The apoptotic perspective of autism

The multifaceted role of mitochondria in autism spectrum disorder

Normal brain functioning relies on high aerobic energy production provided by mitochondria. Failure to supply a sufficient amount of energy, seen in different brain disorders, including autism spectrum disorder (ASD), may have a significant negative impact on brain development and support of different brain functions. Mitochondrial dysfunction, manifested in the abnormal activities of the electron transport chain and impaired energy metabolism, greatly contributes to ASD. The aberrant functioning of this organelle is of such high importance that ASD has been proposed as a mitochondrial disease. It should be noted that aerobic energy production is not the only function of the mitochondria. In particular, these organelles are involved in the regulation of Ca2+ homeostasis, different mechanisms of programmed cell death, autophagy, and reactive oxygen and nitrogen species (ROS and RNS) production. Several syndromes originated from mitochondria-related mutations display ASD phenotype. Abnormalities in Ca2+ handling and ATP production in the brain mitochondria affect synaptic transmission, plasticity, and synaptic development, contributing to ASD. ROS and Ca2+ regulate the activity of the mitochondrial permeability transition pore (mPTP). The prolonged opening of this pore affects the redox state of the mitochondria, impairs oxidative phosphorylation, and activates apoptosis, ultimately leading to cell death. A dysregulation between the enhanced mitochondria-related processes of apoptosis and the inhibited autophagy leads to the accumulation of toxic products in the brains of individuals with ASD. Although many mitochondria-related mechanisms still have to be investigated, and whether they are the cause or consequence of this disorder is still unknown, the accumulating data show that the breakdown of any of the mitochondrial functions may contribute to abnormal brain development leading to ASD. In this review, we discuss the multifaceted role of mitochondria in ASD from the various aspects of neuroscience.

Screening biomarkers for autism spectrum disorder using plasma proteomics combined with machine learning methods

BACKGROUND AND AIMS

Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is a common neurodevelopmental disorder in children. Early intervention is effective. Investigation of novel blood biomarkers of ASD facilitates early detection and intervention.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Sequential window acquisition of all theoretical spectra-mass spectrometry (SWATH-MS)-based proteomics technology and 30 DSM-V defined ASD cases versus age- and sex-matched controls were initially evaluated, and candidate biomarkers were screened using machine learning methods. Candidate biomarkers were validated by targeted proteomics multiple reaction monitoring (MRM) analysis using an independent group of 30 ASD cases vs. controls.

RESULTS

Fifty-one differentially expressed proteins (DEPs) were identified by SWATH analysis. They were associated with the immune response, complements and coagulation cascade pathways, and apolipoprotein-related metabolic pathways. Machine learning analysis screened 10 proteins as biomarker combinations (TFRC, PPBP, APCS, ALDH1A1, CD5L, SPARC, FGG, SHBG, S100A9, and PF4V1). In the MRM analysis, four proteins (PPBP, APCS, FGG, and PF4V1) were significantly different between the groups, and their combination as a screening indicator showed high potential (AUC = 0.8087, 95 % confidence interval 0.6904-0.9252, p < 0.0001).

CONCLUSIONS

Our study provides data that suggests that a few plasma proteins have potential use in screening for ASD.

A critical review of the impact of candidate copy number variants on autism spectrum disorder

Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is a complex neurodevelopmental disorder (NDD) influenced by genetic, epigenetic, and environmental factors. Recent advancements in genomic analysis have shed light on numerous genes associated with ASD, highlighting the significant role of both common and rare genetic mutations, as well as copy number variations (CNVs), single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) and unique de novo variants. These genetic variations disrupt neurodevelopmental pathways, contributing to the disorder's complexity. Notably, CNVs are present in 10 %-20 % of individuals with autism, with 3 %-7 % detectable through cytogenetic methods. While the role of submicroscopic CNVs in ASD has been recently studied, their association with genomic loci and genes has not been thoroughly explored. In this review, we focus on 47 CNV regions linked to ASD, encompassing 1632 genes, including protein-coding genes and long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs), of which 659 show significant brain expression. Using a list of ASD-associated genes from SFARI, we detect 17 regions harboring at least one known ASD-related protein-coding gene. Of the remaining 30 regions, we identify 24 regions containing at least one protein-coding gene with brain-enriched expression and a nervous system phenotype in mouse mutants, and one lncRNA with both brain-enriched expression and upregulation in iPSC to neuron differentiation. This review not only expands our understanding of the genetic diversity associated with ASD but also underscores the potential of lncRNAs in contributing to its etiology. Additionally, the discovered CNVs will be a valuable resource for future diagnostic, therapeutic, and research endeavors aimed at prioritizing genetic variations in ASD.

