Concentration and particle size distribution of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons formed by thermal cooking

Human exposure to aerosol from indoor gas stove cooking and the resulting cardiovascular system responses

The effect of cooking aerosol on the human heart was investigated in this study. The heart rate and blood pressure of 33 healthy adults were monitored before, exactly after, and two hours post-exposure (30 minutes, 60 minutes, 90 minutes, and 120 minutes after cooking). One hundred twenty grams of ground beef was fried in sunflower oil for twenty minutes using a gas stove without ventilation. Ultrafine particles, indoor temperature, relative humidity, carbon dioxide, oil, and meat temperatures were monitored during the experiment. The average particle emission rate (S) and average decay rate (a+k) for meat frying were found to be 2.09×1013 (SD=3.94 ×1013, R2=0.98, P <0.0001) particles/min, and 0.055 (SD=0.019, R2=0.91, P <0.0001) particles/min, respectively. No statistically significant changes in diastolic blood pressure (DBP) and heart rate (HR) were observed. The average systolic blood pressure (SBP) statistically significantly increased from 98 mmHg (before the exposure) to 106 mmHg 60 minutes after the exposure. The results suggested that frying emission statistically significantly impacted blood pressure.

Review of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons pollution characteristics and carcinogenic risk assessment in global cooking environments

In recent years, research on air pollution in cooking environments has gained increasing attention, particularly studies related to polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) pollution. Hence, it is crucial and urgent to conduct a comprehensive review of research findings and further evaluate their carcinogenic risks. This study adopts a comprehensive literature review approach, systematically integrating and deeply analyzing the conclusions and data from 62 selected relevant studies. It focuses on the impact of different factors on PAHs concentrations, considers the indoor-outdoor PAHs concentration ratio, and conducts carcinogenic risk assessments for PAHs. The results show that Africa has the highest average PAHs pollution concentration globally at 14.74 μg/m³, exceeding that of other continents by 1.5-160.9 times. Among various influencing factors, fuel type has the most significant impact on PAHs concentrations. Existing research data indicate that cooking with charcoal as fuel produces the highest PAHs concentration at 223.52 μg/m³, with high molecular weight PAHs accounting for 58.16%, significantly higher than when using clean energy. Furthermore, efficient ventilation systems have been proven to substantially reduce PAHs concentrations, with a reduction rate of up to 88.1%. However, cooking methods and food types also have a small but non-negligible impact on PAHs production. Using mild cooking methods such as steaming and selecting low-fat foods can also reduce PAHs to some extent. Additionally, through the analysis of the Indoor/Outdoor ratio, it was found that cooking is the primary source of indoor pollution, and the average concentration of PAHs in cooking environments in Asia and Africa is much higher than in Europe and America. The Total Incremental Lifetime Cancer Risk (TILCR) exceeds 10⁻⁴, indicating a high level of carcinogenic risk.

A review of hazards in meat products: Multiple pathways, hazards and mitigation of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are stable carcinogens that are widely distributed in the environment and food, and humans are exposed to PAHs primarily through the respiratory tracts, dermal contact, and dietary intake. Meat products are an essential part of the human diet, and the formation of PAHs during meat processing is unavoidable. Therefore, a comprehensive understanding of PAHs in meat products can be a contribution to the minimization of human exposure dose. The aim of this review is to provide a comprehensive description of the toxicological analysis of PAHs intake and the various production pathways. The distribution of different PAHs in various meat products, including poultry and aquatic products, is analyzed. The discussion focuses on controlling PAHs through the use of endogenous marinades and antioxidants as well as reducing exogenous particulate matter-PAHs attachment. In addition, potential strategies for PAHs reduction and possible directions for future research are proposed.

Relationship between PAH4 formation and thermal reaction products in model lipids and possible pathways of PAHs formation

Lipids are closely related to the generation of PAHs during food thermal processing. During heating, lipids mainly triglycerides undergo hydrolysis, oxidation and decomposition. The relationship between the various products and the formation of PAHs is still unclear. This paper investigated the effect of different lipid standards on PAH4 production, and explored their thermal stability and reaction products to delve into nature of the differences in PAH4 production. Fatty acids were more prone to generate PAH4 than glycerides. The higher the degree of esterification of glycerides, the higher its thermal stability and the lower the content of PAH4 generated, implying that hydrolysis of glycerides promoted the generation of PAH4. In addition, there was a positive correlation between unsaturation in lipids and the PAH4 production. After heat treatment, hydroperoxides, unsaturated fatty alcohols and aldehydes, alkenes and aromatic substances were abundant in oleic acid and linoleic acid which produced the most PAH4. Thermal decomposition of lipid hydroperoxides was the pathway for the generation of conjugated hydrocarbon radicals, alcohols, aldehydes, and alkenes. The intramolecular cyclization and Diels-Alder reaction acted as ring-forming reactions, with consequent dehydrogenation, decarboxylation, side-chain breaks and radical reorganization, ultimately facilitating the amplification of the aromatic rings and the formation of PAHs.

Occurrence, Concentration and Toxicity of 54 Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons in Butter during Storage

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are a class of highly carcinogenic compounds with a lipophilic nature. This study investigated the characterization of PAH24 contamination in twenty-one types of butter and five types of margarines using the QuEChERS pretreatment coupled with GC-QqQ-MS. Additionally, low-temperature storage experiments were conducted to explore the variations in oxidation index as well as the PAH levels. The results revealed that PAH24 concentrations in butter and margarine were 50.75-310.64 μg/kg and 47.66-118.62 μg/kg, respectively. The PAH4 level in one type of butter reached 11.24 μg/kg beyond the EU standards. Over 160 days of storage at 4 °C, acid value (AV), peroxide value (POV), and acidity significantly increased, while malondialdehyde (MDA) content and carbonyl value (CGV) fluctuated. Concentrations of PAH24 and oxidized PAHs (OPAHs) experienced a notable reduction of 29.09% and 63.85%, respectively. The slow reduction in naphthalene (NaP) indicated the dynamic nature of PAHs during storage. However, the toxic equivalency quotients (TEQs) decreased slightly from a range of 0.65-1.90 to 0.39-1.77, with no significant difference. This study contributes to the understanding of variations in PAHs during storage, which is of great significance for food safety.

Methods of Minimizing Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbon Content in Homogenized Smoked Meat Sausages Using Different Casings and Variants of Meat-Fat Raw Material

To ensure food safety and protect human health, the levels of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH) contamination in model smoked-pork meat products were examined to select which type of casing and variant of raw material contributes to minimizing the content of PAHs in the final products. The sausages were smoked in a steam smoke chamber with an external smoke generator. The determination of PAHs was performed using the QuEChERS-HPLC-FLD/DAD method. The analyzed products met the requirements of Commission Regulation (EU) No. 835/2011 on the maximum permissible levels of PAHs. Statistically higher sums of 19 PAHs, including 15 heavy and 4 marker PAHs, were stated in smoked sausages in natural and cellulose casings. Synthetic casings like collagen and polyamide exhibited better barriers against PAH contamination than cellulose and natural casings. For each type of casing, significantly higher concentrations of PAHs were found in the external parts of the products. An increase in the fat content of the raw material increased the levels of PAH contamination in the products, regardless of the casing. Therefore, in industrial practice, the selection of an appropriate type of casing and raw material with the lowest possible fat content can be an effective method for reducing PAH levels in the interior of smoked meat products.

