Implication of dietary phthalates in breast cancer. A systematic review

Structure-dependent degradation of phthalate esters with persulfate oxidation activated by thermal in soil

Phthalate esters (PAEs) have become one of the most concerned emerging organic pollutants in the world, due to the toxicity to human health, and hard to remove it efficiently. In this study, the degradation performance of DBP and DEHP in the soil by water bath heating activated sodium persulfate (PS) method under different factors were studied, in which the degradation rate of DBP and DEHP were improved with the increasing of temperature, PS concentration and water/soil ratio, and higher diffusion efficiency treatments methods, due to the improved mass transfer from organic phase to aqueous media. However, the degradation rate of DEHP was much lower than that of DBP, because DEHP in the soil was more difficult to contact with SO4•- for reaction on soil surface, and the degradation rate of PAEs in soil was significantly lower than that in water. Redundancy analysis of degradation rate of DBP and DEHP in water demonstrated that the key factors that determine the degradation rate is time for DBP, and cosolvent dosage for DEHP, indicating that the solubility and diffusion rate of PAEs from soil to aqueous are predominance function. This study provides comprehensive scenes in PAEs degradation with persulfate oxidation activated by thermal in soil, reveal the difference of degradation between DBP and DEHP is structure-dependent. So that we provide fundamental understanding and theoretical operation for subsequent filed treatment of various structural emerging pollutants PAEs contaminated soil with thermal activated persulfate.

Phthalate esters in clothing: A review

Phthalate esters (PAEs) are widely used as plasticizers to enhance the flexibility and durability of different consumer products, including clothing. However, concerns have been raised about the potential adverse health effects associated with the presence of phthalates in textiles, such as endocrine disruption, reproductive toxicity and potential carcinogenicity. Based on examination of more than 120 published articles, this paper presents a comprehensive review of studies concerning the phthalate content in clothing and other textile products, with special emphasis on those conducted in the last decade (2014-2023). The types and role of PAEs as plasticizers, the relevant legislation in different countries (emphasizing the importance of monitoring PAE levels in clothing to protect consumer health) and the analytical methods used for PAE determination are critically evaluated. The review also discusses the models used to evaluate exposure to PAEs and the associated health risks. Finally, the study limitations and challenges related to determining the phthalate contents of textile products are considered.

Use of personal care product mixtures and incident hormone-sensitive cancers in the Sister Study: A U.S.-wide prospective cohort

BACKGROUND

Personal care products (PCPs), a source of endocrine-disrupting chemical exposure, may be associated with the risk of hormone-sensitive cancers. Few studies have investigated associations for PCP use with the incidence of hormone-sensitive cancers or considered the joint effect of multiple correlated PCPs. We examined associations between frequently used, or "everyday", PCPs and incident cancers of the breast, ovary, and uterus with a fucus on the joint effect of multiple product exposure.

METHODS

Sister Study participants (n=49 899) self-reported frequency of use in the year before enrollment (2003-2009) for 41 PCPs. Using five-level frequency categories based on questionnaire options, hazard ratios (HRs) and 95% confidence intervals (CIs) were estimated for the associations between multiple PCP use and incident breast, ovarian, and uterine cancer using quantile-based g-computation with Cox proportional hazards regression as the underlying model. Multiple PCP use was examined using groupings (beauty, hygiene, and skincare products) determined by both a priori knowledge and Spearman correlation coefficients for co-occurring product use. Associations between individual PCPs and the three cancers were also examined using Cox proportional hazards models coupling with Benjamini-Hochberg procedure for multiple comparisons.

RESULTS

Over an average of 11.6 years, 4 226 breast, 277 ovarian, and 403 uterine cancer cases were identified. Positive associations were observed between the hygiene mixture and ovarian cancer (HR=1.35, 95%CI=1.00, 1.83) and the beauty mixture with postmenopausal breast cancer (HR=1.08, 95%CI=1.01, 1.16). Additionally, we observed an inverse association between the skincare mixture and breast cancer (HR=0.91, 95%CI=0.83, 0.99). No significant associations were observed for individual products after corrected for multiple comparison.

CONCLUSIONS

Findings from this multi-product, joint-effect approach contribute to the growing body of evidence for associations between PCPs and breast cancer and provides novel information on ovarian and uterine cancer.

Origin, dietary exposure, and toxicity of endocrine-disrupting food chemical contaminants: A comprehensive review

Endocrine-disrupting chemicals (EDCs) are a growing public health concern worldwide. Consumption of foodstuffs is currently thought to be one of the principal exposure routes to EDCs. However, alternative ways of human exposure are through inhalation of chemicals and dermal contact. These compounds in food products such as canned food, bottled water, dairy products, fish, meat, egg, and vegetables are a ubiquitous concern to the general population. Therefore, understanding EDCs' properties, such as origin, exposure, toxicological impact, and legal aspects are vital to control their release to the environment and food. The present paper provides an overview of the EDCs and their possible disrupting impact on the endocrine system and other organs.