Dopamine receptors and key elements of the neurotrophins (BDNF, CDNF) expression patterns during critical periods of ontogenesis in the brain structures of mice with autism-like behavior (BTBR) or its absence (С57BL/6 J)

Analysis of the mechanisms underlying autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is an urgent task due to the ever-increasing prevalence of this condition. The study of critical periods of neuroontogenesis is of interest, since the manifestation of ASD is often associated with prenatal disorders of the brain development. One of the currently promising hypotheses postulates a connection between the pathogenesis of ASD and the dysfunction of neurotransmitters and neurotrophins. In this study, we investigated the expression of key dopamine receptors (Drd1, Drd2), brain-derived neurotrophic factor (Bdnf), its receptors (Ntrkb2, Ngfr) and the transcription factor Creb1 that mediates BDNF action, as well as cerebral dopamine neurotrophic factor (Cdnf) during the critical periods of embryogenesis (e14 and e18) and postnatal development (p14, p28, p60) in the hippocampus and frontal cortex of BTBR mice with autism-like behavior compared to the neurotypical C57BL/6 J strain. In BTBR embryos, on the 14th day of prenatal development, an increase in the expression of the Ngfr gene encoding the p75NTR receptor, which may lead to the activation of apoptosis, was found in the hippocampus and frontal cortex. A decrease in the expression of Cdnf, Bdnf and its receptor Ntrkb2, as well as dopamine receptors (Drd1, Drd2) was detected in BTBR mice in the postnatal period of ontogenesis mainly in the frontal cortex, while in the hippocampus of mature mice (p60), only a decrease in the Drd2 mRNA level was revealed. The obtained results suggest that the decrease in the expression levels of CDNF, BDNF-TrkB and dopamine receptors in the frontal cortex in the postnatal period can lead to significant changes in both the morphology of neurons and dopamine neurotransmission in cortical brain structures. At the same time, the increase in p75NTR receptor gene expression observed on the 14th day of embryogenesis, crucial for hippocampus and frontal cortex development, may have direct relevance to the manifestation of early autism.

Is cholesterol both the lock and key to abnormal transmembrane signals in Autism Spectrum Disorder?

Disturbances in cholesterol homeostasis have been associated with ASD. Lipid rafts are central in many transmembrane signaling pathways (including mTOR) and changes in raft cholesterol content affect their order function. Cholesterol levels are controlled by several mechanisms, including endoplasmic reticulum associated degradation (ERAD) of the rate limiting HMGCoA reductase. A new approach to increase cholesterol via temporary ERAD blockade using a benign bacterial toxin-derived competitor for the ERAD translocon is suggested.A new lock and key model for cholesterol/lipid raft dependent signaling is proposed in which the rafts provide both the afferent and efferent 'tumblers' across the membrane to allow 'lock and key' receptor transmembrane signals.

The emerging role of α7nAChRs/caspase-3/Nrf-2 signaling pathway in citicoline improved autistic behavior induced by thimerosal in mice

AIMS

Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is a global concern,affecting around 75 million individuals.Various factors contribute to ASD,including mercury-containing preservatives like thimerosal (Thim) found in some vaccines.This study explored whether citicoline could be a therapeutic option for Thim-induced neuronal damage in a mouse model of ASD.Additionally,the study investigated the effects of citicoline on the α7nAChRs/Akt/Nrf2/caspase-3 pathway,which may be involved in the development of ASD.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The study separated newborn mice into four groups.The control group received saline injections,while the Thim group received intramuscular injections of 3000 μg Hg/kg Thim on days 7,9,11,and 15 after birth.The two citicoline groups were administered Thim followed by intraperitoneal injections of 250 mg/kg or 500 mg/kg citicoline for three weeks.Afterward,various parameters were assessed, including growth,behavior,brain histopathology,oxidative stress,apoptotic,and inflammatory markers.