Assessing the Formation of Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons in Grilled Beef Steak and Beef Patty with Different Charcoals by the Quick, Easy, Cheap, Effective, Rugged, and Safe (QuEChERS) Method with Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry

This study investigated the effects of different charcoals on the occurrence of 16 polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in grilled beef steaks and beef patties. Seven different charcoals were used as follows: from oak wood (C1), from orange wood (C2), from Valonia oak wood (C3), from Marabu wood (C4), extruded charcoal from beech wood (C5), from coconut shells (C6), and from hazelnut shells (C7). The grilling times for each charcoal type were 6 min for the beef patties and 7 min for the beef steaks, until the internal temperature reached at least 74°C. The total concentration of 16 PAHs (PAH16) in beef steaks grilled with C1 (35.75 μg/kg) and C7 (36.39 μg/kg) was higher than that of C3 (23.80 μg/kg) and C6 (24.48 μg/kg; p<0.05). The highest amounts of PAH16 (216.40 μg/kg) were determined in the beef patty samples grilled using C5 (p<0.05). The summation of benzo[a]anthracene, chrysene, benzo[b]fluoranthene and benzo[a]pyrene, referred to as PAH4, was not detected in any of the beef steaks, whereas it was determined in the beef patties grilled with C2 (7.72 μg/kg) and C5 (22.95 μg/kg; p<0.05). The PAH16 concentrations of the beef patty samples in each charcoal group were significantly higher compared to the beef steaks (p<0.05). To avoid the formation of high PAH levels, the use of extruded charcoal and hazelnut shell charcoal should therefore be avoided when charcoal grilling beef steaks and beef patties, and low-fat meat products should be preferred.

Effectiveness of a covered oil-free cooking process on the abatement of air pollutants from cooking meats

Cooking events can generate household air pollutants that deteriorate indoor air quality (IAQ), which poses a threat to human health and well-being. In this study, the emission characteristics and emission factors (EFs) of air pollutants of different meats (beef, lamb, chicken, pork, and fish) cooked by a novel oil-free process and common with-oil processes were investigated. Oil-free cooking tends to emit lower total volatile organic compound (TVOC) levels and fewer submicron smoke particles and can reduce the intake of fat and calories. However, TVOC emissions during oil-free cooking were significantly different, and the lamb EFs were nearly 8 times higher than those during with-oil cooking. The particle-bound polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (ƩPPAH) and benzo(a)pyrene-equivalent (ƩBaPeq) EFs during with-oil cooking ranged from 76.1 to 140.5 ng/g and 7.7-12.4 ng/g, respectively, while those during oil-free cooking ranged from 41.0 to 176.6 ng/g and 5.4-47.6 ng/g, respectively. The ƩPPAH EFs of chicken, pork, and fish were lower during oil-free cooking than during cooking with oil. Furthermore, the ƩBaPeq EFs of beef, chicken, pork, and fish were lower during oil-free cooking than during cooking with oil. Therefore, it is recommended to use the oil-free method to cook chicken, pork, and fish to reduce ƩPPAH and ƩBaPeq emissions, but not recommended to cook lamb due to the increase of ƩBaPeq emissions. The with-oil uncovered cooking EFs of aldehydes ranged from 3.77 to 22.09 μg/g, and those of oil-free cooking ranged from 4.88 to 19.96 μg/g. The aldehyde EFs were lower during oil-free covered cooking than with-oil uncovered cooking for beef, chicken, and fish. This study provides a better realizing of new cooking approaches for the reduction of cooking-induced emission, but further research on the effects of food composition (moisture and fat) and characteristics is needed.

Formation, migration, derivation, and generation mechanism of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons during frying

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are carcinogenic and lipophilic, which can be found in frying system. This review summarized the formation, migration and derivation for PAHs, hypothesized the possible mechanism for PAHs generation during frying and presented the research prospects. Some factors like high oil consumption, high temperature, long time and oil rich in unsaturated fatty acids promoted the formation of PAHs and the presence of antioxidants inhibited the PAHs formation. The effect of proteins and carbohydrates in foods on the formation of PAHs is inconclusive. The formed PAHs were migrated into food and air. Moreover, some PAHs transformed into more toxic PAHs-derivatives during frying. The generation of PAHs may be related to low-barrier free radical-mediated reaction and the unsaturated hydrocarbons may be precursors of PAHs during frying. In future, the isotope tracer technology and on-line detection may be applied to discover intermediates and provide clues for studying PAHs generation mechanisms.

Levels and Health Risk Assessment of Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons in Vegetable Oils and Frying Oils by Using the Margin of Exposure (MOE) and the Incremental Lifetime Cancer Risk (ILCR) Approach in China

A total of 139 vegetable oils and 48 frying oils produced in China were tested for the levels of 15 Environmental Protection Agency-regulated polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs). The analysis was completed by high-performance liquid chromatography-fluorescence detection (HPLC-FLD). The limit of detection and limit of quantitation were ranged between 0.2-0.3 and 0.6-1 μg/kg, respectively. The average recovery was 58.6-90.6%. The highest mean of total PAHs was found in peanut oil (3.31 μg/kg), while the lowest content was found in olive oil (0.39 μg/kg). In brief, 32.4% of vegetable oils exceeded the European Union maximum levels in China. The detected level of total PAHs in vegetable oils was lower than the frying oils. The mean dietary exposure to PAH15 ranged from 0.197 to 2.051 ng BaPeq/kg bw/day. The margin of exposure values was greater than 10,000, and the cumulative probabilities of the incremental lifetime cancer risk of different age groups were less than the priority risk level (10^-4). Therefore, there was no potential health concern for specific populations.

Dynamic alterations in protein, sensory, chemical, and oxidative properties occurring in meat during thermal and non-thermal processing techniques: A comprehensive review

Meat processing represents an inevitable part of meat and meat products preparation for human consumption. Both thermal and non-thermal processing techniques, both commercial and domestic, are able to induce chemical and muscle's proteins modification which can have implication on oxidative and sensory meat characteristics. Consumers' necessity for minimally processed foods has paved a successful way to unprecedented exploration into various novel non-thermal food processing techniques. Processing of meat can have serious implications on its nutritional profile and digestibility of meat proteins in the digestive system. A plethora of food processing techniques can potentially induce alterations in the protein structure, palatability, bioavailability and digestibility via various phenomena predominantly denaturation and Maillard reaction. Apart from these, sensory attributes such as color, crispness, hardness, and total acceptance get adversely affected during various thermal treatments in meat. A major incentive in the adoption of non-thermal food processing is its energy efficiency. Considering this, several non-thermal processing techniques have been developed for evading the effects of conventional thermal treatments on food materials with respect to Maillard reactions, color changes, and off-flavor development. Few significant non-thermal processing techniques, such as microwave heating, comminution, and enzyme addition can positively affect protein digestibility as well as enhance the value of the final product. Furthermore, ultrasound, irradiation, high-pressure processing, and pulsed electric fields are other pivotal non-thermal food processing technologies in meat and meat-related products. The present review examines how different thermal and non-thermal processing techniques, such as sous-vide, microwave, stewing, roasting, boiling, frying, grilling, and steam cooking, affect meat proteins, chemical composition, oxidation, and sensory profile.