The cumulative risk assessment of phthalates exposure in preterm neonates

Phthalates are widely used plasticizers in various consumer products and medical devices, with some reporting as having estrogenic and anti-androgenic endocrine-disrupting effects. Premature neonates may be exposed to high levels of specific phthalates during hospitalization in the neonatal intensive care unit (NICU) because of reliance on multiple medical procedures that pose a possible health risk. The present study utilized seven urinary phthalate metabolites of dibutyl phthalate isomers [(di-n-butyl phthalate (DnBP) and diisobutyl phthalate (DiBP)], butylbenzyl phthalate (BBzP), and di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP) that had been previously measured in 33 preterm neonates sampled at hospital admission (N = 23) and daily during their NICU stay (N = 260). We aimed to perform: (1) cumulative risk assessment (CRA) using the volume and creatinine-adjusted models; (2) examine the temporal variability of CRA from repeated measures and (3) estimate the risk of cumulative exposure to phthalates based on their anti-androgenic and/or estrogenic properties. We multiplied the relative activity of individual phthalates exhibiting estrogenic or anti-androgenic effects by daily intake. For each preterm neonate, CRA was assessed based on the hazard index (HI) metric [the sum of hazard quotients] based on three reference doses for anti-androgenicity: the tolerable daily intake (TDI) from the European Food Safety Authority, the reference dose (RfD-AA) published in 2010 and newly revised published in 2020 (NRfD-AA). The metabolites of BBzP and DEHP were 2-23 fold higher in preterm neonates during their NICU stay. Median HIs increased in the order of HI_NRfDAA > HI_RfDAA > HI_TDI. In the creatinine-based model, 87% (92%), 87% (96%), and 100% (100%) of preterm neonates at admission (during NICU stay) showed HI_TDI, HI_RfD-AA, and HI_NRfD-AA exceeding 1, respectively with DEHP the most prevalent. The temporal reproducibility of HI (based on three reference doses) during preterm neonate stay in the NICU was high, with intra-class correlation coefficients ranging between 0.77 and 0.97, suggesting persistent exposure to phthalates. The four phthalates that preterm neonates were exposed to in the NICU exhibited estrogenic binding and anti-androgenic effects with median values (creatinine-based) of 98.7 and 56.9 μg/kg body weight/day, respectively. This was especially true for DEHP. The results indicate that preterm neonates in this NICU setting are probably at high risk of cumulative phthalate exposure with anti-androgenic properties that may have long-term adverse reproductive and developmental effects.

Novel miniaturized passive sampling devices based on liquid phase microextraction equipped with cellulose-grafted membranes for the environmental monitoring of phthalic acid esters in natural waters

Phthalic acid esters (PAEs) are considered endocrine disruptors and potential carcinogens. Consequently, efficient and accurate environmental monitoring of trace levels of these organic pollutants is necessary to protect the population against their hazardous effects. Passive sampling techniques have gained notoriety for environmental monitoring and have been proven highly sensitive to temporal variations. This study developed a miniaturized passive sampling device (MPSD) based on hollow fiber liquid-phase microextraction (HF-LPME). The devices were calibrated in the laboratory using an automated calibration system. The results demonstrated the first-order uptake ranges for Diethyl phthalate (DEP), Diisobutyl phthalate (DiBP), Dibutyl phthalate (DBP), Benzyl butyl phthalate (BBP) and Bis(2-ethylhexyl phthalate) (DEHP) between 30 min and 24 h with sampling rates equivalent to 0.009; 0.021; 0.033; 0.085 and 0.003 mL h^-1 respectively (R² between 0.88 and 0.99). The calibrated devices were deployed in 12 marginal lagoons, stretching approximately 330 km along the main river. The extracts recovered from the devices were analyzed by gas chromatography (GC), resulting in the identification and quantification of DEP (0.697-13.7 ng L^-1), DiBP (0.100-4.43 ng L^-1), DBP (0.014-1.21 ng L^-1), BBP (0.218-5.67 ng L^-1), and DEHP (0.002-2.24 ng L^-1). Despite being frequently identified, DEHP concentrations were well below the maximum established limits, revealing a good water quality in terms of the target PAEs. In contrast, screening the extracts using GCxGC was possible to detect other hazardous pollutants such as pesticides, drugs, and their metabolites. The described device was effective and reliable, providing accurate PAE measurements following short exposure periods. In this sense, its deployment during emergency operations, such as accidental discharges of industrial effluents into natural waters, could continuously and cost-effectively monitor water quality.

Skin models for dermal exposure assessment of phthalates

Phthalates are a class of compounds that have found widespread use in industrial applications, in particular in the polymer, cosmetics and pharmaceutical industries. While ingestion, and to a lesser degree inhalation, have been considered as the major exposure routes, especially for higher molecular weight phthalates, dermal exposure is an important route for lower weight phthalates such as diethyl phthalate (DEP). Assessing the dermal permeability of such compounds is of great importance for evaluating the impact and toxicity of such compounds in humans. While human skin is still the best model for studying dermal permeation, availability, cost and ethical concerns may preclude or restrict its use. A range of alternative models has been developed over time to substitute for human skin, especially in the early phases of research. These include ex vivo animal skin, human reconstructed skin and artificial skin models. While the results obtained using such alternative models correlate to a lesser or greater degree with those from in vivo human studies, the use of such models is nevertheless vital in dermal permeation research. This review discusses the alternative skin models that are available, their use in phthalate permeation studies and possible new avenues of phthalate research using skin models that have not been used so far.

The selected epigenetic effects of phthalates: DBP, BBP and their metabolites: MBP, MBzP on human peripheral blood mononuclear cells (In Vitro)

Phthalates are classified as non-genotoxic carcinogens. These compounds do not cause direct DNA damage but may induce indirect DNA lesions leading to cancer development. In the presented paper we have studied the effect of di-n-butyl phthalate (DBP), butylbenzyl phthalate (BBP), and their metabolites, such as mono-n-butyl phthalate (MBP) and monobenzyl phthalate (MBzP) on selected epigenetic parameters in human peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs). The cells were incubated with tested phthalates at 0.001, 0.01 and 0.1 μg/mL for 24 h. Next, global DNA methylation, methylation in the promoter regions of tumor suppressor genes (P16, TP53) and proto-oncogenes (BCL2, CCND1) were assessed as well as the expression profile of the indicated genes was analysed. The obtained results have revealed significant reduction of global DNA methylation level in PBMCs exposed to BBP, MBP and MBzP. Phthalates changed methylation pattern of the tested genes, decreased expression of P16 and TP53 genes and increased the expression of BCL2 and CCND1. In conclusion, our results have shown that the examined phthalates disturbed the processes of methylation and expression of tumor suppressor genes (P16, TP53) and protooncogenes (BCL2, CCND1) in human PBMCs.

