated with ORs of 1.15 (95 % confidence interval [CI]: 0.99, 1.33) and 1.11 (95 % CI: 0.97, 1.28) for preterm birth, respectively, but this association was null in the third trimester (OR = 0.91 [95 % CI: 0.76, 1.09]) (p-heterogeneity = 0.03).

CONCLUSION

The association of preterm birth with gestational biomarkers of DEHP exposure, but not other phthalate metabolites, differed by the timing of exposure. First and second trimester exposures demonstrated the greatest associations. Our study also highlights methodological considerations for critical periods of susceptibility analyses in pooled studies.

Phthalates and uterine disorders

Humans are ubiquitously exposed to environmental endocrine disrupting chemicals such as phthalates. Phthalates can migrate out of products and enter the human body through ingestion, inhalation, or dermal application, can have potential estrogenic/antiestrogenic and/or androgenic/antiandrogenic activity, and are involved in many diseases. As a female reproductive organ that is regulated by hormones such as estrogen, progesterone and androgen, the uterus can develop several disorders such as leiomyoma, endometriosis and abnormal bleeding. In this review, we summarize the hormone-like activities of phthalates, in vitro studies of endometrial cells exposed to phthalates, epigenetic modifications in the uterus induced by phthalate exposure, and associations between phthalate exposure and uterine disorders such as leiomyoma and endometriosis. Moreover, we also discuss the current research gaps in understanding the relationship between phthalate exposure and uterine disorders.

Semiautomated Production of Cell-Free Biosensors

Cell-free synthetic biology biosensors have potential as effective in vitro diagnostic technologies for the detection of chemical compounds, such as toxins and human health biomarkers. They have several advantages over conventional laboratory-based diagnostic approaches, including the ability to be assembled, freeze-dried, distributed, and then used at the point of need. This makes them an attractive platform for cheap and rapid chemical detection across the globe. Though promising, a major challenge is scaling up biosensor manufacturing to meet the needs of their multiple uses. Currently, cell-free biosensor assembly during lab-scale development is mostly performed manually by the operator, leading to quality control and performance variability issues. Here we explore the use of liquid-handling robotics to manufacture cell-free biosensor reactions. We compare both manual and semiautomated reaction assembly approaches using the Opentrons OT-2 liquid handling platform on two different cell-free gene expression assay systems that constitutively produce colorimetric (LacZ) or fluorescent (GFP) signals. We test the designed protocol by constructing an entire 384-well plate of fluoride-sensing cell-free biosensors and demonstrate that they perform close to expected detection outcomes.

Environmental Pollutants, Occupational Exposures, and Liver Disease

Environmental pollutants significantly impact liver disease development, progression, and outcomes. This review examines the complex relationship between environmental exposures and liver pathology, from malignant conditions like hepatocellular carcinoma to steatotic and cholestatic liver diseases. Key environmental factors include air pollutants, volatile organic compounds, persistent organic pollutants, heavy metals, and per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances. These compounds can act through multiple mechanisms, including endocrine disruption, metabolic perturbation, oxidative stress, and direct hepatotoxicity. The impact of these exposures is often modified by factors such as sex, diet, and genetic predisposition. Recent research has revealed that even low-level exposures to certain chemicals can significantly affect liver health, particularly when combined with other risk factors. The emergence of exposomics as a research tool promises to enhance our understanding of how environmental factors influence liver disease. Importantly, exposure effects can vary by demographic and socioeconomic factors, highlighting environmental justice concerns. Implementation of this knowledge in clinical practice requires new diagnostic approaches, healthcare system adaptations, and increased awareness among medical professionals. In conclusion, this review provides a comprehensive examination of current evidence linking environmental exposures to liver disease and discusses implications for clinical practice and public health policy.

Bioplastics and biodegradable plastics: A review of recent advances, feasibility and cleaner production

As awareness of plastic pollution increases, there is a growing emphasis on sustainable alternatives. Bioplastics and biodegradable plastics have surfaced as potential substitutes. Yet, their limited properties and high production costs hinder their practicality. This paper systematically reviews more than 280 articles to comprehensively outline the advantages and drawbacks of emerging bioplastics and biodegradable plastics, alongside advancements in cleaner production methods. Bioplastics, sourced from renewable materials, decrease dependency on fossil fuels and help lower carbon footprints during production and disposal. Some bioplastics, such as polylactic acid (PLA) and polyhydroxyalkanoates, are compostable, but their manufacturing costs usually surpass that of conventional plastics. Additionally, certain bioplastics exhibit lower mechanical strength, heat resistance, or durability. PLA and bio-polybutylene succinate (bio-PBS) are viable for single-use items and biodegradable products, with scalable production using established technologies, although bio-PBS is somewhat pricier than PLA. Biodegradable plastics lessen environmental impact by naturally degrading and can be composted in industrial settings, providing an eco-friendly disposal option. However, they require specific industrial composting conditions for complete degradation, which can lead to microplastic formation in the environment. PBS, polybutylene adipate terephthalate, and polybutylene succinate-co-adipate seem to be the most promising options, with PBS being a strong contender for replacing traditional plastics due to its biodegradable and compostable nature. It has the potential to be partially or entirely bio-based (bio-PBS). Innovative technologies, especially next-generation industrial biotechnology and microbial cell factories, offer cleaner methods for synthesizing these plastics. This review aids in identifying feasible and sustainable alternatives to conventional plastics.

The associations between prenatal plastic phthalate exposure and lipid acylcarnitine levels in humans and mice

Phthalates are ubiquitous environmental pollutants known for their endocrine-disrupting properties, particularly during critical periods such as pregnancy and early childhood. Phthalates alter lipid metabolism, but the role of prenatal exposure on the offspring lipidome is less understood. In particular, we focused on long chain acylcarnitines - intermediates of fatty acid oxidation that serve as potential biomarkers of mitochondrial function and energy metabolism. This study aimed (i) to investigate the association between prenatal phthalate exposure and the child's blood acylcarnitine concentrations and, (ii) to evaluate the impact of prenatal administration of di-(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP) on acylcarnitine levels in mouse offspring blood, brain and liver. We conducted analyses of both a prospective birth cohort study and an experimental study in mice. From the Barwon Infant Study cohort (1074 mother-child pairs), prenatal phthalate exposure was assessed at 36 weeks' gestation and its association with acylcarnitine levels was examined in cord blood, and child's blood at 6 months, 12 months and 4 years. In mice, pregnant C57BL/6 J mouse dams were exposed to 20 μg/kg DEHP for 5 days mid-gestation, and offspring tissues were analyzed at 1 month of age postnatally for acylcarnitine profiles. Our findings demonstrate that prenatal phthalate levels (specifically butyl benzyl phthalate (BBzP) and diisobutyl phthalate (DiBP)) are inversely associated with total long chain acylcarnitine levels in human cord blood at birth. In contrast, BBzP was positively associated with the long chain acylcarnitines at 12 months of age. In mice, prenatal DEHP exposure for only 5 days led to decreased palmitoylcarnitine (AC16:0) levels in the brain and liver, but not in blood. Taken together, our findings highlight that prenatal phthalate exposure can alter acylcarnitine profiles, indicating disruptions in fatty acid metabolism that may have long-term effects on metabolic health.