Enhanced commercial cooking inventories from the city scale through normalized emission factor dataset and big data

Cooking emission inventories always have poor spatial resolutions when applying with traditional methods, making their impacts on ambient air and human health remain obscure. In this study, we created a systematic dataset of cooking emission factors (CEFs) and applied it with a new data source, cooking-related point of interest (POI) data, to build up highly spatial resolved cooking emission inventories from the city scale. Averaged CEFs of six particulate and gaseous species (PM, OC, EC, NMHC, OVOCs, VOCs) were 5.92 ± 6.28, 4.10 ± 5.50, 0.05 ± 0.05, 22.54 ± 20.48, 1.56 ± 1.44, and 7.94 ± 6.27 g/h normalized in every cook stove, respectively. A three-field CEF index containing activity and emission factor species was created to identify and further build a connection with cooking-related POI data. A total of 95,034 cooking point sources were extracted from Beijing, as a study city. In downtown areas, four POI types were overlapped in the central part of the city and radiated into eight distinct directions from south to north. Estimated PM/VOC emissions caused by cooking activities in Beijing were 4.81/9.85 t per day. A 3D emission map showed an extremely unbalanced emission density in the Beijing region. Emission hotspots were seen in Central Business District (CBD), Sanlitun, and Wangjing in Chaoyang District and Willow and Zhongguancun in Haidian District. PM/VOC emissions could be as high as 16.6/42.0 kg/d in the searching radius of 2 km. For PM, the total emissions were 417.4, 389.0, 466.9, and 443.0 t between Q1 and Q4 2019 in Beijing, respectively. The proposed methodology is transferrable to other Chinese cities for deriving enhanced commercial cooking inventories and potentially highlighting the further importance of cooking emissions on air quality and human health.

Spatial distribution, driving factors and health risks of fine particle-bound polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) from indoors and outdoors in Hefei, China

Atmospheric particulate matter, especially in urban and industrial environments, can act as a source of different organic pollutants that can pose significant health impacts to residents. However, the pollution status and transport mechanisms of fine particle-bound polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in indoor and outdoor environments are uncertain. This study aimed to determine the spatial distribution and morphological characteristics of fine particle-bound PAHs and analyze the factors (source contributions and backward trajectories) that influence their concentrations. The results showed that mean concentrations of 16 PAHs were higher in indoor dust as compared to outdoor dust. In addition, the lowest concentrations of the 16 PAHs were found on the 11-20th floor, with smoking households > nonsmoking households (except Nap, Acy, and Ace). The 2-3 ring PAHs were more prominent in households with cooking activities. The particle size distribution showed that most of the particles were <62 μm in diameter, indicating that the indoor particles were smaller in size. Furthermore, the range of δ13C values in the outdoor dust (-30.17 ~ -28.63 ‰) samples was significantly lower than in indoor dust (-28.29 ~ -22.53 ‰). The results based on diagnostic ratios, positive matrix factorization (PMF) analysis and backward trajectory model analysis suggested that the sources of PAHs in indoor and outdoor dust were mixed, originated both locally and from neighboring provinces transported over long distances, especially concentrated in the Yangtze River Delta area. Finally, carcinogenic risk values for indoor dust were greater than those for outdoor dust. Therefore, it is recommended that local governments and industries with high PAH emissions should implement proper protocols to monitor and minimize the pollution levels of PAHs in the urban industrial environment in order to mitigate their health risks.

Inhalation risk to PAHs and BTEX during barbecuing: The role of fuel/food type and route of exposure

The manuscript presents an innovative and holistic approach to quantifying PAHs and BTEX emissions from the grilling process and indicates a novel driven-toxicity-based solution to recognize health effects related to BBQ emissions. The exposure scenario includes the type of grilling device, food type, and individual attitudes, but also a keen understanding of the broad health implications related to the gaseous/particulate PAHs emission, or age-related effects. The calculated incremental lifetime cancer risk (ILCR) associated with the exposure to PAH congeners and BTEX indicates an unacceptable level in the case of charcoal and briquette grilling with the highest values for professional cooks. The sum of 15 PAH concentrations in grilled foods was highest for meat grilling over charcoal briquettes - 382,020.39 ng/m³ and lowest for meat grilling on a gas grill - 1442.16 ng/m³. The emissions of BTEX from lump charcoal grilling were 130 times higher compared to the gaseous grill. In all considered scenarios lump-charcoal and charcoal briquettes grilling derive the ILCR above the 10^-4, indicating negative effects of traditional grills on human health. The paper completes knowledge of wide-ranging health implications associated with BBQs, a topic that is almost completely unaddressed among the scientific community and policymakers.

In vitro and in vivo low-dose exposure of simulated cooking oil fumes to assess adverse biological effects

Cooking oil fumes (COFs) represent a major indoor environmental pollutant and exhibit potent mutagenic or carcinogenic health effects caused by containing various heterocyclic aromatic amines (HAAs) and long-chain aldehydes. Despite some evaluation of the cumulative exposure of COFs to cancer cells under high concentration were evaluated, their biological adverse effects with low-dose exposure to healthy cells had been inadequately investigated. Herein, we firstly scrutinized the three selected typically toxic compounds of heterocyclic amine 2-amino-1-methyl-6-phenylimidazo[4,5-b]pyridine (PhIP), 3,8-dimethylammidazo[4,5-f]quinoxalin-2-amine (MeIQx) and trans, trans-2,4-decadienal (TDA)) emitted from COFs. In vitro studies revealed that the PhIP, MeIQx and TDA aerosol particles were negligible toxicity to cancer cells (A549 and HepG-2) but strong cytotoxicity to normal healthy cells (HelF and L02) under 0.5–4 μg/mL low dose exposure based on the reactive oxygen species (ROS) mechanism. In vivo studies demonstrated that PhIP caused significant lung and liver damage after exposure to PhIP for 30 days with mice. These results indicated the direct proof of healthy cell damage even at low-dose exposure to HAAs and aldehydes.

Assessing Impacts of Additives on Particulate Matter and Volatile Organic Compounds Produced from the Grilling of Meat

Cooking fumes are an important source of volatile organic compounds (VOCs), particulate matter (PM), and carbonyl compounds. The additive is wildly applied in grilling meat for flavor improvement. However, the effects of additives on cooking fumes emissions, such as volatile organic compounds (VOCs), particulate matter (PM), and carbonyl compounds, in meat grilling have not been studied. The impact of four additives, including white pepper, salt, garlic powder, and compound marinade, on the emission characteristics of cooking fumes from the grilling meat was investigated. The concentrations of VOCs and carbonyl compounds in the cooking fumes were analyzed by TD-GC/MS and HPLC, respectively. The PM emission characteristics (mass concentration and size distribution) were measured by DustTrak DRX aerosol monitor in real-time. Results showed that the application of white pepper, salt, garlic powder, and mixed spices could significantly reduce the total particles mass concentration (TPM) emissions during meat-grilling by 65.07%, 47.86%, 32.87%, and 56.01%, respectively. The mass concentration of PM during meat-grilling reached maximum values ranging from 350 to 390 s and gradually fell at the final stages of grilling. The total concentration of 22 representative VOCs emitted from the grilling was significantly increased in grilling meat marinated with compound additives. Aromatic hydrocarbons were the predominant VOCs species, followed by ketone compounds. During the grilling process, formaldehyde, acetaldehyde, propionaldehyde, and acetone were major carbonyl compounds. The low molecular weight carbonyl compounds (C1–C3) in cooking fumes were dominant carbonyl compounds.