The crucial role of thioredoxin interacting protein in the liver insulin resistance induced by di (2-ethylhexyl) phthalates

The widespread usage of plastic products in human life has led to extensive exposure to plasticizers and resulted in serious health problems for humans, which has become a focus of toxicology research in the world. We aimed to explore the potential mechanism of liver insulin resistance induced by di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP) and working on a novel treatment to alleviate insulin resistance caused by excessive exposure to DEHP. For this purpose, in vivo and in vitro experiments were conducted, and the pivotal factors in the insulin signaling pathway were analyzed. In vivo study showed DEHP could lead to liver injury and insulin resistance. DEHP could break the balance of oxidative stress and cause accumulation of inflammatory factors. Genomics and proteomics experiment results revealed that DEHP could inhibit the mRNA and protein expression of insulin receptor, insulin receptor substrate, PI3K/Akt/mTOR, and glucose transporter 4. Nevertheless, the liver insulin resistance induced by DEHP could be reversed by Verapamil (thioredoxin interacting protein (TXNIP) inhibitor). Thus, we confirmed that DEHP caused insulin resistance by affecting the TXNIP in liver, further damaging the conduction of insulin signaling pathway. Therefore, adding Verapamil to the treatment of patients with insulin resistance due to plasticizers might be more effective.

Microplastics in fillets of Mediterranean seafood. A risk assessment study

Microplastics (MPs) are considered as emergent threat to human health. No complete data still exists on MPs presence in fish tissue and their transmission to humans. The present study aims to detect and quantify the presence of MPs (<3 μm) in several edible seafood (Sardina pilchardus, wild and farmed Sparus aurata, Mullus surmuletus, Solea solea and musselMytilus galloprovincialis) from the south coast of Mediterranean Sea. MPs were detected through an innovative extraction method coupled to the SEM-EDX technology. The Estimated Daily Intakes (EDIs) for adults and children for each species were calculated. The higher median level (IQR) of MPs (9.09E+04) was found inM. surmuletus. Conversely, the lower median (IQR) level was observed in S. pilchardus (7.04E+04). The smallest and biggest median (IQR)diameter of MPs (1.8 and 2.5 μm) were identified in M. galloprovincialisand S. solea, respectively. The highest EDIs (25.50E+03; 48.09E+03) arefor ingestion of farmedS. auratarespectively for adults and children. Instead, the lowest EDIs (2.37E+02; 4.48E+02) are due to M. galloprovincialisingestion for adults and children, respectively. Our data should be carefully considered in view of the direct exposure of humans to plastic particles under 3 μm through seafood consumption to better manage the related risks.

Phthalates in skin wipes: Distribution, sources, and exposure via dermal absorption

Phthalates, which are widely used in industrial products, can be dermally absorbed into the human body and harm human health. In this study, we measured the levels of phthalates in skin wipes collected from 30 undergraduate volunteers. The body surfaces wiped include the forehead, forearms, hands, back, calves, and insteps. We analyzed the characteristics and possible sources of phthalates on the skin surface and used Monte Carlo simulations to estimate dermal exposure. The mean total dermal exposure was in the range of 0.129-8.25 μg/(kg·day). Seven phthalates were detected, with a detection frequency of 57-100%. Phthalate levels were not significantly different between symmetrical locations, but differed significantly at the same sampling location. The mean dinonyl phthalate (DNP) contribution was the highest on the forehead, back, and forearm. The mean DNP and di (2-n-butoxyethyl) phthalate (DBEP) contributions on hands were the highest and second-highest, respectively. The mean DBEP contribution was the highest on calf and instep. Phthalates level was the maximum on the forehead and instep. Habit and activities can lead to significant differences in phthalate concentrations on the skin surfaces of male and female students. The sum of dermal exposure on the torso, head, and feet perhaps best approximates the total body exposure. To date, information on the dermal exposure and related species of phthalates are limited; therefore, further study is needed.

Association between recurrent breast cancer and phthalate exposure modified by hormone receptors and body mass index

The association between phthalate exposure and breast cancer remains controversial. We performed a prospective patient cohort design to explore the interaction between creatinine-corrected urinary phthalate metabolites and hormone receptors as well as body mass index (BMI) on recurrent breast cancer. In this follow-up study, 636 female breast cancer patients and 45 new recurrent cases diagnosed for a total of 1576.68 person-years of follow-up were recruited. Mono-(2-ethyl-5-oxohexyl) phthalate (MEOHP) was negatively associated with breast cancer recurrence, with adjusted hazard ratio (aHR) 3rd vs. 1st quartile of 0.15 (95% CI 0.04–0.51). The MEOHP presented as a non-monotonic dose–response (NMDR) curve, being U-shaped. In the stratification of hormone receptors, MEOHP still exhibited a U-shaped dose–response curve. The third quartile of MEOHP showed significant lowest recurrent risk in the status of ER-positive (aHR 0.18, 95% CI 0.05–0.66), PR-negative (aHR 0.14, 95% CI 0.03–0.63), and HER2-negative (aHR 0.24, 95% CI 0.08–0.76). Whether in BMI < 25 or in BMI ≥ 25, the third quartile of MEOHP was negatively associated with recurrent breast cancer, and there was a negative interaction on an additive scale between MEOHP and BMI (p_interaction = 0.042). The association between MEOHP and recurrent breast cancer was modified by hormone receptors and BMI.

Tissue distribution of phthalates in celery under different cultivation patterns and associated dietary exposure

To investigate tissue distribution, spatial difference, temperature variation, and potential health risks of PAEs in vegetables, celery was used as a model plant. Celery samples were collected from open fields and greenhouses from two provinces in China over four seasons. Celery tissues were analyzed for 16 PAE compounds by gas chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. The total content of PAEs was 89.0-1130.3 μg kg^-1 dry weight (dw) in stems and 155.0-2730.8 μg kg^-1 dw in leaves. Concentrations of PAEs in celeries showed notable spatial differences (P < 0.05), and the levels in samples from open fields were lower than those in samples from plastic greenhouses. In celeries from greenhouses, higher PAE concentrations were observed for plants grown at high temperatures than in plants grown at low temperatures. Discrepancies in tissue distribution indicated different uptake pathways of PAE contaminants. Risk assessments to humans found that both carcinogenic risks and non-carcinogenic risks of PAEs via celery consumption were at an acceptable level. Further research should consider other exposure pathways of PAEs and pay special attention to reducing PAE contents in vegetables.