KEY FINDINGS

Untreated Thim-exposed mice exhibited significant brain damage,which was substantially alleviated by citicoline treatment.This beneficial effect was associated with increased expressions and concentrations of brain α7nAChRs and Akt, increased brain content of Nrf2, and the hippocampus contents of acetylcholine. Citicoline treatment decreased the brain levels of oxidative stress markers (MDA and NO),the apoptotic marker caspase-3,and pro-inflammatory markers (NF-κB,TNF-α,and IL-1β). The drug also increased the brain GPx activity.

SIGNIFICANCE

Based on the results of this study,the α7nAChRs pathway appears to be essential for the therapeutic effectiveness of citicoline in treating Thim-induced ASD in mice.

Retinal Thinning in Adults with Autism Spectrum Disorder

Since the retina shares its embryological origin with the central nervous system, optical coherence tomography (OCT), an imaging technique frequently employed in ophthalmology to analyze the macula and intraretinal layer thicknesses and volumes, has recently become increasingly important in psychiatric research. We examined 34 autistic and 31 neurotypical adults (NT) using OCT. Autistic adults had reduced overall macular and outer nuclear layer (ONL) thickness and volume compared to NT. Both macular and ONL thickness showed significant inverse associations with the severity of autistic symptoms measured with the Social Responsiveness Scale 2 (SRS-2). Longitudinal studies across different age groups are required to clarify whether retinal changes may represent a possible trait marker.

Changes in neuroinflammatory markers and microglial density in the hippocampus and prefrontal cortex of the C58/J mouse model of autism

Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is a diverse group of neurodevelopmental conditions with complex origins. Individuals with ASD present various neurobiological abnormalities, including an altered immune response in the central nervous system and other tissues. Animal models like the C58/J inbred mouse strain are used to study biological characteristics of ASD. This strain is considered an idiopathic autism model because of its demonstrated reduced social preference and repetitive behaviours. Notably, C58/J mice exhibit alterations in dendritic arbour complexity, density and dendritic spines maturation in the hippocampus and prefrontal cortex (PFC), but inflammatory-related changes have not been explored in these mice. In this study, we investigated proinflammatory markers in the hippocampus and PFC of adult male C58/J mice. We discovered elevated levels of interferon gamma (IFN-γ) and monocyte chemoattractant protein 1 (MCP-1) in the hippocampus, suggesting increased inflammation, alongside a reduction in the anti-inflammatory enzyme arginase 1 (ARG1). Conversely, the PFC displayed reduced levels of TNF-α and MCP-1. Microglial analysis revealed higher levels of transmembrane protein 119 (TMEM119) and increased microglial density in a region-specific manner of the autistic-like mice, particularly in the PFC and hippocampus. Additionally, an augmented expression of the fractalkine receptor CX3CR1 was observed in the hippocampus and PFC of C58/J mice. Microglial morphological analysis shows no evident changes in the hippocampus of mice with autistic-like behaviours versus wild-type strain. These region-specific changes can contribute to modulate processes like inflammation or synaptic pruning in the C58/J mouse model of idiopathic autism.

Prangos ferulacea (L.) ameliorates behavioral alterations, hippocampal oxidative stress markers, and apoptotic deficits in a rat model of autism induced by valproic acid

BACKGROUND

Prenatal exposure to valproic acid (VPA) may enhance the risk of autism spectrum disorder (ASD) in children. This study investigated the effect of Prangos ferulacea (L.) on behavioral alterations, hippocampal oxidative stress markers, and apoptotic deficits in a rat model of autism induced by valproic acid.

METHODS

Pregnant rats received VPA (600 mg/kg, intraperitoneally [i.p.]) or saline on gestational day 12.5 (E 12.5). Starting from the 30th postnatal day (PND 30), the pups were i.p. administered Prangos ferulacea (PF, 100 and 200 mg/kg), or the vehicle, daily until PND 58. On PND 30 and 58, various behavioral tasks were used to evaluate pups, including the open field, elevated plus-maze, hot-plate, and rotarod test. On PND 65, the animals were euthanized, and their brains were removed for histopathological and biochemical assay.