Concentrations, influencing factors, risk assessment methods, health hazards and analyses of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in dairies: a review

The occurrence of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in dairies has been widely reported. Consumers may be overly exposed to PAHs through dairies causing health risks. Hazards can be reduced by controlling influencing factors in the full-chain of dairy production. This review briefly introduces research trends and analytical methods concerning PAHs in dairies. Additionally, this review discusses influencing factors of PAH concentrations in various dairies to avoid PAHs' formation and accumulation during manufacture. Relevant regulations are referred to and the reported risk assessment methods are summarized. Furthermore, indicators of health risks including TEQBaP, the number and the rate of over-standard are calculated based on PAH concentrations. Through analyses, we find PAH and BaP contamination in dairies are complex problems depending on environment, processing and storage. There was a significant correlation between fat contents and PAH concentrations. Results of infant formula in certain research were worrying and those of smoked cheeses are remarkably high indicating the dangerous smoking process. It is significant to monitor PAHs and calculate TEQBaP from meadows to feeders. Moreover, the existing regulations are insufficient and need strengthening. The data and discussions in this review contribute to worldwide Big Data, further scientific investigation and regulations for PAHs in dairies.

Chemical hazards in smoked meat and fish

This review aims to give an insight into the main hazards currently found in smoked meat and fish products. Literature research was carried out on international databases such as Access to Global Online Research in Agriculture (AGORA) database, Science direct, and Google scholar to collect and select 92 relevant publications included in this review. The smoking process was described and five hazards mostly found in smoked fish and meat were presented. The heat-induced compounds such as polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, heterocyclic amines, and nitrosamines were found in smoked fish and meat. Other hazards such as biogenic amines and heavy metals were also present in smoked fish and meat. The levels of these hazards reported from the literature exceeded the maximal limits of European Union. A brief description of risk assessment methodology applicable to such toxic compounds and risk assessment examples was also presented in this review. As most of the hazards reported in this review are toxic and even carcinogenic to humans, actions should be addressed to reduce their presence in food to protect consumer health and to prevent public health issue.

The chemical composition and toxicological effects of fine particulate matter (PM2.5) emitted from different cooking styles

The mass, chemical composition and toxicological properties of fine particulates (PM_2.5) emitted from cooking activities in three Hong Kong based restaurants and two simulated cooking experiments were characterized. Extracts from the PM_2.5 samples elicited significant biological activities [cell viability, generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS), DNA damage and inflammation effect (TNF-α)] in a dose-dependent manner. The composition of PAHs, oxygenated PAHs (OPAHs) and azaarenes (AZAs) mixtures differed between samples. The concentration ranges of the Σ30PAHs, Σ17OPAHs and Σ4AZAs and Σ7Carbonyls in the samples were 9627-23,452 pg m^-3, 503-3700 pg m^-3, 33-263 pg m^-3 and 158 - 5328 ng m^-3, respectively. Cell viability caused by extracts from the samples was positively correlated to the concentration of benzo[a]anthracene, indeno[1,2,3-cd]pyrene and 1,4-naphthoquinone in the PM_2.5 extracts. Cellular ROS production (upon exposure to extracts) was positively correlated with the concentrations of PM_2.5, decaldehyde, acridine, Σ17OPAHs and 7 individual OPAHs. TNF-α showed significant positive correlations with the concentrations of most chemical species (elemental carbon, 16 individual PAHs including benzo[a]pyrene, Σ30PAHs, SO₄^2-, Ca²⁺, Ca, Na, K, Ti, Cr, Mn, Fe, Cu and Zn). The concentrations of Al, Ti, Mn, Σ30PAHs and 8 individual PAHs including benzo[a]pyrene in the samples were positively correlated with DNA damage caused by extracts from the samples. This study demonstrates that inhalation of PM_2.5 emitted from cooking could result in adverse human health effects.

Monitoring of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and probabilistic health risk assessment in yogurt and butter in Iran

This study was conducted to determine the polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) levels and health risk of yogurt and butter samples collected from Tehran using MSPE/GC-MS (magnetic solid-phase extraction/gas chromatography-mass spectrometry). The results revealed that the limit of detection (LOD) and limit of quantification (LOQ) were ranged from 0.040 to 0.060 and 0.121 to 0.181 μg/kg, respectively; with recoveries ranged from 86.1% to 100.3%. The highest mean of total PAHs was higher in butter (6.87 ± 1.21 μg/kg) than in yogurt (3.82 ± 0.54 μg/kg). The level of benzo (a)pyrene in all samples was lower than of standard levels of the European Union (EU). The highest value of all PAHs in samples was recorded in the winter season and also in the expiration date. The percentile 95% of the total hazard quotient (THQ) due to the consumption of yogurt and butter recorded 1.33E-02 and 3.69E-04 in adults and 6.12E-02 and 1.75E-03 in children, respectively. The percentile of 95% incremental lifetime of cancer risk (ILCR) due to the ingestion of yogurt and butter recorded 1.17E-06 and 2.02E-08 for adults and 5.51E-06 and 9.46E-08 for children, respectively. The rank order of 7 PAHs in adult and children based on P95% Hazard Quotient (HQ) in all samples was benzo(a)anthracene (BaA) > pyrene (P) > fluorene (F) > fluoranthene (Fl) > acenaphthylene (Ace) > anthracene (A) > naphthalene (NA). According to the Monte Carlo Simulation (MCS) method, health-risk assessment showed that children and adults are not at significant health risk.

Probing the impact of conventional oil frying on the formation of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in rabbit meat

The study estimates, for the first time, the polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) concentration (pyrene, fluoranthene, phenanthrene, anthracene, fluorene, and naphthalene) in rabbit meat samples. The study explores the effect of frying and the influence of cooking recipe (with or without condiments/additives) on different parts (hind legs, forelegs, and back), on PAH generation. A total of 36 meat samples on different parts from uncooked, cooked, chapli, and seekh kebabs were prepared and characterized by gas chromatography/mass spectrometry (GC/MS). PAHs data in all the samples indicate that cooking recipes (with and without additives/condiments) greatly affected the PAHs concentration. Significant concentrations of phenanthrene, fluoranthene, and naphthalene were formed in all the samples after cooking (frying) but naphthalene was dominant in terms of its concentration formed. A higher concentration of naphthalene was detected in the foreleg (4.56 µg/g) as well as in the hind leg (4.08 µg/g) seekh kebab (with additives), while foreleg chapli kebab (with additives) contained 1.44 µg/g PAH concentration. Frying is the processing methodology that causes the highest impact on PAHs. Contents of anthracene were detected only in the back (raw sample and chapli kebab), foreleg (without additives and seekh kebab), and hind leg (seekh kebab). In all rabbit meat samples, fluorene and pyrene were not identified.