Levels of Phthalates, Bisphenol-A, Nonylphenol, and Microplastics in Fish in the Estuaries of Northern Taiwan and the Impact on Human Health

Due to the sparsity in knowledge, we investigated the presence of various estrogenic endocrine-disrupting chemicals (EEDCs), including phthalates (PAEs), bisphenol-A (BPA), and nonylphenol (NP), as well as microplastics (MPs) in samples of the most widely consumed fish collected from different estuaries in northern Taiwan. We then proceeded to determine the likely contribution that this exposure has on the potential for health impacts in humans following consumption of the fish. Six hundred fish caught from five river estuaries (producing 130 pooled samples) were analyzed to determine how different factors (such as the river, benthic, pelagic, and migratory species) influence EEDCs’ contamination and the possible impacts on human health following typical consumption patterns. The predominant EEDCs was diethyl phthalates (DEP), bis (2-ethylhexyl) phthalates (DEHP), and di-iso-nonylphthalate (DINP) in fish, present at 52.9 ± 77.3, 45.3 ± 79.8, and 42.5 ± 79.3 ng/g dry weight (d.w.), respectively. Residual levels of NP, BPA, and MPs in the fish were 17.4 ± 29.1 and 1.50 ± 2.20 ng/g d.w. and 0.185 ± 0.338 mg/g d.w., respectively. EEDCs and MPs levels varied widely among the five river estuaries sampled due, in part, to differences in habitat types and the associated diversity of fish species sampled. For DEP, the Lao-Jie River and pelagic environments produced the most severely contaminated fish species, respectively. DEP residues were also associated with the burden of MPs in the fish. Based on our analysis, we predict no substantial direct human health risk by EEDCs based on typical consumption rates of estuarine fish by the Taiwanese people. However, other sources of EEDC exposure cannot be ignored.

Comprehensive Insight from Phthalates Occurrence: From Health Outcomes to Emerging Analytical Approaches

Phthalates are a group of chemicals used in a multitude of important industrial products (e.g., medical devices, children's toys, and food packages), mainly as plasticizers to improve mechanical properties such as flexibility, transparency, durability, and longevity of polyvinyl chloride (PVC). The wide occurrence of phthalates in many consumer products, including foods (e.g., bottled water, soft drinks, wine, milk, and meat) brings that most people are exposed to phthalates every day, which raises some concerns. Adverse health outcomes from phthalates exposure have been associated with endocrine disruption, deformities in the human reproductive system, increased risk of preterm birth, carcinogen exposure, among others. Apprehension related to the health risks and ubiquitous incidence of phthalates in foods inspires the development of reliable analytical approaches that allow their detection and quantification at trace levels. The purpose of the current review is to provide information related to the presence of phthalates in the food chain, highlighting the health risks associated with their exposure. Moreover, an overview of emerging extraction procedures and high-resolution analytical approaches for a comprehensive quantification of phthalates is presented.

Endocrine Disrupting Chemicals and Thyroid Cancer: An Overview

Endocrine disruptive chemicals (EDC) are known to alter thyroid function and have been associated with increased risk of certain cancers. The present study aims to provide a comprehensive overview of available studies on the association between EDC exposure and thyroid cancer. Relevant studies were identified via a literature search in the National Library of Medicine and National Institutes of Health PubMed as well as a review of reference lists of all retrieved articles and of previously published relevant reviews. Overall, the current literature suggests that exposure to certain congeners of flame retardants, polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), and phthalates as well as certain pesticides may potentially be associated with an increased risk of thyroid cancer. However, future research is urgently needed to evaluate the different EDCs and their potential carcinogenic effect on the thyroid gland in humans as most EDCs have been studied sporadically and results are not consistent.

Endocrine-Disrupting Chemicals' (EDCs) Effects on Tumour Microenvironment and Cancer Progression: Emerging Contribution of RACK1

Endocrine disruptors (EDCs) can display estrogenic and androgenic effects, and their exposure has been linked to increased cancer risk. EDCs have been shown to directly affect cancer cell regulation and progression, but their influence on tumour microenvironment is still not completely elucidated. In this context, the signalling hub protein RACK1 (Receptor for Activated C Kinase 1) could represent a nexus between cancer and the immune system due to its roles in cancer progression and innate immune activation. Since RACK1 is a relevant EDCs target that responds to steroid-active compounds, it could be considered a molecular bridge between the endocrine-regulated tumour microenvironment and the innate immune system. We provide an analysis of immunomodulatory and cancer-promoting effects of different EDCs in shaping tumour microenvironment, with a final focus on the scaffold protein RACK1 as a pivotal molecular player due to its dual role in immune and cancer contexts.