Comprehensive review of phthalate exposure: Health implications, biomarker detection and regulatory standards

Phthalates are a wide family of chemicals that are used in many different industrial applications used in many different industrial applications, including the production of plastics, toys, food packaging particularly for kids, and medical equipment. Due to their various chemical and physical properties, phthalates may negatively impact humans, animals, and the environment. Thus the potential for phthalate exposure and harm to humans, animals, and the environment is high because its presence is alarming. Phthalates can be ingested, inhaled, absorbed topically, or via iatrogenic exposure in animals and humans. This article aimed to ascertain the modes of exposure, fate and detection techniques, and harmful effects of phthalates on humans, animals, and the environment. This review also shows that the intake of phthalate above the established daily limit from sources such as food, toys, and air causes serious harm, including impaired immune function, difficulties in pregnancy, loss of reproduction, and damage to the kidneys, lungs, heart, and brain in humans. Children and pregnant women are the most impacted groups and phthalates also negatively affect the environment and wildlife. A few methods to determine phthalate exposure, such as the LC and the HPLC-MS/MS methods, which employ human fluid or dust air as a biomarker, are also addressed here. Consequently, this comprehensive review aims to provide a detailed analysis of the existing evidence regarding explicit links between exposure to phthalates and subsequent health outcomes that may be directly related to this exposure. Additionally, we reviewed the developed and validated analytical methods and supplemented the literature with partial biomonitoring data on their metabolites.

Moderating effects of insomnia on the association between urinary phthalate metabolites and depressive symptoms in Chinese college students: focus on gender differences

OBJECTIVES

To investigate the rates of depressive symptoms in college students, explore the relationship between urinary phthalate metabolites and depressive symptoms and their gender differences, and further explore the moderating role of insomnia in this association.

METHODS

A total of 1 179 college students were recruited from 2 universities in Hefei and Shangrao cities from April to May 2019. The depressive symptoms and insomnia of college students were investigated by the Patient Health Questionnaire 9 and Insomnia Severity Index. The high-performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry was adapted to determine the concentration of urinary phthalate metabolites. The generalized linear model was used to analyze the relationship of phthalate metabolites with depressive symptoms. Moderating analysis was used to examine whether insomnia moderated the relationship of phthalate metabolites with depressive symptoms.

RESULTS

The rates of mild depression, and moderate depression and above in college students were 31.9% and 9.2%, respectively. The phthalate metabolites exhibited a median and mean concentration spanning from 2.98 ∼ 156.55 ng/mL and 6.12 ∼ 205.53 ng/mL. The generalized linear model results showed that monobutyl phthalate (MBP) (β = 1.160, 95%CI: 0.423 ∼ 1.896) and low molecular weight phthalate (LMWP) (β = 1.230, 95%CI: 0.348 ∼ 2.113) were positively correlated with depressive symptoms, and MBP (β = 1.320, 95%CI: 0.453 ∼ 2.187) and LMWP (β = 1.396, 95%CI: 0.351 ∼ 2.440) were positively correlated with depressive symptoms only in female college students after stratified by gender. Furthermore, insomnia has a positive moderating role between MBP, LMWP, and depressive symptoms and has a sex-based difference.

CONCLUSIONS

This study suggests that there is a positive association of phthalate metabolites with depressive symptoms among Chinese college students, as well as insomnia plays a positive moderating role in this association.

Antiaging Potential of Lipophilic Extracts of Caulerpa prolifera

The cosmeceutical industry has increasingly turned its attention to marine macroalgae, recognizing their significant bioactive potential as sources of natural compounds for skincare applications. A growing number of products now incorporate extracts or isolated compounds from various macroalgae species. However, many species remain underexplored, highlighting a valuable opportunity for further research. Among these, Caulerpa prolifera (Forsskål) J.V. Lamouroux has emerged as a promising candidate for cosmeceutical applications. This study provides the most comprehensive phytochemical assessment of C. prolifera to date, revealing its potential as a source of bioactive extracts and compounds. The analysis identified key components of its lipophilic profile, predominantly saturated and unsaturated fatty acids, alongside di-(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate-an endocrine disruptor potentially biosynthesized or bioaccumulated by the algae. While the crude extract exhibited moderate tyrosinase inhibitory activity, its overall antioxidant capacity was limited. Fractionation of the extract, however, yielded subfractions with distinct bioactivities linked to changes in chemical composition. Notably, enhanced inhibitory activities against elastase and collagenase were observed in subfractions enriched with 1-octadecanol and only traces of phthalate. Conversely, antioxidant activity diminished with the loss of specific compounds such as β-sitosterol, erucic acid, nervonic acid, and lignoceric acid. This work advances the understanding of the relationship between the chemical composition of C. prolifera and its bioactivities, emphasizing its potential as a source of cosmeceutical ingredients, leading to a more comprehensive valorization of this macroalga.

Toxic Effects of Exposure to Phthalates on Cardiac Injury Biomarkers: Evidence from NHANES 1999-2004

Background: Humans are consistently and increasingly exposed to phthalate products, but the effect of the combined exposure to phthalates on myocardial injury remains largely unexplored. The present study aimed to explore the effect of the combined exposure to phthalates on myocardial injury. Methods: A total of 1237 male adults (aged ≥20) without coronary artery disease (CAD) from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) in 1999-2004 were included in the current study. Multiple linear regression, Bayesian kernel machine regression (BKMR), and a weighted quantile sum (WQS) model were employed to examine the associations of urinary phthalate metabolites with two cardiac injury biomarkers, including troponin T (TNT) and troponin I, using four highly sensitive assays (Abbott, Chicago, IL, USA; Siemens, Erlangen, Germany; and Ortho, Raritan, NJ, USA) (TNIA, TNIS, TNIO). Results: According to the linear regression analysis, mono-(3-carboxypropyl) phthalate (MCPP, a metabolite of di-n-octyl phthalate) was found to be positively associated with serum TNT; a positive association was found between mono-isobutyl phthalate (MiBP, a metabolite of di-isobutyl phthalate) and TNIA, as well as MiBP and TNIS. Mono-benzyl phthalate (MBzP, a metabolite of butyl benzyl phthalate) and MCPP were positively associated with serum TNIO. The BKMR analyses showed a positive overall relationship of serum TNT, TNIA, TNIS, and TNIO with increased concentrations of phthalate metabolites. The WQS model showed MCPP and MBzP were the top two contributors to being an increased risk for elevated TNT levels. MCPP and mono-ethyl phthalate (MEP, a metabolite of diethyl phthalate) were identified as the leading contributors to increased TNIA and TNIS. MCPP and MBzP were the dominant contributors to elevated TNIO. Conclusions: As a combined mixture, phthalate metabolites were positively associated with serum TNT and TNI among adults without CAD, indicating the potential toxic effect of phthalate exposure on cardiac injury.