Polycyclic and nitro-polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon pollution characteristics and carcinogenic risk assessment of indoor kitchen air during cooking periods in rural households in North China

Medium-flow atmospheric samplers were used to collect particulate (PM_2.5) and gaseous samples from the indoor kitchen of each of 35 randomly selected rural houses in North China while a meal was being cooked. The concentrations of 16 polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and 9 nitro-PAHs (NPAHs) in the samples were quantified by high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). This study provided the real PAH and NPAH pollution characteristics and carcinogenic risk produced by cooking in rural indoor kitchens in North China. The mean PAH and NPAH concentrations in air in the indoor kitchens during cooking periods were 4049.1 and 1741.6 ng/m³, respectively. The PAH and NPAH concentrations were lower in the particulate phase than the gaseous phase. The mean PAH and NPAH concentrations were much higher for cooking using coal than for cooking using liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) or electricity. The PAH and NPAH benzo[a]pyrene toxic equivalent (TEQ_BaP) concentrations for cooking using coal were 1823.3 and 2760.9 ng/m³, respectively. Lower PAH and NPAH concentrations were found in kitchens with than without range hoods. Range hoods decreased the PAH and NPAH TEQ_BaP concentrations by 68.8% and 61.9%, respectively. Appropriate fuel and ventilation choice will improve air pollution in indoor kitchens during cooking. The results provide important evidence for changing cooking habits and developing policies for cooking in rural China.

Concentration and health risk assessment of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in commercial tea and coffee samples marketed in Iran

The aim of the current study was to evaluate the probabilistic health risk and the concentration of 16 polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in commercial tea and coffee samples. For determining the mentioned contaminants in sixty-four samples, a reliable and sensitive technique was validated and developed. The technique is established on magnetic solid-phase extraction and gas chromatography-mass spectrometry analysis (MSPE/GC-MS). The maximum mean of ƩPAHs in coffee samples was 13.75 ± 2.90 μg kg^-1, while the minimum mean ƩPAHs in tea samples was 4.77 ± 1.01 μg kg^-1. The mean concentration of benzo(a)pyrene (BaP) in samples ranged from 0.64 to 2.07 μg kg^-1 which was lower than that of standard levels (10 μg kg^-1) established by the European Union (EU). The Monte Carlo simulation results showed that the actual target hazard quotient (THQ) for the adult and children was equal to 1.63E-04 and 1.67E-04, respectively; hence, non-carcinogenic health risk for consumers is negligible. The result of actual incremental lifetime cancer risk (ILCR) was lower than the limits of safe risk (1E-4), indicating no notable possibility of cancer risk due to the digestion of tea and coffee for children and adults. Therefore, it can be concluded that the amount of contamination of popular commercial coffee and tea available in the Iranian market with PAHs is often similar to that found in other countries and was lower than the standard of EU. Thus, the processing conditions of these products must be controlled to prevent the formation of PAHs due to the suspicion of carcinogenicity and mutation.

Effect of charcoal type on the formation of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in grilled meats

The effect of grilling using three charcoal types (white, black, and extruded charcoal) on the formation of 16 polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in three types of meat (beef loin, pork belly, and chicken thigh) was evaluated. Meats were grilled using a standardized technique until an internal temperature of 71-75 °C was reached. The limits of quantitation, relative recoveries, and precisions of the PAH analyses using GC/MS were 0.03-0.31 μg/kg, 73.5-120.5%, and 0.54-5.02%, respectively. Meats grilled using extruded charcoal showed the highest levels of PAHs (p < 0.0001) among the different charcoals. Additionally, higher levels of 4 PAHs were found in pork belly than beef loin and chicken thigh meat, due to its high fat content (p < 0.0001). The effects of charcoal and meat types showed a high coefficiency (p < 0.0001). These results indicated that the combination of white charcoal and low-fat meat could reduce PAHs formation in charcoal-grilled meat.

Quantification of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in kitchen depositions by SUPRAS-LC-FLR and human health risk assessment

Concentration, composition and sources of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in kitchen depositions from different sampling categories such as restaurants, university mess and houses were investigated, and associated human exposure risk through dietary intake, inhalation and dermal contact was determined. The PAHs in the samples were extracted by supramolecular solvent based microextraction (SUPRAS) method and the concentrations were determined by high pressure liquid chromatography (HPLC) with fluorescence detection. The mean of Σ16PAHs concentration was found to be the highest (386.09 ± 413.17 mg kg^-1) for restaurants followed by mess (80.91 ± 92.81 mg kg^-1) and houses (24.65 ± 10.52 mg kg^-1). Traffic sources were found to be predominant contributors of PAHs in restaurants while cooking activities were the sources for mess and houses. Three- and five-ring PAHs were prominent in restaurants and mess samples while two- and three-ring PAHs contributed the most in houses samples. Non-cancer risk (hazard index) from exposure to these PAHs was found to be within safe limits i.e. 2.70E-09 to 7.46E-08. Estimated lifetime cancer risk was found to range from 2.46E-06 to 7.81E-04 from exposure to these PAHs and indicates significant risk due to exceeding the guideline value of 10^-6.

Risk assessment of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and their chlorinated derivatives produced during cooking and released in exhaust gas

Cooking exhaust gas includes polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) that are unintentionally generated during cooking, which exposes the cook and others in the vicinity to these toxic compounds. However, information on the occurrence of PAHs, particularly their chlorinated derivatives (ClPAHs), in cooking exhaust gas is limited. Here, we determined the concentrations of 12 PAHs and 20 ClPAHs in cooking exhaust gas emitted during gas-grilling of a Pacific saury using a typical Japanese fish grill in an indoor kitchen. The total concentrations of PAHs and ClPAHs in the cooking exhaust gas were 3400 and 19 ng m^-3, respectively. All 12 PAHs were detected in the cooking exhaust gas, with phenanthrene (2100 ng m^-3), fluorene (630 ng m^-3), and anthracene (200 ng m^-3) detected at the highest concentrations. Four of the 20 ClPAHs were detected, with 9-monochlorinated phenanthrene detected at the highest concentration (12 ng m^-3). The exposure rates for the cook to the PAHs and ClPAHs in the cooking exhaust gas, estimated using the National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology - Indoor Consumer Exposure Assessment Tool (AIST-ICET), were in the range of 7.2-72 ng-BaP_eq kg^-1 day^-1 (toxic equivalent concentrations relative to the toxicity of benzo[a]pyrene), which was comparable with that for dietary ingestion of cooked foods (54 ng-BaP_eq kg^-1 day^-1). A risk assessment of exposure to PAHs and ClPAHs in cooking exhaust gas in the indoor environment revealed that this gas may pose a health risk to the cook (incremental lifetime cancer risk: 2.1 × 10^-6 to 2.1 × 10^-5), indicating that further investigations are warranted.