Occurrence, removal, and environmental risk of phthalates in wastewaters, landfill leachates, and groundwater in Poland

Phthalates or phthalic acid esters (PAEs) are chemical compounds whose use is exceptionally widespread in everyday materials but, at the same time, have been proven to have harmful effects on living organisms. Effluents from municipal wastewater treatment plants (WWTP) and leachates from municipal solid waste (MSW) landfills are important sources of phthalates with respect to naturally occurring waters. The main aim of this research was determination, mass loads, removal rates and ecological risk assessment of eight phthalates in municipal wastewaters, landfill leachates and groundwater from Polish WWTPs and MSW landfills. Solid-phase microextraction and gas chromatography with mass spectrometry were used for the extraction and determination of analytes. Summed up concentrations of eight phthalates ranged from below LOD to 596 μg/L in influent wastewater with the highest concentration found for bis-2-ethylhexyl phthalate (DEHP) (143 μg/L). The average degree of phthalate removal varies depending on the capacity of a given treatment plant with larger treatment plants coping better than smaller ones. The highest treatment efficiency for all tested treatment plants, over 90%, was reported for dimethyl phthalate (DMP) and diethyl phthalate (DEP). Overall concentrations of phthalates in leachates ranged from below LOD to 303 μg/L while the highest maximum concentration was registered for DEHP (249 μg/L). Overall concentrations of phthalic acid esters in groundwater from upstream monitoring wells ranged from below LOD to 1.8 μg/L and from LOD to 27.9 μg/L in samples from wells downstream of MSW landfills. The obtained data shows that diisobutyl phthalate (DIBP), dibutyl phthalate (DBP), DEHP, and diisononyl phthalate (DINP) pose a high risk for all trophic levels being considered in effluent wastewaters. In the case of groundwater high environmental risk was recorded for DBP and DEHP for all tested trophic levels. Phthalates, in concentrations that pose a high environmental risk, are present in Polish municipal after-treatment wastewater as well as in groundwater under municipal solid waste landfills.

Preparation of magnetic zeolitic imidazolate framework-67 composites for the extraction of phthalate esters from environmental water samples

In this paper, magnetic ZIF-67 composites were prepared by an in situ method and utilized in the magnetic solid-phase extraction of phthalate esters. The obtained magnetic ZIF-67 composites were characterized in detail, and the adsorption performance was evaluated. The results showed that ZIF-67 crystals in the composites had a chamfered cubic shape with about 2.0 μm diameter and Fe3O4 was attached on the surface of ZIF-67. The parameters affecting magnetic solid-phase extraction efficiency were optimized including the adsorption and desorption conditions. Under the optimum conditions, magnetic solid-phase extraction coupled with gas chromatography-mass spectrometry for analyzing seven phthalate esters in environmental water samples was established. All the analytes exhibited good linearity (1-200 ng mL-1) with correlation coefficients higher than 0.9950. The relative standard deviations were between 4.3% and 8.9%. The developed method showed high sensitivity and had good potential for analyzing trace phthalate esters in water samples.

Critical Review on the Presence of Phthalates in Food and Evidence of Their Biological Impact

Phthalates are a huge class of chemicals with a wide spectrum of industrial uses, from the manufacture of plastics to food contact applications, children's toys, and medical devices. People and animals can be exposed through different routes (i.e., ingestion, inhalation, dermal, or iatrogenic exposure), as these compounds can be easily released from plastics to water, food, soil, air, making them ubiquitous environmental contaminants. In the last decades, phthalates and their metabolites have proven to be of concern, particularly in products for pregnant women or children. Moreover, many authors reported high concentrations of phthalates in soft drinks, mineral waters, wine, oil, ready-to-eat meals, and other products, as a possible consequence of their accumulation along the food production chain and their accidental release from packaging materials. However, due to their different physical and chemical properties, phthalates do not have the same human and environmental impacts and their association to several human diseases is still under debate. In this review we provide an overview of phthalate toxicity, pointing out the health and legal issues related to their occurrence in several types of food and beverage.

Organic extract of indoor dust induces estrogen-like effects in human breast cancer cells

Indoor dust often contains organic contaminants, which adversely impacts human health. In this study, the organic contaminants in the indoor dust from commercial offices and residential houses in Nanjing, China were extracted and their effects on human breast cancer cells (MCF-7) were investigated. Both dust extracts promoted proliferation of MCF-7 cells at ≤24 μg/100 μL, with cell viability being decreased with increasing dust concentrations. Based on LC₅₀, house dust was less toxic than office dust. At 8 μg/100 μL, both extracts caused more MCF-7 cells into active cycling (G2/M + S) and increased intracellular Ca²⁺ influx, with house dust inducing stronger effects than office dust. Further, the expression of estrogen-responsive genes for TFF1 and EGR3 was enhanced by 3-9 and 4-9 folds, while the expression of cell cycle regulatory genes for cyclin D was enhanced by 2-5 folds. The results suggested that organic dust extract influenced cell viability, altered cell cycle, increased intracellular Ca²⁺ levels, and activated cell cycle regulatory and estrogen-responsive gene expressions, with house dust showing lower cytotoxicity but higher estrogenic potential on MCF-7 cells. The results indicate the importance of reducing organic contaminants in indoor dust to mitigate their adverse impacts on human health.

Phytoremediation potential of Arundo donax (Giant Reed) in contaminated soil by heavy metals