Unraveling the levels of emerging contaminants along the eastern Mediterranean Sea

The Eastern Mediterranean Sea, rich in environmental and cultural heritage, faces increasing threats from emerging contaminants like toxic metals and phthalates. This study evaluates their occurrence across 40 Lebanese Mediterranean coastal hotspots using advanced techniques such as Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometry (ICP-MS), X-ray Fluorescence Spectroscopy (XRF) and Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry (GC-MS). Widespread contamination was detected in both water and sediments near landfills, sewage discharges, and industrial areas. Metal concentrations varied, with chromium (Cr) reaching 20.3 µg/L, arsenic (As) 12.1 µg/L, and lead (Pb) 30.6 µg/L, indicating pollution from urban and industrial activities. Manganese (Mn) and zinc (Zn) were within safe limits, while selenium (Se) and arsenic posed ecological risks. Among 13 phthalates, diethylhexyl phthalate (DEHP) was the most prevalent, ranging from 15.57 to 72.88 µg/L. Sediments showed elevated calcium, strontium, and barium levels, exceeding safety thresholds. Statistical analysis revealed correlations between contaminants and spatial variability driven by industrial, agricultural, and urban activities. These findings highlight the need for proper regulations and routine monitoring to protect marine ecosystems and public health.

Association between phthalate exposure and rash eczema disease: based on NHANES 2005-2006

Phthalates are commonly found in plastic products, personal care products, and food packaging. In recent years, the relationship between phthalates and skin diseases such as eczema has been gaining attention. As endocrine disruptors, phthalates may increase the risk of eczema by affecting the immune system or skin barrier function. This study used a cross-sectional design based on data from the 2005-2006 National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey to assess the association between phthalate exposure and eczema in adults using generalized linear models, restricted cubic spline plots and weighted quantile sum regression. Eczema diagnosis was determined by participants' self-report of whether they had ever been diagnosed with eczema by doctors. Phthalate exposure was assessed by urinary concentrations of phthalates. A total of 1203 subjects, aged 18 years and over, were recruited for the study, comprising 627 males and 576 females. We found that females had significantly higher phthalate exposure concentrations than males. There was a significant positive correlation between monoisononyl phthalate (MiNP) and eczema. Mixture analysis similarly found a positive correlation between phthalates and rash eczema, and MiNP was the main contributor. Further sex-stratified analyses showed that this association occurred predominantly in females, while no significant association was found in the male population. Phthalates may have adverse effects on skin health, particularly in women. Future studies should further investigate the mechanisms of this association and focus on other types of phthalates and their effects on skin health.

Diisononyl phthalate down-regulates the expression of antioxidant genes NFE2L2, TXN, and TXNRD2, while diethyl-hexyl terephthalate up-regulates their expression including SOD-1

Phthalates, widely utilised as plasticisers to enhance the flexibility of rigid materials like polyvinyl chloride, are known for their endocrine-disrupting properties and cytotoxic effects.This study investigated the impact of Diisononyl phthalate (DINP) and Diethyl-hexyl terephthalate (DEHT) on human endothelial cells (EA.hy926).The assessment focused on cell viability, reactive oxygen species (ROS) production, and the antioxidant-responsive genes expression (NFE2L2, SOD1, TXN, and TXNRD2) following exposure to varying 1, 10, and 100 µg/mL of DINP or DEHT.Cell viability was determined using MTT and lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) release assays. ROS were measured using the DCFDA assay.Gene expression analysis was conducted via qRT-PCR after 48 h of exposure. Results revealed that DINP 100 µg/mL significantly reduced cell viability at 11 and 17% at 48 and 72 h, respectively, whereas increased LDH release by 69% at 48 h. ROS levels also rose by 19-30%, accompanied by down-regulation of NFE2L2, TXN, and TXNRD2.Conversely, DEHT had no adverse effect on cell viability or LDH levels but elevated ROS production (11-14%) and induced up-regulation of antioxidant genes, including SOD1.The findings indicate that DINP exposure could negatively affect the cellular antioxidant response, whereas DEHT leads to up-regulation of antioxidant genes without detrimental effects on viability.

Urinary phthalate metabolites associated with increased prevalence of gallstone disease in U.S. adults: data from the NHANES study

BACKGROUND

Phthalate exposure has been hypothesized to influence cholesterol metabolism and gallstone pathogenesis, but previous studies are limited. We aimed to examine the associations between urinary phthalate metabolites and prevalence of gallstone disease in a nationally representative sample.

METHODS

We analyzed data on 1,696 adults aged ≥ 30 years from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) 2017-2018. Gallstone disease was defined based on self-reported physician-diagnosis. Exposure was measured by urinary concentrations of 10 phthalate metabolites. Multivariable logistic regression model was to assess individual exposure-effect associations. Weighted quantile sum (WQS) regression, Quantile g-computation (Qgcomp) analysis and Bayesian kernel machine regression (BKMR) assessed metabolite mixtures in relation to gallstones.

RESULTS

In the multivariable logistic regression model, compared to the lowest quartile (Q1) of urinary mono (2-ethyl-5-carboxypentyl) phthalate (MECPP), the highest quartile (Q4) was associated with an 82% increased risk of gallstone formation (OR: 1.82, 95% CI: 1.17, 2.85). Similarly, for mono(3-carboxypropyl) phthalate (MCPP), the risk increased by 78% in the Q4 group compared to Q1 (OR: 1.78, 95% CI: 1.02, 3.14). The WQS index exhibited a significant positive association with gallstone prevalence (OR: 1.37, 95%CI: 1.02, 1.84). In the Qgcomp model, four urinary phthalate metabolites, including MECPP, MCPP, mono benzyl phthalate (MBzP) and mono-carboxynonyl phthalate (MCNP), were positively associated with an increased risk of gallstones. BKMR identified exposure-response trends for MECPP, MCPP, and MBzP.

CONCLUSION

Higher urinary phthalate metabolite concentrations were associated with increased gallstone risk. These novel findings suggest phthalate exposure may contribute to lithogenic pathogenesis. Future prospective and mechanistic research is warranted.

Polyvinyl chloride (PVC), its additives, microplastic and human health: Unresolved and emerging issues

Polyvinyl chloride (PVC), a commonly used plastic across Europe, poses a number of risks at various stages of its life cycle. The carcinogenicity of PVC monomer, the need to use high number and volume of problematic additives, the easiness of fragmentation compared to other thermoplastics, the high volume of use in everyday products and the resulting extent to which European population is potentially exposed to both microplastics and chemicals and, finally, continuous problems during waste management, have raised concerns about impacts of PVC on human health and the environment for decades. As far back as in 2000, the European Commission recognized that PVC causes a wide range of serious problems for the environment and human health. More recently, in April 2022, PVC and its additives were included in the European Union's Restrictions Roadmap, and the European Chemicals Agency's investigation ruled that, to limit the use of some additives and to minimize releases of PVC microparticles, regulatory action would be necessary. Additionally, the Global Plastics Treaty discussions emphasise a need to ensure that plastics that remain in the economy are free of hazardous chemicals, including hazardous polymers. In this paper, we reviewed the available data on PVC microplastic, additives, the end of life options of products made of PVC, and how they all are connected. It is crucial to consider this polymer within the broader context of chemical pollution and circular economy, acknowledging that changes in how we manage our resources are necessary to achieve the goal for a truly non-toxic environment in the future.