The concentration of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in the processed meat samples collected from Iran's market: a probabilistic health risk assessment study

The concentration of PAHs among raw and cooked meat products (sausages and burgers), randomly collected from five regions of Tehran, Iran, was investigated by the aid of a gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS), and the risk assessment was conducted. The concentration of 16 types of PAHs in sausage and burger samples was found in the range of 8.08 to 29.55 and 10.18 to 29.85 μg/kg, respectively. The concentrations of some PAHs such as anthracene (A) (14.12 μg/kg) and acenaphthylene (Acl) (13.4 μg/kg) were higher than the European Standard (2 μg/kg). Among the meat products with different meat percentages (50, 70, and 90), the highest level of total PAHs was noted in the product containing 90% meat (19.34 μg/kg), while the highest mean level of PAHs was noted in fried meat products (23.31 μg/kg). A positive and significant correlation between cooking method and brand of product with the concentration of PAHs (p-value < 0.05) was noted. Also, no concern regarding the non-carcinogenic risk due to the ingestion of PAHs via consumption of the meat products was demonstrated by the health risk. However, the carcinogenic risk due to the consumption of sausage and burger was at the tolerable (1E-6 to 1E-4) and considerable (> 1E-4) risk levels, respectively. In this regard, further assessments to control and modify the cooking method among the Iranian population were recommended.

Cocoa beans of different origins and varieties and their derived products contamination with polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons

Levels of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in cocoa beans of several varieties originating from different countries and their derived products from one technological line were examined. PAHs analysis was performed using HPLC-FLD/DAD and confirmed by GC-MS. Significant differences in total 19 PAHs contents between raw cocoa beans of different varieties and origins were observed. The highest sums of 19 PAHs were determined in roasted cocoa beans, cocoa mass and cocoa butter (16.69-74.15 μg kg^-1 of fat). The roasting temperature of 160 °C led to PAHs formation, though not the heavy ones. Lowering temperature to 140 °C while extending the time minimized the total contamination but to a small extent. In all samples relatively low levels of total contamination were noted, with light PAHs being predominant and the sum of 4 heavy and marker PAHs much lower than the maximum legal limit. Therefore, analysed products, especially chocolate, do not threaten consumers' health.

Concentrations and distributions of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon in vegetables and animal-based foods before and after grilling: Implication for human exposure

The effects of grilling on health risks posed by polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in food remain poorly understood. The changes of concentrations, distributions, and risks of PAHs in vegetables and animal-based foods before and after grilling were investigated in this study. The sum of 16 (∑₁₆) PAH concentrations in grilled vegetables and grilled animal-based foods were 60.4-1936 and 69.1-4668 ng/g, respectively. Grilling markedly increased the ∑₁₆ PAH concentrations in most foods analyzed. Grilling clearly increased the low-molecular-weight PAH contributions to the ∑₁₆ PAH concentrations in vegetables but increased the heavier PAH contributions to the ∑₁₆ PAH concentrations in some animal-based foods. With the grilling, the total benzo[a]pyrene-equivalent concentrations of the 16 PAHs in Chinese chives and enoki mushrooms and most animal-based foods were improved significantly. Source assessments indicated that environmental sources contributed PAHs to the raw foods and high-temperature pyrolysis during grilling contributed large proportions of the PAHs in the grilled foods. The carcinogenic risks to humans from the exposure of PAHs in vegetables and animal-based foods were estimated. Grilling increased the total risks of PAHs in vegetables and animal-based foods by factors of 3.12 and 5.49, respectively. Total risks of PAHs in the 11 foods were 3.43 times higher when the foods were grilled than when raw. The results suggested that the negative effects of grilling on human health should be of great concern.

Comparison of PM2.5 emission rates and source profiles for traditional Chinese cooking styles

The number of restaurants is increasing rapidly in recent years, especially in urban cities with dense populations. Particulate matter emitted from commercial and residential cooking is a significant contributor to both indoor and outdoor aerosols. The PM_2.5 emission rates and source profiles are impacted by many factors (cooking method, food type, oil type, fuel type, additives, cooking styles, cooking temperature, source surface area, pan, and ventilation) discussed in previous studies. To determine which cooking activities are most influential on PM_2.5 emissions and work towards cleaner cooking, an experiment design based on multi-factor and level orthogonal tests was conducted in a laboratory that is specifically designed to resemble a professional restaurant kitchen. In this cooking test, four main parameters (the proportion of meat in ingredients, flavor, cooking technique, oil type) were chosen and five levels for each parameter were selected to build up 25 experimental dishes. Concentrations of PM_2.5 emission rates, organic carbon/elemental carbon (OC/EC), water-soluble ions, elements, and main organic species (PAHs, n-alkanes, alkanoic acids, fatty acids, dicarboxylic acids, polysaccharides, and sterols) were investigated across 25 cooking tests. The statistical significance of the data was analyzed by analysis of variance (ANOVA) with ranges calculated to determine the influence orders of the 4 parameters. The PM_2.5 emission rates of 25 experimental dishes ranged from 0.1 to 9.2 g/kg of ingredients. OC, EC, water-soluble ions (WSI), and elements accounted for 10.49-94.85%, 0-1.74%, 10.09-40.03%, and 0.04-3.93% of the total PM_2.5, respectively. Fatty acids, dicarboxylic acids, n-alkanes, alkanoic acids, and sterols were the most abundant organic species and accounted for 2.32-93.04%, 0.84-60.36%, 0-45.05%, and 0-25.42% of total PM_2.5, respectively. There was no significant difference between the 4 parameters on PM_2.5 emission rates, while a significant difference was found in WSI, elements, n-alkanes, and dicarboxylic acids according to ANOVA. Cooking technique was found to be the most influential factor for PM_2.5 source profiles, followed by the proportion of meat in ingredients and oil type which resulted in significant difference of 183.19, 185.14, and 115.08 g/kg of total PM_2.5 for dicarboxylic acids, n-alkanes, and WSI, respectively. Strong correlations were found among PM_2.5 and OC (r = 0.854), OC and sterols (r = 0.919), PAHs and n-alkanes (r = 0.850), alkanoic acids and fatty acids (r = 0.877), and many other species of PM_2.5.

Indoor Sources of Air Pollutants

People spend an average of 90% of their time in indoor environments. There is a long list of indoor sources that can contribute to increased pollutant concentrations, some of them related to human activities (e.g. people's movement, cooking, cleaning, smoking), but also to surface chemistry reactions with human skin and building and furniture surfaces. The result of all these emissions is a heterogeneous cocktail of pollutants with varying degrees of toxicity, which makes indoor air quality a complex system. Good characterization of the sources that affect indoor air pollution levels is of major importance for quantifying (and reducing) the associated health risks. This chapter reviews some of the more significant indoor sources that can be found in the most common non-occupational indoor environments.

Determination of the emission rate for ultrafine and accumulation mode particles as a function of time during the pan-frying of fish

Particulate matter (PM) from cooking is considered one of the most harmful indoor air pollutants causing numerous adverse health effects, and it is essential to comprehend the characteristics of the particles generated from cooking to prevent these problems. In this study, we investigated PM from the pan-frying of salmon using number concentration and developed emission rates as a function of time for ultrafine particles (UFPs < 100 nm) and accumulation mode particles (AMPs 0.1-1 μm). The newly defined emission rates vary significantly with time and are very different from the conventionally determined rates that do not consider the variation of particle concentration with time. The emission rate of UFPs decreased over time after a sharp rise, whereas that of AMPs continued to increase, resulting in a change in the proportions of UFPs and AMPs in the total PM from 93 to 7% to 72 and 28%, respectively. Particle-particle interactions such as coagulation and coalescence were observed between primary particles via high resolution transmission electron microscopy (HR-TEM), which is a plausible reason for the decreasing emission rate of UFPs with time. The emission rate as a function of time can serve as a tool to estimate PM from cooking, as well as to monitor the change trends through phenomena such as agglomeration.