RESULTS

Prenatal exposure to VPA caused significant behavioral changes in the offspring, reversed by administering an extract of Prangos ferulacea (L.). Additionally, prenatal VPA administration resulted in increased levels of malondialdehyde and deficits in antioxidant enzyme activities in the hippocampus, including catalase and glutathione, ameliorated by PF. Likewise, postnatal treatment with PF improved VPA-induced dysregulation of Bax and Blc2 in the hippocampus and reduced neuronal death in CA1, CA3, and dentate gyrus.

CONCLUSION

The findings of this study suggest that postnatal administration of PF can prevent VPA-induced ASD-like behaviors by exhibiting antiapoptotic and antioxidant properties. Therefore, PF may have the potential as an adjunct in the management of ASD.

eQTL colocalization analysis highlights novel susceptibility genes in Autism Spectrum Disorders (ASD)

Autism Spectrum Disorders (ASD) are a group of neurodevelopmental disorders (NDDs) characterized by difficulties in social interaction and communication, repetitive behavior, and restricted interests. ASD has proven to have a strong genetic component. However, defining causal genes is still one of the main challenges in GWAS, since the vast majority (>90%) of detected signals lie within the non-coding genome. Expression quantitative trait locus (eQTL) colocalization analysis determines whether a specific variant is responsible for both a local eQTL and GWAS association and has helped leverage data and rendering gene discovery for a wide array of diseases. Here we further mine the largest ASD GWAS performed to date (18,381 cases and 27,969 controls) altogether with GWAS summary statistics from the main PGC studies (Schizophrenia, MD (Major Depression) and ADHD (Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder)), by using eQTpLot, a newly developed tool that illustrates the colocalization of GWAS and eQTL signals in a locus, and the enrichment of and correlation between the candidate gene eQTLs and trait-significant variants. This analysis points up 8 genes with a significant eQTL colocalization signal in ASD (CRHR1, KANSL1, MANBA, MAPT, MMP12, NKX2-2, PTPRE and WNT3) and one gene (SRPK2) with a marginally significant colocalization signal (r = 0.69, p < 1 × 10-6), and specifically highlights the potentially causal role of MAPT (r = 0.76, p < 1 × 10-6), NKX2-2 (r = 0.71, p-value = 2.26-02) and PTPRE (r = 0.97, p-value = 2.63-04) when restricting the analysis to brain tissue.

Risperidone impedes glutamate excitotoxicity in a valproic acid rat model of autism: Role of ADAR2 in AMPA GluA2 RNA editing

Several reports indicate a plausible role of calcium (Ca2+) permeable AMPA glutamate receptors (with RNA hypo-editing at the GluA2 Q/R site) and the subsequent excitotoxicity-mediated neuronal death in the pathogenesis of a wide array of neurological disorders including autism spectrum disorder (ASD). This study was designed to examine the effects of chronic risperidone treatment on the expression of adenosine deaminase acting on RNA 2 (Adar2), the status of AMPA glutamate receptor GluA2 editing, and its effects on oxidative/nitrosative stress and excitotoxicity-mediated neuronal death in the prenatal valproic acid (VPA) rat model of ASD. Prenatal VPA exposure was associated with autistic-like behaviors accompanied by an increase in the apoptotic marker "caspase-3" and a decrease in the antiapoptotic marker "BCL2" alongside a reduction in the Adar2 relative gene expression and an increase in GluA2 Q:R ratio in the hippocampus and the prefrontal cortex. Risperidone, at doses of 1 and 3 mg, improved the VPA-induced behavioral deficits and enhanced the Adar2 relative gene expression and the subsequent GluA2 subunit editing. This was reflected on the cellular level where risperidone impeded VPA-induced oxidative/nitrosative stress and neurodegenerative changes. In conclusion, the present study confirms a possible role for Adar2 downregulation and the subsequent hypo-editing of the GluA2 subunit in the pathophysiology of the prenatal VPA rat model of autism and highlights the favorable effect of risperidone on reversing the RNA editing machinery deficits, giving insights into a new possible mechanism of risperidone in autism.

PCSK9 Involvement in Autism Etiology: Sequence Variations, Protein Concentration, and Promoter Methylation

BACKGROUND

Besides its main role in the control of blood cholesterol, PCSK9 has a role in the regulation of neuronal development and apoptosis. We suggest, for the first time, the possible involvement of PCSK9 in autism.