A critical review of wastewater-based epidemiology as a tool to evaluate the unintentional human exposure to potentially harmful chemicals

Wastewater-based epidemiology (WBE) is a powerful tool to gather epidemiological insights at the community level, providing objective data on population exposure to harmful substances. A considerable portion of the human exposure to these potentially harmful chemicals occurs unintentionally, unlike substances such as pharmaceuticals, illicit drugs, or alcohol. In this context, this comprehensive review analyzes WBE studies focused on classes of organic chemicals to which humans are unintentionally exposed, namely organophosphorus flame retardants, per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS), benzotriazoles and benzothiazoles, phthalates and terephthalates, benzophenones, pesticides, bisphenols, and parabens. The review highlights some advantages of WBE for public health surveillance, e.g., non-invasive analysis, predictive capability, nearly real-time data, population-wide insights, no ethical approval, and unbiased sampling. It also discusses challenges and future research directions in WBE regarding exposure to harmful chemicals from various sources. The review emphasizes the critical role of wastewater sampling, sample preparation, quality control, and instrumental analysis in achieving accurate and reliable results. Furthermore, it examines the selection of human biomarkers for WBE studies and explores strategies to link WBE with human biomonitoring (HBM), which together enhance both the precision and effectiveness of exposure assessments.

Thyroid hormones and oxidative stress moderated the association between urinary phthalate metabolites and cardiovascular risk factors

While previous studies suggested that phthalate exposure poses a risk to cardiovascular health, the results are mixed and indicated variability based on population characteristics and health outcomes assessed. Research that simultaneously investigates the association between urinary phthalate metabolites and multiple cardiovascular risk factors within a single study is relatively scarce. This study assessed human exposure to phthalates by determining urinary metabolite concentrations, and applied multiple statistical techniques to systematically evaluate the individual dose-response relationships and joint effects of phthalate exposure on blood lipids, blood pressure, and fasting blood glucose. The results revealed significant negative associations between urinary phthalate metabolites and low-density lipoprotein cholesterol, triglycerides, total cholesterol, diastolic blood pressure, systolic blood pressure, and fasting blood glucose. Significant nonlinear associations were obtained between specific individual metabolites and diastolic blood pressure. The oxidative stress biomarker 8-hydroxydeoxyguanosine levels in urine and thyroid hormone levels in paired serum were measured simultaneously. Then, we examined the indirect roles of thyroid hormones and oxidative stress in the association between urinary phthalate metabolites and cardiovascular risk factors by mediation and moderation analysis. While the mediation effect was not statistically significant, the negative associations of urinary phthalate metabolites with fasting blood glucose, triglyceride, and lipoprotein cholesterol were statistically significant at lower levels of thyroid hormones by moderation analysis. The association was also significant under certain levels of oxidative stress. The results demonstrated that phthalate exposure is associated with several cardiovascular risk factors, and maintaining appropriate oxidative stress levels and ensuring sufficient thyroid hormone levels may attenuate these associations.

Prenatal co-exposure to phthalate metabolites and bisphenols among non-syndromic cleft lip and/or palate in offspring

Phthalate metabolites and bisphenols can cause adverse pregnancy outcomes. However, there is no study to evaluate the associations of prenatal exposure to phthalate metabolites and bisphenols with non-syndromic cleft lip and/or palate (NSCL/P) risk in offspring. A population-based case-control study was conducted in a multicenter setting from 2005 to 2021, enrolling 448 pregnant women. Seven phthalate metabolites and six bisphenols were quantified in placenta using liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. In the logistic regression analysis, high levels of mono-ethyl phthalate, mono-cyclohexyl phthalate, mono-octyl phthalate, bisphenol A, bisphenol AF, bisphenol AP, and fluorene-9-bisphenol were associated with increased NSCL/P risk with odds ratios (95% confidence intervals) of 1.86(1.07,3.25), 6.56(3.47,12.39), 8.49(4.44,16.24), 8.34(4.32,16.08), 3.19(1.81,5.62), 2.78(1.59,4.86), and 5.16(2.82,9.44). The Bayesian kernel machine regression model revealed that co-exposure to phthalate metabolites and bisphenols was associated with increased NSCL/P risk. Similarly, quantile-based g-computation analysis indicated that each quantile increase in mixture concentration was positively related to higher risk for NSCL/P [odds ratio (95% confidence interval) = 2.98(1.97,4.51)]. This study provides novel evidence that prenatal single and co-exposure to phthalate metabolites and bisphenols were associated with increased NSCL/P risk, suggesting that exposure to phthalate metabolites and bisphenols during pregnancy should be minimized to reduce the incidence of NSCL/P in offspring.

Biochar amendment affects the fate of phthalic acid esters in the soil-vegetable system

Phthalates, e.g., esters of phthalic acid (PAEs), when used as plasticizers due to weak physical bonding with polymer matrix favoring leaching, are widely noted in the environment. Their confirmed toxicity to plants and animals implies that their fate should be monitored in the environment, especially when considering the interaction between soil and vegetables. Removal of PAEs from the environment or limiting their bioavailability is a key point in reducing their harmful effects. In the present paper, the fate of six PAEs in the biochar-amended soil during the cultivation of two popular vegetables, lettuce, and radish, was estimated. High bioaccumulation in the soil was noted with the biochar obtained from residues from biogas production being up to 15% higher than in the case of the other biochar and up to 10 times higher than in plants due to increased basic character of biochar. This biochar reduced the bioavailability of DEP (diethyl phthalate), DBP (dibutyl phthalate), BBP (butyl benzyl phthalate), and DNOP (di-n-octyl phthalate) in radish roots and DBP in lettuce leaves. However, PAEs significantly increased the fresh mass of radish and slightly increased the mass of lettuce. All six tested PAEs in both plants reached higher concentrations in the leaves (up to two orders of magnitude) than in the roots. Additionally, PAEs were present in two times higher concentrations in the lettuce than in the radish. The biochar aromaticity, porosity, and the presence of organic carbon and inorganics (ash) affect the fate of tested pollutants depending on the tested plant and compound.