Safety analysis of edible oil products via Raman spectroscopy

Raman spectroscopy is a spectroscopic technique based on Raman scattering effects and provide a structural fingerprint by which molecules can be identified. Owing to its non-destructive, high sensitivity and allowing on-line detection, Raman spectroscopy is now increasingly being applied in various fields from fundamental research to engineering in food safety. Edible oils provide high nutritional value in the human diet and their safety and quality have become a major concern and issue. Thus, edible oils have been the subject of a number of applications of Raman spectroscopy. This present review briefly evaluates Raman spectroscopy applications in the quality and safety analysis of oil products in the latest decade. In addition, by integrating the introduction of the detection of harmful substances and bioactive components in oil product, this paper also summarizes a series of emerging analytical technologies in applications of Raman spectroscopy.

Small Molecular Weight Aldose (d-Glucose) and Basic Amino Acids (l-Lysine, l-Arginine) Increase the Occurrence of PAHs in Grilled Pork Sausages

(1) Background: Amino acids and carbohydrates are widely used as additives in the food industry. These compounds have been proven to be an influencing factor in the production of chemical carcinogenic compounds polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs). However, the effect of the properties of the amino acids and carbohydrates on the production of PAHs is still little known. (2) Methods: We added different (i) R groups (the R group represents an aldehyde group in a glucose molecule or a ketone group in a fructose molecule); (ii) molecular weight carbohydrates; (iii) polarities, and (iv) acid-base amino acids to pork sausages. The effects of the molecular properties of carbohydrates and amino acids on the formation of PAHs in grilled pork sausages were investigated. (3) Results: The results showed that a grilled sausage with aldehyde-based d-glucose was capable of producing more PAHs than a sausage with keto-based d-fructose. A higher PAH content was determined in the grilled pork sausage when the smaller molecular weight, d-glucose, was added compared with the sausage where the larger molecular weight, 4-(α-d-glucosido)-d-glucose and cellulose were added. The addition of basic amino acids (l-lysine, l-arginine) was capable of producing more PAHs compared with the addition of acidic amino acids (l-glutamic acid, l-aspartate). When amino acid containing a benzene ring was added, a smaller volume of PAHs was produced compared with the addition of other amino acids. (4) Conclusions: Our study suggests that systematic consideration of molecule properties is necessary when using food additives (amino acids and carbohydrates) for food processing.

Size distribution and clothing-air partitioning of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons generated by barbecue

Barbecue (BBQ) is one of the most popular cooking activities with charcoal worldwide and produces abundant polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and particulate matter. Size distribution and clothing-air partitioning of particle-bound PAHs are significant for assessing potential health hazards to humans due to exposure to BBQ fumes, but have not been examined adequately. To address this issue, particle and gaseous samples were collected at 2-m and 10-m distances from a cluster of four BBQ stoves. Personal samplers and cotton clothes were carried by volunteers sitting near the BBQ stoves. Particle-bound PAHs (especially 4-6 rings) derived from BBQ fumes were mostly affiliated with fine particles in the size range of 0.18-1.8 μm. High molecular-weight PAHs were mostly unimodal peaking in fine particles and consequently had small geometric mean diameters and standard deviations. Source diagnostics indicated that particle-bound PAHs in BBQ fumes were generated primarily by combustion of charcoal, fat content in food, and oil. The influences of BBQ fumes on the occurrence of particle-bound PAHs decreased with increasing distance from BBQ stoves, due to increased impacts of ambient sources, especially by petrogenic sources and to a lesser extent by wind speed and direction. Octanol-air and clothing-air partition coefficients of PAHs obtained from personal air samples were significantly correlated to each other. High molecular-weight PAHs had higher area-normalized clothing-air partition coefficients in cotton clothes, i.e., cotton fabrics may be a significant reservoir of higher molecular-weight PAHs.

CAPSULE

Particle-bound PAHs from barbecue fumes are generated largely from charcoal combustion and food-charred emissions and mainly affiliated with fine particles.

Environmental and lifestyle factors affecting exposure to polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in the general population in a Middle Eastern area

The aim of this study was to investigate environmental and lifestyle factors affecting exposure to PAHs in the general population in a large city of the Middle East (Tehran) by measuring urinary monohydroxy polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (OH-PAHs) and establishing relationships between PAHs exposure and related factors. Urine samples were collected from 222 randomly chosen subjects who were living in the urban area of Tehran, Iran. Subjects were required to complete a detailed questionnaire aimed to document their personal and sociodemographic information, activities, cooking-related appliances, smoking history/exposure, and consumed foodstuff. Identification and quantification of six OH-PAHs was carried out using a gas chromatography with mass spectrometry (GC-MS). The geometric means for 1-OHP, 1-NAP, 2-NAP, 2-FLU, 9-FLU, and 9-PHE for whole population study were 310, 1220, 3070, 530, 330, and 130 ng/g creatinine, respectively. The two naphthalene metabolites contributed on average 77% of the total concentration of six measured OH-PAHs, followed by the 2-FLU, 1-OHP, 9-FLU, and 9-PHE. The most important predictors of urinary PAHs were consumption of grilled/barbecued foods, smoking, and exposure to environmental tobacco smoking. Water pipe smoking was linked to urinary OH-PAH metabolite in a dose-response function. Residential traffic was also related with OH-PAH metabolite concentrations. Other factors including gender, age, exposure to common house insecticides, open burning, and candle burning were found to be statistically associated with the urinary levels of some OH-PAHs. High exposure to PAHs among general population in Middle Eastern large cities and its associated health implications calls for public health measures to reduce PAHs exposure.

Assessment of airborne polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in a megacity of South China: Spatiotemporal variability, indoor-outdoor interplay and potential human health risk

Although a number of studies have assessed the occurrence of atmospheric polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in indoor environment, few studies have systemically examined the indoor-outdoor interplay of size-dependent particulate PAHs and potential health risk based on daily lifestyles. In the present study, size-dependent particle and gaseous samples were collected both indoors and outdoors within selected schools, offices and residences located in three districts of Guangzhou, China with different urbanization levels during the dry and wet weather seasons. Results from measurements of PAHs showed that higher total PAH concentrations occurred in residential areas than in other settings and in indoor than in outdoor environments. Compositional profiles and size distribution patterns of particle-bound PAHs were similar indoors and outdoors, predominated by 4-and 5-ring PAHs and the 0.56-1.0 μm particle fraction. Statistical analyses indicated that outdoor sources may have contributed to 38-99% and 62-100% of the variations for indoor particle-bound and gaseous PAH concentrations, respectively. Incremental life cancer risk (ILCR) from human exposure to indoor and outdoor PAHs based on different lifestyles followed the order of adults > children > adolescents > seniors. All average ILCR values for four age groups were below the lower limit of the Safe Acceptable Range (10^-6). In addition, the ILCR value for adults (average: 7.2 × 10^-7; 95% CI: 5.4 × 10^-8‒2.5 × 10^-6), estimated from outdoor air PAH levels with 24-h exposure time, was significantly higher than our assessment results (average: 5.9 × 10^-7; 95% CI: 6.3 × 10^-8‒1.9 × 10^-6), suggesting the significance of assessing human inhalation exposure risks of indoor and outdoor PAHs in urban air based on daily lifestyles.