Soil pollution from heavy metals poses a serious risk for environment and public health. Phytoremediation is an eco-friendly and cheaper alternative compared to chemical-physical techniques. We carried out in vitro tests where three microorganisms Trichoderma harzianum, Saccharomyces cerevisiae and Wickerhamomyces anomalus were exposed to eight different heavy metals (one metal at a time) in order to evaluate resistance, growth and bioaccumulation capability for each metal (Ni, Cd, Cu, V, Zn, As, Pb, Hg). Taking into account the natural characteristics of T. harzianum, (resistance to environmental stress, resistance to pathogenic fungi, ability to establish symbiotic relationships with superior green plants) and the good bioaccumulation capacity for V, As, Cd, Hg, Pb shown after in vitro tests, it was chosen as a microorganism to be used in greenhouse tests. Controlled exposure tests were performed in greenhouse, where Arundo donax and mycorrhized Arundo donax with T. harzianum were exposed for 7 months at two different doses (L1 and L2) of a heavy metal mix, so as to assess whether the symbiotic association could improve the bioaccumulation capability of the superior green plant A. donax. Heavy metals were determined with ICP-MS. The average bioaccumulation percentage values of A. donax for L1 and L2 were, respectively: Ni (31%, 26%); Cd (35%, 50%); Cu (30%, 35%); As (19%, 27%); Pb (18%, 14%); Hg (42%, 45%); V (39%, 26%); Zn (23%, 9%). The average bioaccumulation percentage values of mycorrhized A. donax with T. harzianum for L1 and L2 were, respectively: Ni (27%, 38%); Cd (44%, 42%); Cu (36%, 29%); As (17%, 23%); Pb (37%, 54%); Hg (44%, 60%); V (16%, 20%); Zn (14%, 7%). A. donax showed the highest BAF (bioaccumulation factor) for Cd (0.50), Cu (0.35), As (0.27) and Hg (0.45) after exposure to L2; mycorrhized A. donax with T. harzianum showed the highest BAF for Ni (0.38), Cd (0.42), Pb (0.54) and Hg (0.60) after exposure to L2. A. donax showed the highest TF (translocation factor) values for Cd (0.28) and Hg (0.26) after exposition at L1 and L2 respectively; A. donax mycorrhized with T. harzianum showed the highest TF values for Cd (0.70), As (0.56), V (0.24), Pb (0.18) after exposition at L2, and Zn (0.30) after exposition at L1. Our study showed a good growth capability in contaminated soils and a good bioaccumulation capability of heavy metals, both for A. donax and mycorrhized A. donax with T. harzianum. Furthermore, for three metals (Ni, Pb and Hg) the bioaccumulation capability was improved by the symbiosis of T. harzianum with A. donax. So, these results proved the suitability both for A. donax and mycorrhized A. donax with T. harzianum for phytoremediation processes.

The estrogenic proliferative effects of two alkylphenols and a preliminary mechanism exploration in MCF-7 breast cancer cells

Bisphenol A (BPA) and 4-cumylphenol (4-CP), as estrogen-like chemicals, are ubiquitous in the environment media and associated with the occurrence and development of hormone-dependent tumors. However, the combinatorial effects of these two structurally similar alkylphenols are not well informed. In the present study, the classic breast cancer cell line MCF-7 was used as in vitro model to estimate the estrogenic proliferative effects of BPA and 4-CP. MTT assay, reactive oxygen species, cell apoptosis, cell cycle, and real-time fluorescent quantitative Step One Plus Real-time PCR System (Applied Biosystems, CA, USA) were applied to explore their proliferative mechanisms. MTT results showed that both BPA and 4-CP ranging from 10^-9 to 10^-5 M stimulated cell proliferation in a nonmonotonic dose-response manner. Along with the proliferative effects, cell cycle was progressed from G0/G1 to S and G2/M phase. Meanwhile, the expression levels of ERα, pS2, and Bcl-2 mRNA were also upregulated. In contrast, 4-CP and BPA at high dose (10^-4 M) obviously displayed antiproliferative effects in MCF-7 cells via inducing cell apoptosis and blocking cell cycle in G0/G1 phase. As expected, the relative expression levels of ERα, pS2, and Bcl-2 mRNA were decreased, whereas Bax mRNA was increased. Interestingly, the proliferative or antiproliferative effects of 4-CP were higher than that of BPA. Moreover, coexposure of lower concentrations BPA and 4-CP significantly induced cell proliferation in a synergistic manner. These findings indicated that the potential environmental risks of coexposure of BPA and 4-CP were greater than either of them.

Associations of urinary phthalate metabolites with risk of papillary thyroid cancer

Some studies have revealed thyrotoxicity of phthalates; however, associations of phthalate exposure with papillary thyroid cancer (PTC) remain unclear. We conducted a pair-matching case-control study of 111 PTC cases and 111 age- and sex-matched non-PTC controls to examine associations between urinary concentrations of phthalate metabolites and PTC. Phthalate metabolites were determined in fasting urine specimens by ultra-performance liquid chromatography - tandem mass spectrometry (UPLC-MS/MS). After adjusting for potential confounders and other phthalate metabolites, the concentrations of the sum of di (2-ethylhexly) phthalate (DEHP) metabolites in urine were positively associated with PTC [odds ratio (OR) = 5.35; 95% confidence interval (CI): 1.61-17.83], suggesting the effect of phthalates exposure on PTC development. The findings require confirmation.

Regional variations in human chemical exposures in Canada: A case study using biomonitoring data from the Canadian Health Measures Survey for the provinces of Quebec and Ontario

The Canadian Health Measures Survey (CHMS), an ongoing national health survey conducted in two-year cycles, collects extensive biomonitoring data that is used to assess the exposure of Canadians to environmental chemicals of concern. Combining data from multiple cycles of the CHMS allows for the calculation of robust regional estimates of chemical concentrations in blood and urine. The objective of this work was to compare biomarkers of exposure to several environmental chemicals for the provinces of Quebec and Ontario, two major CHMS regions, as well as the entire CHMS (representing Canada) minus Quebec (CMQ), and the entire CHMS minus Ontario (CMO), and to interpret differences between regions. Geometric means and 95th percentiles of blood and/or urinary concentrations of 45 environmental chemicals or their metabolites for Ontario, Quebec, CMQ, and CMO were calculated by combining the two most recent cycles of data available for a chemical (cycles 1 and 2, or cycles 2 and 3) from the first three cycles of the CHMS (2007-2013). Weighted one-way ANOVA was used to test the differences between regional estimates. After applying a Bonferonni-Holm adjustment for multiple comparisons, the following measures were significantly higher in Quebec as compared to Ontario and CMQ: blood lead, urinary lead and the urinary polyaromatic hydrocarbon (PAH) metabolites, 9-hydroxyfluorene, 1-hydroxyphenanthrene, 2- hydroxyphenanthrene and 3-hydroxyphenanthrene. In Quebec compared to CMQ only, urinary 2-hydroxfluorene, 3-hydroxyfluorene, 2-hydroxynaphthalene, and 4-hydroxyphenanthrene were higher. The concentration of urinary fluoride was significantly higher in Ontario as compared to Quebec and CMO. Blood manganese and urinary fluoride were significantly lower in Quebec compared to CMQ, and blood and urinary selenium were significantly lower in Ontario compared to CMO. Regional differences in tobacco use, age of dwellings and drinking water fluoridation are among the possible contributing factors to some of the observed differences. In conclusion, this is the first study where biomonitoring data from multiple cycles of CHMS were combined in order to generate robust estimates for subsets of the Canadian population. Such assessments can contribute to a regional-level prioritization of control measures to reduce the exposure of Canadians to chemicals in their environment.