Assessing male reproductive toxicity of environmental pollutant di-ethylhexyl phthalate with network toxicology and molecular docking strategy

Environmental pollutants, especially endocrine-disrupting chemicals (EDCs) like di-ethylhexyl phthalate (DEHP), pose serious threats to human health, with DEHP widely implicated in male reproductive toxicity. However, the complex molecular interactions remain unknown. We employed a network toxicology approach combined with molecular docking analysis to identify potential targets and mechanisms of DEHP's toxic effects. Databases such as ChEMBL, STITCH, OMIM, and GeneCards were utilized to gather data, and Cytoscape software was used to construct protein-protein interaction networks. A total of 51 potential targets were identified, with eight core targets, including PTGS2, CASP3, and ESR1, highlighted for their roles in oxidative stress, apoptosis, and hormonal dysregulation. KEGG pathway enrichment analysis revealed significant associations with pathways in cancer, cytokine-mediated signaling, and the hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal axis. Additionally, gene expression datasets from the Gene Expression Omnibus (GEO) database were analyzed to identify differentially expressed genes overlapped with DEHP targets in testicular diseases. Molecular docking results confirmed strong binding affinities between DEHP and the core target proteins, suggesting a robust interaction mechanism. This study underscores the need for further investigation into DEHP's toxic mechanisms and its combined effects with other environmental pollutants, paving the way for comprehensive risk assessments and the development of targeted intervention strategies.

Association between phthalates exposure and all-cause mortality among diabetic cases: A prospective study

The aim of this study was to explore the association between phthalates (PAEs) exposure and all-cause mortality among diabetic cases, and potential molecular mechanisms of the effect. We followed 2806 diabetes cases from 2008 to the end of 2018 based on the Dongfeng-Tongji study, of which 446 cases died. We measured serum levels of six PAEs (DMP, DEP, DiBP, DnBP, BBP, and DEHP). Cox models were used to investigate the associations between PAEs and all-cause mortality. Genes related to PAEs are obtained from the Comparative Toxicogenomics Database. We constructed polygenic scores for sex hormone-binding globulin (SHBG) and testosterone, and functional SNPs for IL-6, PPARG, and GPX1 from genotyping data, and further analyzed the environment-gene interactions. The positive associations of PAEs (DMP, DiBP, DnBP, DEHP) with mortality were only observed in males but not in females. Comparing with the extreme quartile 1, the HRs (95% CI) for quartile 4 were 1.63 (0.17, 2.26) for DMP, 1.82 (1.29, 2.56) for DiBP, 1.68 (1.18, 2.40) for DnBP, 1.66 (1.17, 2.36) for DEHP. Enrichment analysis showed that PAEs-related genes were mainly associated with hormones and IL-6-related pathways. Genetic variants of SHBG, testosterone, and IL-6 modified the association between PAEs mixture and all-cause mortality. PAEs exposure are associated with all-cause mortality among diabetic cases, and PAE exposure increases the risk of all-cause mortality only in males. Effects on the hormonal system and IL6-related pathways may be potential mechanisms.

Characterization and mechanism of phthalic acid esters bioaccumulation in dominant mangrove fish at different habitats in the mangrove ecosystem of Dongzhai Harbor, China

With the wide application of phthalic acid esters (PAEs) in the manufacturing of plastic products, a large number of PAEs were discharged into marine ecosystem and accumulated in fish, which has posed a serious threat to marine ecological environment and fishery resources. However, the bioaccumulation of PAEs in fish in mangrove ecosystem, the most productive marine ecosystem, has not been well characterized. In this study, dominant fish and their potential food sources (including particulate organic matter (POM), sedimentary organic matter (SOM), Metapenaeus ensis (Shrimp) and Oreochromis (Ore) were collected from Dongzhai Harbor, a typical mangrove ecosystem. The concentrations of nine PAEs in fish and their potential food sources were determined. Then stable nitrogen and carbon isotope analysis, combined with a new Bayesian mixing model (MixSIMMR) was used to quantify the diet compositions of fish and elucidate the effect of dietary habit on PAEs bioaccumulation in fish. The results indicated that the median concentration of ∑9PAEs in fish was 1119 μg/kg ww, positioning it at a moderate to low level in comparison to other regions. di-n-butyl phthalate (DBP) and diisononyl ortho-phthalate (DINP) were the dominant PAEs in fish. The PAEs concentration in demersal fish was significantly higher than that of pelagic fish, which may be attributed to the substantial contributions of shrimp (28.5 %) and POM (25.3 %) to the diet of demersal fish. This study provided new insights on the bioaccumulation of PAEs in dominant mangrove fish and confirmed that habitat preferences and food sources could significantly influence the bioaccumulation of PAEs in fish.

Combined effects and potential mechanisms of phthalate metabolites on serum sex hormones among reproductive-aged women: An integrated epidemiology and computational toxicology study

The reproductive age is a crucial stage for women to bear offspring. However, reproductive-aged women are simultaneously exposed to various phthalates, which may pose a threat to their reproductive health. This study employed generalized linear regression and weighted quantile sum (WQS) regression to explore the associations between monoesters of phthalates (MPAEs) and sex hormones in 913 reproductive-aged women in the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey. Key risk factors driving hormone disruption were identified based on the weights of the WQS models. Interaction models were used to unravel the synergistic or antagonistic effects between MPAEs. The potential toxicological targets of MPAEs interfering with sex hormone-binding globulin (SHBG) levels were revealed based on prior knowledge and molecular docking of hepatocyte nuclear factor 4α (HNF4α). Compared with the first quartile, mono-benzyl phthalate (MBZP) in the second quartile exhibited a decrease in total testosterone (TT) and TT/E2 (estradiol) ratio. Mono-2-ethyl-5-carboxypentyl phthalate (MECPP) in the fourth quartile showed a decrease in SHBG and TT/E2. Additionally, mono-(carboxyoctyl) phthalate and mono-(carboxynonyl) phthalate (MCNP) were negatively associated with SHBG. Each unit increase in the WQS index of MPAE mixtures was associated with 6.73 % lower SHBG levels (95 %CI: -12.80 %, -0.24 %) with mono-(3-carboxypropyl) phthalate, MCNP, MBZP, and MECPP identified as major risk factors. Interaction analyses revealed that the effects of high-risk MPAEs on SHBG were predominantly antagonistic. Molecular docking suggested that MPAEs might compete to bind tryptophan residues of HNF4α. This study provides key information to help develop the most effective phthalate interventions and improve the reproductive health of reproductive-aged women.

Reducing Exposures to Endocrine Disruptors (REED) study, a personalized at-home intervention program to reduce exposure to endocrine disrupting chemicals among a child-bearing age cohort: study protocol for a randomized controlled trial

BACKGROUND

Exposures to endocrine disrupting chemicals (EDCs) have been linked to chronic diseases including breast cancer, metabolic syndrome, diabetes, and infertility. Exposure during pregnancy may have a lifelong impact on the fetus. Services are needed to allow individuals to learn about their personal EDC exposures and how to reduce them. Million Marker (MM) aims to crowdsource and scale the biomonitoring of environmental chemicals and provide actionable results to empower individuals to proactively assess, track, and reduce their EDC exposures. In previous research, we developed and tested the first mobile EDC intervention service (mail-in urine testing and exposure report-back) for its efficacy in increasing EH literacy (EHL), willingness to reduce exposures (i.e., readiness to change, RtC), and system usability. After intervention, we found increased EHL, increased RtC in women (but not men), and decreased EDC exposure. However, some participants did not increase their RtC and had difficulty carrying out the intervention on their own. The reasons for these less optimal results were the difficulty in the EHL subject matter-participants still felt ill-prepared to apply their knowledge to making healthier lifestyle changes. Therefore, in this study, we will address these perceived limitations.