Determination of benzo[α]pyrene in edible oil using tetraoxocalix[2]arene[2]triazine bonded silica SPE sorbent

Benzo[α]pyrene (BaP) is a well-known carcinogen in edible oil. In this study, a method combined solid-phase extraction (SPE) with fluorescent detection was developed using tetraoxocalix[2]arene[2]triazine sorbent (SiO₂-OCA) for the clean-up and enrichment of BaP. The interaction between SiO₂-OCA and BaP involves a donor-acceptor complex mechanism. The experimental procedure was as follows: BaP was extracted from edible oil with DMF/H₂O (9:1, v/v). Then, the ratio of DMF/H₂O was adjusted to 1:2 prior to SPE. The final concentrate was analysed using a fluorescence detector at excitation and emission wavelengths of 255 and 420 nm. The method was fully validated. The linearity was in the range of 0.1-100 μg kg^-1 with a coefficient of 0.999. The limits of detection and quantification were 0.03 and 0.1 μg kg^-1, respectively. The average recoveries were in the range of 88.0 - 122.3%. The intraday and interday precisions were 6.8% and 9.2%, respectively. Compared with other methods, the method reported in this article shows a good detection limit, high reproducibility and recovery and linearity over a broad concentration range. This established method was also applied to evaluate real samples. The concentration of six tested samples was below 5 μg kg^-1.

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) content of edible vegetable oils in Iran: A risk assessment study

Totally forty samples (23 brands) of different types of edible oils including frying oil (n = 14), blended oil (n = 13), sunflower oil (n = 6), corn oil (n = 5) and canola oil (n = 2) from Iran's market were analyzed for PAHs content by a High-performance liquid chromatography coupled with fluorescence detector. Also, the Health risk assessment in the adults and children consumers were estimated by the calculating margin of exposure (MOE) and the incremental lifetime cancer risk (ILCR) in the Monte Carlo Simulation (MCS) method. Approximately all of the samples contained different amounts of PAHs, while concentrations of BaP, PAH 4, PAH 8 and PAH 13 were reported as 0.90-11.33, 3.51-84.03, 7.41-117.12 and 129.28-19.54 μg/kg, respectively. Light polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons corresponded to 65% of total PAHs while the remaining 35% belonged to heavy polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons. Based on BaP content, 12 samples were above the standard limits (2 μg/kg) which set by the Standard Organization of Iran and the European Union, whereas 15 samples exceeded maximum limit 10 μg/kg set for PAH 4 established by EU. Percentile 95% of MOE in the adults due to ingestion of sunflower, corn, frying and blended oils were determined as 4.10E+5; 4.05E+5; , 2.17E+5, 2.33E+5, respectively and in the children due to ingestion of sunflower oil, corn oil, frying oil and blended oil were calculated as 5.38E+4, 4.49E+4, 2.86E+4, 3.37E+4. Regarding the percentile of 95% ILCR in the adults due to ingestion of sunflower oil, corn oil, frying oil and blended oil were reported as 4.5E-6, 4.17E-6l, 5.20E-6, 4.93E-6 and also this value in the children in the same rank order of products can be summarized as 3.43E-5, 3.94 E-5, 3.17E-5, 3.76E-5. The rank order of edible oils investigated based on MOE was sunflower oil > corn oil > blended oil > frying oil; and based on ILCR, frying oil > blended oil > sunflower oil > corn oil. The health risk assessment according to MCS method indicated that adults and children are not at considerable health risk; MOE ≥ 1E+4 and ILCR < 1E-4).

Particulate matter emissions and gaseous air toxic pollutants from commercial meat cooking operations

This study assessed the effectiveness of three novel control technologies for particulate matter (PM) and volatile organic compound (VOC) removal from commercial meat cooking operations. All experiments were conducted using standardized procedures at University of California, Riverside's commercial test cooking facility. PM mass emissions collected using South Coast Air Quality Management District (SCAQMD) Method 5.1, as well as a dilution tunnel-based PM method showed statistically significantly reductions for each control technology when compared to baseline testing (i.e., without a catalyst). Overall, particle number emissions decreased with the use of control technologies, with the exception of control technology 2 (CT2), which is a grease removal technology based on boundary layer momentum transfer (BLMT) theory. Particle size distributions were unimodal with CT2 resulting in higher particle number populations at lower particle diameters. Organic carbon was the dominant PM component (>99%) for all experiments. Formaldehyde and acetaldehyde were the most abundant carbonyl compounds and showed reductions with the application of the control technologies. Some reductions in mono-aromatic VOCs were also observed with CT2 and the electrostatic precipitator (ESP) CT3 compared to the baseline testing.

Characteristics of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in PM2.5 emitted from different cooking activities in China

Nineteen polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in PM_2.5 emitted from five different cooking activities were characterized, and their influencing factors were determined. The total quantified particle-bounded PAH concentrations (ΣPAHs) in the airs from the cooking activities were 4.2-36.5-fold higher than those in corresponding backgrounds. The highest ΣPAHs were seen in cafeteria frying (783 ± 499 ng/m³), followed by meat roasting (420 ± 191 ng/m³), fish roasting (210 ± 105 ng/m³), snack-street boiling (202 ± 230 ng/m³), and cafeteria boiling (150 ± 65 ng/m³). The main influencing factors on the PAH emissions were cooking methods, fat contents in raw materials, and oil consumptions. Four- to six-ringed PAHs had the highest contributions to the ΣPAHs (avg. 87.5%). Diagnostic ratios of individual PAH were similar between the two charbroiling and other three conventional Chinese cooking methods, respectively, demonstrating the dominance of cooking methods in the PAH emissions. Remarkably high benzo(b)fluoranthene/benzo(k)fluoranthene (BbF/BkF) ratio (8.31) was seen in the snack-street boiling, attributed to the coal combustion as cooking fuel. Both fluoranthene/(fluoranthene + pyrene) [FLT/(FLT + PYR)] and benzo(a)anthracene/(benzo(a)anthracene + chrysene) [BaA/(BaA + CHR)] ratios were higher for the oil-based cooking than those from the water-based ones. In addition, two ratios of indeno(1,2,3-cd)pyrene/(indeno(1,2,3-cd)pyrene + benzo(g,h,i)perylene) [IPY/(IPY + BPE)] and benzo(a)pyrene/(benzo(a)pyrene + benzo(g,h,i)perylene) [BaP/(BaP + BPE)] were higher for two charbroiling than the three conventional Chinese cooking methods. The characterization work in this study is particularly important since cooking is a potential contributor of atmospheric PAHs in urban China. Carcinogenic potencies of PAHs were assessed by comparison with the air quality guideline and health risk estimation. The BaP and BaP equivalent were higher for the oil-based than the water-based cooking activities.