Dual-label time-resolved fluoroimmunoassay as an advantageous approach for investigation of diethyl phthalate & dibutyl phthalate in surface water

Due to the extensive presence of phthalate esters (PAEs) in the environment, it is very important to develop highly efficient methods for determining their environmental concentrations and for risk assessment. In this study, europium (Eu³⁺) and samarium (Sm³⁺) were employed as fluorescent labels to develop a dual-labeled time-resolved fluoroimmunoassay (TRFIA) for the sensitive detection of diethyl phthalate (DEP) and dibutyl phthalate (DBP) in aquatic environments. Under optimum conditions, the half-maximal inhibition concentration (IC₅₀) and limit of detection (LOD, IC₁₀) of the TRFIA were 28.1 and 4.9ng/mL for DEP, and 33.4 and 3.9ng/mL for DBP, respectively. The cross-reactivities of the TRFIA between these two phthalates and with their analogues were negligible. The proposed method indicated satisfactory accuracy with recoveries of 78.30-120.13% for DEP and 78.58-113.07% for DBP, which were in good agreement with the gas chromatography tandem mass spectrometry analysis results of the same samples. Meanwhile, the results of the immunoassay were used to evaluate the presence and environmental risk of those pollutants in the inner rivers of Zhenjiang city. The concentrations of DEP and DBP ranged from non-detectable to 61.31ng/mL and from non-detectable to 94.57ng/mL, respectively. The results of the potential ecological risk assessment by the risk quotient method showed that there were some sampling points exceeding risk limits, and the total ecological risk of DBP was higher than that of DEP.

Biomarkers of Exposure to Chemical Contamination in the Commercial Fish Species Lepidopus caudatus (Euphrasen, 1788): A Particular Focus on Plastic Additives

In recent years, the Mediterranean Sea has become an accumulation zone for waste generated by the 22 countries bordering its shores. Although the effects of plastic litter on the marine environment and on organisms have recently been studied in other areas, further information is needed for the Mediterranean Sea and, in particular, about plastics additives inputs and interactions with the biota and the trophic network, such as phthalates and bisphenol A. Plastic material production, use and disposal contribute also to the release of heavy metals into the environment, such as mercury (Hg), often used during the production of chlorine, the primary ingredient in PVC, lead (Pb) and cadmium (Cd), which are used as stabilizers in PVC and leach out of products during use and disposal. Our research aims to evaluate phthalates, bisphenol A and heavy metals contamination in Lepidopus caudatus (Pisces, Trichiuridae), which could be considered as a potential sentinel species. For the evaluation of toxicological effects, we evaluated the expression of vitellogenin and metallothioneins 1. In all samples analyzed, we have not found microplastics in the gastrointestinal tract but chemical analysis revealed the presence of high content of phthalates, and in particular high quantities of DIDP, DEHP, bis-benzylester phthalate, bis-butyl ester phthalate and mono-N-butyl ester phthalate in different organs. Instead, trace elements detected in tissue revealed a trend of concentrations generally higher in liver and intestine than gill and muscle tissues. Immunohistochemical analysis for anti-metallothionein 1 antibody showed a strong positivity of liver cells, both in females and males. Analysis for the anti-vitellogenin antibody showed in females a strong positivity both in the liver cells and in the gonads, in male specimens was found to be always negative except for a specimen, in which it was highlighted a positivity in some areas of the liver and of the gonad.

Exposure to microplastics (<10 μm) associated to plastic bottles mineral water consumption: The first quantitative study

The uncontrolled introduction into the environment of plastic polymers have caused the dispersion of plastic fragments, known as Microplastics (MPs), that represent an important topic for public health. This study was the first to investigate the cause of the release of MPs in mineral waters and to estimate the concentration of MPs smaller than 10 μm both in number of particles and in mass unit. This study was carried out using a patent method regarding the extraction and analysis of MPs in more kind of matrix. Therefore, aims of this study were a) to assess the number of MPs with diameters of between 0.5 and 10 μm in mineral waters contained in plastic bottles, b) to evaluate if the physical-chemical properties of mineral waters and bottle quality could influence the release of MPs and, finally, c) to estimate the human daily exposure to MPs due to mineral water consumption. The Mps were found in every sample. The main concentration of MPs was 656.8 μg/L ± 632.9 or 5.42E+07 p/L ± 1.95E+07. The main diameter of detected MPs was 2.44 μm ± 0.66 (where p/L, where p was the number of MPs). The Estimated Daily Intake (EDI) for adults and children were 1,531,524 p/kg/body-weight/day corresponding to 40.1 μg/kg/body-weight/day and 3,350,208 p/kg/body-weight/day corresponding to 87.8 μg/kg/body-weight/day, respectively. The number of MPs contamination in bottled mineral waters was strongly correlated to the pH of waters and to plastic density of bottle. Otherwise, micrograms of MPs per liter and the MPs diameters were strongly affected by plastic thickness. The most mineral water brand contaminated by MPs was the one whose bottles were made from poor quality plastic. In absence of reference values, it was no possible carried out a risk assessment for MPs exposure. It is fundamental to establish the reference method of analysis to monitoring every source of human intake.