METHODS

We will test a self-directed online interactive curriculum with live counseling sessions and individualized support modeled after the highly effective Diabetes Prevention Program (DPP). Recruiting from the Healthy Nevada Project (HNP), one of the largest population health cohorts in the world, we test the effectiveness of our EDC-specific online intervention curriculum via EHL and RtC surveys and determine changes in EDC exposure before and after intervention in a randomized controlled trial. We will also test for common clinical biomarkers via a commercially available at-home test (Siphox). We will recruit and randomize 300 women and 300 men of reproductive age (total n=600) from HNP. Our target population is men and women of reproductive age (18-44 years old).

DISCUSSION

At the conclusion of this project, we will be well-positioned to scale our services to clinics and the general public, with the eventual aims of FDA approval, insurance coverage, and incorporation into routine clinical care.

Phthalate exposure increases oxidative stress, early renal injury, and the risk of calcium urolithiasis: A case-control study

BACKGROUND

Phthalates, ubiquitous in plastics and softening agents, are pervasive in our daily environment. Growing concerns have emerged regarding their potential impact on renal health, particularly due to their propensity to induce oxidative stress. However, the relationship between phthalate exposure and urolithiasis remains poorly understood. This research seeks to explore the connection between phthalate exposure, oxidative stress, and the risk of urolithiasis.

METHODS

A case-control study involving 285 patients diagnosed with calcium urolithiasis and 594 healthy controls was conducted. Participants completed structured questionnaires and provided urine samples for measuring 10 phthalate metabolites, biomarkers of oxidative stress (malondialdehyde [MDA]) and early renal injury (N-acetyl-beta-D-glucosaminidase [NAG] and albumin/creatinine ratio [ACR]). For subsequent analyses, we utilized distinct categories: the sum of high-molecular-weight phthalate metabolites (∑HMWm), the sum of low-molecular-weight phthalate metabolites (∑LMWm), and the daily intake of di-2-ethylhexyl phthalate (DEHP)(DI_DEHP_5).

RESULTS

Stone patients exhibited significantly elevated urinary biomarkers of oxidative stress (MDA) and early renal injury (NAG and ACR), along with higher levels of 9 out of 10 assessed phthalate metabolites compared to normal controls. Within the study population, significant positive associations were found between almost all individual phthalate metabolites and urinary biomarkers of oxidative stress (MDA) as well as early renal injury (NAG and ACR). Logistic regression further confirmed that elevated phthalate levels, including ∑HMWm, ∑LMWm, and DI_DEHP_5, were uniformly associated with an increased risk of oxidative stress, early renal injury, and urolithiasis after adjusting for confounding factors.

CONCLUSIONS

Our study uncovers a novel association between phthalate exposure and the risk of urolithiasis, underscoring the heightened risk of kidney injury posed by such exposure. Considering the widespread presence of phthalates, regulatory measures and public health interventions are crucial to mitigate phthalate-related nephrotoxicity, while further large-scale longitudinal research is imperative to validate our initial findings and elucidate the underlying mechanisms.

Which emerging micropollutants deserve more attention in wastewater in the post-COVID-19 pandemic period? Based on distribution, risk, and exposure analysis

Aggravated accumulation of emerging micropollutants (EMs) in aquatic environments, especially after COVID-19, raised significant attention throughout the world for safety concerns. This article reviews the sources and occurrence of 25 anti-COVID-19 related EMs in wastewater. It should be pointed out that the concentration of anti-COVID-19 related EMs, such as antivirals, plasticizers, antimicrobials, and psychotropic drugs in wastewater increased notably after the pandemic. Furthermore, the ecotoxicity, ecological, and health risks of typical EMs before and after COVID-19 were emphatically compared and analyzed. Based on the environmental health prioritization index method, the priority control sequence of typical EMs related to anti-COVID-19 was identified. Lopinavir (LPV), venlafaxine (VLX), di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP), benzalkonium chloride (BAC), triclocarban (TCC), di-n-butyl phthalate (DBP), citalopram (CIT), diisobutyl phthalate (DIBP), and triclosan (TCS) were identified as the top-priority control EMs in the post-pandemic period. Besides, some insights into the toxicity and risk assessment of EMs were also provided. This review provides direction for proper understanding and controlling the EMs pollution after COVID-19, and is of significance to evaluate objectively the environmental and health impacts induced by COVID-19.

Preparation of novel magnetic ethylene glycol dimethacrylate-based molecularly imprinted polymer for rapid adsorption of phthalate esters from ethanol aqueous solution

Phthalate esters (PAEs), as emerging pollutants, pose a serious threat to human health and have become a major concern in the fields of environmental protection and food safety. Selective adsorption using molecularly imprinted polymer (MIP) is feasible, but most MIPs use the potentially toxic methacrylic acid (MAA) as a functional monomer, along with other crosslinking agents. In this study, MIP adsorbent was prepared using only ethylene glycol dimethacrylate (EGDMA) as both the functional monomer and crosslinking agent, without the inclusion of MAA. The adsorbent was utilized for the adsorption of PAEs from an ethanol aqueous solution. The results showed that EGDMA-based MIP (EMIP) achieved better adsorption performance of PAEs than MAA-based MIP (MMIP) due to more interactions of EGDMA with PAEs than MAA with them. For the adsorption of dibutyl phthalate (DBP) using EMIP, 95% of the equilibrium adsorption capacity was achieved within the first 15 min. In the isotherm analysis, the theoretical maximum adsorption capacity of EMIP was obtained as high as 159.24 mg/g at 20 °C in an ethanol (10 v%) aqueous solution. Furthermore, the adsorption of EMIP was not affected by the pH of the solution. The adsorption process of EMIP followed the pseudo-second-order kinetic and Freundlich isotherm model. Ethanol had a significant impact on the adsorption of DBP, and the results of molecular simulation could validate this. In addition, the regeneration experiments indicated that EMIP could be recycled 5 times without significant performance change and had a high recovery efficiency of 94.55%.

Toxic effects of DEHP and MEHP on gut-liver axis in rats via intestinal flora and metabolomics

Di (2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP) is an environmental endocrine disruptor and commonly used as a plasticizer. Exposure to DEHP and its active metabolite mono-2-ethylhexyl phthalate (MEHP) can lead to adverse health consequences; however, the toxic mechanism is remains unclear. In this research, male and female rats were exposed to DEHP and MEHP by oral gavage for 60 consecutive days. Pathological analysis revealed that DEHP and MEHP exposure could affect liver, heart, kidney, and testis tissues, as well as alter biochemical indicators. Metagenomics (16S rRNA gene sequencing) analysis indicated that DEHP and MEHP could reduce the diversity and alter the composition of the gut microbiota. Toxic exposure also affected the levels of short chain fatty acids (SCFAs), with noticeable variations between genders. Metabolomic analysis revealed that DEHP and MEHP could influence bile acids, amino acids, hormones, and lipids. These results demonstrate that exposure to DEHP and MEHP can induce toxicity in rats via the gut-liver axis.

Management of phthalates in Canada and beyond: can we do better to protect human health?

Ortho-phthalates (herein referred to as phthalates) are synthetic chemicals used in thousands of different everyday products and materials. Nearly ubiquitous environmental exposure is reflected by phthalate metabolites in the urine of almost all Canadians. However, phthalate exposure tends to be higher amongst people of low socioeconomic status and ethnic minorities. Substantial evidence shows that certain phthalates cause harm to human health, particularly developing fetuses and children. Governments vary in their approach to assessing and managing risks associated with phthalates. Canada continues to take a more permissive stance on phthalate regulations compared to the EU and some US states. We argue that the recent Canadian national risk assessment on phthalates does not appropriately reflect the growing evidence demonstrating harm to human health from phthalate exposure and does not adequately consider the evidence showing higher exposures faced by vulnerable populations. Canadians would benefit from adopting a more stringent regulatory approach to phthalates. Specifically, Canada should expand phthalate restrictions to apply to all consumer products, implement sunset dates toward eliminating the use of existing phthalates, and mandate publicly available evidence of no harm for phthalate alternatives. Canadian alignment on phthalate regulations with the EU and a growing number of US states could encourage other countries to follow suit.

Bacterial Catabolism of Phthalates With Estrogenic Activity Used as Plasticisers in the Manufacture of Plastic Products

Phthalic acid esters (PAEs), the pervasive and ubiquitous endocrine-disrupting chemicals of environmental concern, generated annually on a million-ton scale, are primarily employed as plasticisers in the production of a variety of plastic products and as additives in a large number of commercial supplies. The increased awareness of various adverse effects on the ecosystem and human health including reproductive and developmental disorders has led to a striking increase in research interest aimed at managing these man-made oestrogenic chemicals. In these circumstances, microbial metabolism appeared as the major realistic process to neutralise the toxic burdens of PAEs in an ecologically accepted manner. Among a wide variety of microbial species capable of degrading/transforming PAEs reported so far, bacteria-mediated degradation has been studied most extensively. The main purpose of this review is to provide current knowledge of metabolic imprints of microbial degradation/transformation of PAEs, a co-contaminant of plastic pollution. In addition, this communication illustrates the recent advancement of the structure-functional aspects of the key metabolic enzyme phthalate hydrolase, their inducible regulation of gene expression and evolutionary relatedness, besides prioritising future research needs to facilitate the development of new insights into the bioremediation of PAE in the environment.

Exposure to phthalate plasticizer compromises normal brain function in an adult vertebrate

Phthalates are key additives in many plastic products and among the most frequently used plasticizers. The release of some of them into the environment has been shown to have serious effects on development and reproduction. Based on such effects, diisononyl phthalate (DINP) has been advocated as a safer alternative to di-2-ethylhexyl phthalate (DEHP). Recently, it has been suggested that DEHP may affect the vertebrate blood-brain barrier. This could have serious consequences not only for the developing, but also for the adult brain. Here we tested for such impact on neuronal function and demonstrate acute exposure effects of both plasticizers on fundamental aspects of brain function in an adult vertebrate. We used the Mauthner neuron in the hindbrain of fish and its diverse inputs from various sensory systems as a model. After exposing intact goldfish to environmentally relevant plasticizer concentration (either 100 µg L-1, or 10 µg L-1), we show from in vivo intracellular recording that one month of environmental exposure to DEHP or DINP affected the sensory input to this central neuron, offset the balance between excitation and inhibition, and reduced its conduction speed by 20 %. The effects of both plasticizers were strong even at the concentration of 10 µg L-1. In an adult vertebrate, our findings thus demonstrate a previously neglected high sensitivity of various crucial brain functions to the acute exposure to phthalates.

Environmental endocrine disrupting chemical-DEHP exposure-provoked biotoxicity about microbiota-gut-mammary axis in lactating mice via multi-omics technologies

Plastics, pervasive in humans and nature, often contain Di (2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP) that enhance plastic's elasticity. However, DEHP is an environmental endocrine disruptor, affecting organisms upon exposure. Understanding mammary gland development in lactating females is crucial for offspring nourishment and dairy production. Employing multi-omics technology, this study aimed to uncover DEHP's impact on the microbial-gut-mammary axis. Forty mice were exposed to varying DEHP doses for 18 d. We performed 16S sequencing, metabolomics, mammary tissue observation, and gene expression profiling. Results revealed DEHP's influence on microbial diversity, with increased Lactobacillus abundance and reduced Proteobacteria, alongside colonic inflammation. Elevated GMP and adenosine 5'-monophosphate levels in the bloodstream were noted, while ascorbic acid, glycitein, and others decreased. MEHP, a DEHP metabolite, damaged mammary tissues, inhibiting ERK1/2 phosphorylation, triggering apoptosis and ferroptosis. These findings unveil potential therapeutic targets for DEHP-induced chronic toxicity in humans and animals, aiding dairy livestock health and human well-being. This study underscores the importance of understanding the adverse effects of DEHP exposure on mammalian systems.

Levels, distribution, and health risk assessment of phthalic acid esters in urban surface soils of Nagpur city, India

Surface soil samples from residential, commercial, and industrial areas of Nagpur city, India, were collected to study the levels, distribution, and impact of land use patterns on phthalic acid ester (PAEs) contamination. The Σ6PAEs concentrations in soils from residential, commercial, and industrial areas ranged between 6,493 to 13,195 µg/kg, 707 to 18,446 µg/kg, and 1,882 to 5,004 µg/kg with medians of 10,399, 6,199, and 3,401 µg/kg, respectively. Bis-2-ethylhexyl phthalate (DEHP) and dimethyl phthalate (DMP) were the dominant PAEs in the urban soils. The concentrations of DEHP and DMP were significantly greater than those in Ontario's soil quality guidelines. Among the PAEs, benzyl-butyl phthalate (BzBP) was found at relatively high concentrations (1,238 and 9,171 µg/kg) at two locations (i.e., S1 and S15). The chronic toxic risk (CTR) of PAEs was below the threshold, although the risk to children through ingestion and dermal exposure routes was greater than that to adults. The CR due to BzBP and DEHP were below the threshold level; however, the CR due to DMP was > 1 × 10-6 in residential areas. The cumulative CR of the six PAEs for adults (1.33-1.41 × 10-5) and children (8.08-8.89 × 10-6) surpassed the threshold level. This study revealed that PAEs in urban soils pose a risk to public health and require immediate risk reduction strategies.