Role of Emerging Environmental Risk Factors in Thyroid Cancer: A Brief Review

Environmental factors are recognized as risk factors of thyroid cancer in humans. Exposure to radiation, both from nuclear weapon or fallout or medical radiation, and to some organic and inorganic chemical toxicants represent a worldwide public health issue for their proven carcinogenicity. Halogenated compounds, such as organochlorines and pesticides, are able to disrupt thyroid function. Polychlorinated biphenyls and their metabolites and polybrominated diethyl ethers bind to thyroid, transport proteins, replace thyroxin, and disrupt thyroid function as phthalates and bisphenolates do, highly mimicking thyroid hormones. A better knowledge of environmental risks represents a very important tool for cancer prevention through true risks prevention and management. This approach is very important because of the epigenetic origin’s theory of cancer. Therefore, the aim of this review was study the association between environmental agents and thyroid cancer promotion.

Receptor-based aggregate exposure assessment of phthalates based on individual's simultaneous use of multiple cosmetic products

To estimate realistic exposure to a chemical, the aggregate exposure from multiple consumer products should be considered. A receptor-based aggregate exposure assessment was conducted according to individuals' exposure factors and simultaneous use patterns including co-use and non-use. A product-based aggregate exposure assessment was conducted by product usage rates of population and users' exposure factors. Two aggregate exposure assessments were compared. Exposure factors for 31 cosmetic products were collected by face-to-face interviews with 1001 members of the Korean population through national representative sampling. The concentrations of phthalates in 214 cosmetic products were analyzed by GC-MS-MS. The average aggregate exposure dose (AED) determined by the receptor-based method for di(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate (DEHP), di-n-butyl phthalate (DnBP), and diethyl phthalate (DEP) were 0.68 ± 0.87, 1.08 ± 5.71, and 2.47 ± 9.05 μg/kg/day, respectively. The cosmetics that contributed most to the receptor-based AED were skin care and body care products for DEHP, nail care products for DnBP, and fragrance and hair care products for DEP. The young female group showed the highest exposure. The product-based aggregate exposure assessment method underestimated high exposure but overestimated average exposure for DnBP and DEP. The receptor-based aggregate exposure assessment method would be used to determine high exposure groups.

Current Resources for Evidence-Based Practice, March 2019

A review of new resources to support the provision of evidence-based care for women and infants.

Exposure to phthalates in couples undergoing in vitro fertilization treatment and its association with oxidative stress and DNA damage

This prospective study of 599 couples seeking fertility treatment and who were recruited between 2015 and 2017 was conducted to (a) explore the associations between phthalate exposure and in vitro fertilization (IVF) outcomes; and (b) examine the implication of oxidative stress as a mediator of these. We measured eight phthalate metabolites in two spot urine samples; oxidative stress biomarkers such as malondialdehyde, 8-hydroxy-2-deoxyguanosine, hydrogen peroxide, catalase (CAT), and total antioxidant capacity in follicular fluid and seminal plasma. We also examined DNA damage in sperm and granulosa cells. Couples were exposed to a broad range of phthalate compounds and seven metabolites were detected in over 94% of the urine samples, whereas monobenzyl phthalate was found in only 24% of women and 26% of men. Our results showed high levels of seven urinary phthalate metabolites (except monobenzyl phthalate) and a notable increase in many oxidative stress markers in both follicular fluid and seminal plasma. However, their associations with exposure were rather limited. Multivariate binomial regression modeling showed higher levels of follicular CAT levels reduced the probability of fertilization rate (≤ 50%) [Adjusted relative risk (RR_adj) = 0.52, p = 0.005] and unsuccessful live birth (RR_adj = 0.592, p = 0.023). We observed a 46% decrease in the probability of clinical pregnancy in association with an elevated percentage of DNA in the tail (RR_adj = 0.536, p = 0.04). There was a 32% and 22% increase in the probability of clinical pregnancy and unsuccessful live birth associated with higher levels of mono-(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (RR_adj = 1.32, p = 0.049) and monoethyl phthalate (RR_adj = 1.22, p = 0.032) in women, respectively. In contrast, the probability of clinical pregnancy reduced by 20% with higher levels of mono-(2-ethyl-5-carboxypentyl) phthalate (RR_adj = 0.797, p = 0.037) and 19.6% with mono-(2-ethyl-5-oxohexyl) phthalate (MEOHP) (RR_adj = 0.804, p = 0.041) in men. Other oxidative stress biomarkers or urinary phthalate metabolites showed suggestive relationships with certain IVF outcomes. Lastly, our results demonstrated that elevated levels of CAT in follicular fluid might have a positive impact on fertilization rate ≥ 50% and successful live birth. CAT seems to play a potential role in mediating the relationship between the risk of poor fertilization rate and MEOHP and mono-isobutyl phthalate. Additional data are required to understand the clinical implications of oxidative stress and its contribution to the reproductive toxicity of phthalate exposure.

The modulatory role of low concentrations of bisphenol A on tamoxifen-induced proliferation and apoptosis in breast cancer cells

Selective estrogen receptor modulators such as tamoxifen (TAM) significantly reduce the risks of developing estrogen receptor-positive (ER+) breast cancer. Low concentrations (nanomolar range) of bisphenol A (BPA) shows estrogenic effects and further promotes the proliferation of hormone-dependent breast cancer cells. However, whether or not BPA can influence TAM-treatment resistance in breast cancer has not drawn much attention. In the current study, low concentrations of BPA reduced TAM-induced cytotoxicity of MCF-7 cells, which was proved by the suppression of cell apoptosis, transition of cell cycle from G1 to S phase, and upregulation of cyclin D1 and ERα. Simultaneously, the mRNA levels of estrogen-related receptor γ (ERRγ) and its coactivators, peroxisome proliferation-activated receptor γ coactivator-1α (PGC-1α), and PGC-1β, were increased. However, the similar effects were not observed in MDA-MB-231 cells. Our results indicated that low concentrations of BPA decreased the sensitivity of TAM in MCF-7 cells rather than in MDA-MB-231 cells. These different actions likely involved the interaction of relative receptors and coactivators. This study provided a possible support that the exposure of BPA in environmental media may potentially induce TAM resistance to breast cancer treatment.