Bioaccumulation Rate of Non-Biodegradable Polystyrene Microplastics in Human Epithelial Cell Lines

Environment plastic accumulation has been attracting the attention of both political and scientific communities, who wish to reduce global pollution. Plastic items have been detected everywhere, from oceans to the air, raising concerns about the fate of plastics within organisms. Leaked plastics are ingested by animals, entering the food chain and eventually reaching humans. Although a lot of studies focused on the evaluation of plastic particles in the environment and living organisms have already been published, the behavior of plastic at the cellular level is still missing. Here, we analyzed the bioaccumulation and extrusion trend of two differently sized plastic particles (1 and 2 µm), testing them on three human epithelial cell lines (liver, lung, and gut) that represent epithelial sites mainly exposed to plastic. A different behavior was detected, and the major plastic uptake was shown by liver cells, where the 1 µm beads accumulated with a dose-dependent profile. Moreover, a 60% reduction in the content of 1 µm particles in cells was evaluated after plastic removal. Finally, the viability and proliferation of the three human cell lines were not significantly affected by both the 1 and 2 µm beads, suggesting that cells might have a defense mechanism against plastic exposure risk.

Soft plastic fishing lures as a potential source of chemical pollution - Chemical analyses, toxicological relevance, and anglers' perspectives

Soft plastic lures (SPLs) are commonly used artificial lures in recreational angling. Anglers regularly lose SPLs while fishing and there is little knowledge about the environmental impacts of lost SPLs. As with other plastic items, SPLs contain phthalates and other persistent additives that may leach into water. In this study, 16 randomly chosen SPLs of common models were analyzed for the leaching of persistent, water-soluble plastic additives, including phthalates. The estrogenicity of sample extracts from a subsample of 10 SPLs was assessed using luciferase reporter gene bioassays. Over a period of 61 days, 10 of the 16 SPLs leached the targeted phthalates dimethyl phthalate (DMP), diethyl phthalate (DEP), benzyl butyl phthalate (BBP) and di-n-butyl phthalate (DnBP) at median detectable concentrations ranging from 10 ng/g sample BBP to a median of 1001 ng/g DMP as well as 45 persistent, mobile, and toxic (PMT) plastic additives. DEP was detected most frequently in 8 SPLs, followed by BBP (2 SPLs), DMP (2 SPLs) and DnBP (1 SPL). The extract from one SPL with comparatively low phthalate and PMT plastic additive levels was active in the bioassay, indicating high endocrine-disruptive potential, presumably due to unknown additives that were not among the target substances of the methodology used in this study. The study was supplemented by a mail survey among anglers, in which attitudes of anglers towards SPLs were investigated. The survey indicated that SPL loss is a common event during angling. Most participants were concerned about potential ecological impacts of SPLs, wanted the ingredients of SPLs to be labelled and supported legal restrictions concerning toxic ingredients of SPLs. The study shows that SPLs are a potential source of environmental pollution, may pose human health risks and need further investigation, considering the frequent use of SPLs in recreational angling.

Silicone wristbands reveal ubiquitous human exposure to ortho-phthalates and non-ortho-phthalate plasticizers in Southern California

In the United States and abroad, ortho-phthalates and non-ortho-phthalate plasticizers continue to be used within a diverse array of consumer products. Prior California-specific biomonitoring programs for ortho-phthalates have focused on rural, agricultural communities and, to our knowledge, these programs have not measured the potential for exposure to non-ortho-phthalate plasticizers. Therefore, the potential for human exposure to ortho-phthalates and non-ortho-phthalate plasticizers have not been adequately addressed in regions of California that have higher population density. Since there are numerous sources of ortho-phthalates and non-ortho-phthalate plasticizers in population-dense, urban regions, the objective of this study was to leverage silicone wristbands to quantify aggregate ortho-phthalate and non-ortho-phthalate plasticizer exposure over a 5-day period across two different cohorts (2019 and 2020) of undergraduate students at the University of California, Riverside (UCR) that commute from all over Southern California. Based on 5 d of aggregate exposure across two different cohorts, total ortho-phthalate plus non-ortho-phthalate plasticizer concentrations ranged, on average, from ∼100,000-1,000,000 ng/g. Based on the distribution of individual ortho-phthalate and non-ortho-phthalate plasticizer concentrations, the concentrations of di-isononyl phthalate (DiNP, a high molecular weight ortho-phthalate), di (2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP, a high molecular weight ortho-phthalate), and di-2-ethylhexyl terephthalate (DEHT, a non-ortho-phthalate plasticizer) detected within wristbands were higher than the remaining seven ortho-phthalates and non-ortho-phthalate plasticizers measured, accounting for approximately 94-97% of the total mass depending on the cohort. Overall, our findings raise concerns about chronic DiNP, DEHP, and DEHT exposure in urban, population-dense regions throughout California.

Longitudinal mass loads of phthalate esters in sewage sludge and their association with public health and social measures for COVID-19 control in Beijing

This study examines the concentrations and population-normalized mass loads (PNML) of five phthalate esters (PAEs) and four metabolites (mPAEs) in 390 sewage sludge samples collected from two municipal wastewater treatment plants in Beijing between July 2020 and June 2023, amidst the COVID-19 pandemic. Through GC/MS analysis, the compounds were simultaneously quantified, with peak concentrations in 2020. Bis(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP) and mono(2-ethyl-5-oxohexyl) phthalate emerged as predominant PAE and mPAE congeners with concentrations of 78.7 µg/g dw and 259 µg/g dw, respectively. DEHP and monobenzyl phthalate had the highest median PNML among PAEs and mPAEs, respectively, at 128 µg/inhabitant/day and 798 µg/inhabitant/day. Linear regression models revealed a positive association between PNML of PAEs and five public health and social measures aimed at mitigating the COVID-19 pandemic. This research contributes to the expanding body of literature by emphasizing the role of wastewater-based epidemiology as a vital tool for monitoring community-level exposure to environmental contaminants.

Thermo-Assisted Deep Eutectic Solvent Based on Dispersive Liquid-Liquid Microextraction for Preconcentration of Phthalate Esters in Water Samples and Determination by Gas Chromatography With Flame Ionization Detection

A thermo-assisted deep eutectic solvent (DES) based on dispersive liquid-liquid microextraction followed by gas chromatography with flame ionization detection was developed for the analysis of five phthalate esters in different water samples. In the procedure involved, a DES composed of lidocaine, an amphiphilic amine, and oleic acid, was mixed with the sample assisted by ultrasound, and phase separation was achieved with increasing temperature. The heating of the extraction system induced the change of acid-base properties of the DES components. Thus, the formation of microdroplets of DES in the sample was provided, and two phases were separated. The structure of the upper hydrophobic layer was characterized by Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy. Also, the amount of water in the DES phase was analyzed by mass spectrometer and Karl Fischer titration. Some critical variables on the extraction yield were assessed. The proposed method achieved 1.2-1.3 and 4.1-4.3 µg/L for limits of detection and limits of quantification, respectively. The intra-day and inter-day percentage relative standard deviations (n = 5) were determined to be in the range of 4.2-6.2% and 5.1-7.2%, respectively. Ultimately, this method analyzed the five phthalate esters in different water samples with high recoveries.