METHOD

In this case-control study, Sanger sequencing was used to analyze sequence variations in the PCSK9 gene exons and their flanking intronic sequences. ELISA assay was used to determine the plasma concentration of PCSK9. The methylation percentage of the PCSK9 gene promoter was assessed by methylation-specific PCR (MSP).

RESULTS

Forty-three variants were found; out of them, seven showed differential frequency between patients and controls. rs.45448095, rs.45613943, rs.630431, rs.529500286, and rs.45439391 are risk factors for autism, while rs.11800231 and rs.483462 are protective variants. The concentration of plasma PCSK9 protein was significantly elevated and the methylation percentage of PCSK9 gene promoter was significantly lower in cases than in controls (p <0.001 and = 0.002, respectively). ROC curve analysis identified an area under the curve (AUC) of 0.915 for plasma protein concentration and 0.693 for percent gene promoter methylation. In addition, two new variants were identified (g.23809C>T in intron 11 and g.24071T>G in 3' UTR).

CONCLUSION

This is the first study to investigate the correlation between PCSK9 protein and autism and suggests the potential involvement of PCSK9 as one of the susceptibility genes for autism. Further studies with a larger number of subjects are recommended.

Region- and age-specific effects of perinatal phthalate exposure on developmental cell death and adult anatomy of dorsal and ventral hippocampus and associated cognitive behaviors

Humans are exposed to phthalates, a class of endocrine-disrupting chemicals used in food packaging/processing, PVC plastics, and personal care products. Gestational exposure may lead to adverse neurodevelopmental outcomes. In a rat model, perinatal exposure to an environmentally relevant mixture and dose of phthalates leads to increased developmental apoptosis in the medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC) and a subsequent reduction in neurons and in cognitive flexibility measured in adults of both sexes (Sellinger et al., 2021b; Kougias et al., 2018b). However, whether these effects generalize to other cognitive regions, like the hippocampus, is less well understood as existing studies used single phthalates at large doses, unrepresentative of human exposure. In the current study, patterns of naturally occurring cell death were first established in the dorsal and ventral hippocampal subfields (CA3 and CA1). Both dorsal and ventral CA3 reached high levels of cell death on P2 while levels in dorsal and ventral CA1 peaked on P5 in both sexes. Exposure to a phthalate mixture (0.2 and 1 mg/kg/day) throughout gestation through postnatal day 10 resulted in subtle age- and region-specific decreases in developmental cell death, however there were no significant changes in adult neuron number or associated behaviors: the Morris water maze and social recognition. Therefore, perinatal exposure to a low dose mixture of phthalates does not result in the dramatic structural and behavioral changes seen with high doses of single phthalates. This study also adds to our understanding of the distinct neurodevelopmental effects of phthalates on different brain regions.

Mouse nerve growth factor suppresses neuronal apoptosis in valproic acid-induced autism spectrum disorder rats by regulating the phosphoinositide-3-kinase/serine/threonine kinase signaling pathway

BACKGROUND

Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is a group of neurodevelopmental disorders characterized by deficits in social communication and restrictive behaviors. Mouse nerve growth factor (mNGF), a neurotrophic factor, is critical for neuronal growth and survival, and the mNGF treatment is considered a promising therapy for neurodegeneration. In light of this, we aimed to evaluate the effect of mNGF on neurological function in ASD.

METHODS

An ASD rat model was established by intraperitoneal injection of valproic acid (VPA). Social behavior, learning, and memory of the rats were measured. TdT-mediated dUTP Nick-end labeling and Nissl assays were performed to detect neuronal apoptosis and survival in the hippocampus and prefrontal cortex. Apoptosis-related proteins and oxidative stress markers were detected.

RESULTS

mNGF improved locomotor activity, exploratory behavior, social interaction, and spatial learning and memory in VPA-induced ASD rats. In the hippocampus and prefrontal cortex, mNGF suppressed neuronal apoptosis, increased the number of neurons, superoxide dismutase, and glutathione levels, and decreased reactive oxygen species, nitric oxide, TNF-α, and IL-1β levels compared with the VPA group. In addition, mNGF increased the levels of Bcl-2, p-phosphoinositide-3-kinase (PI3K), and p-serine/threonine kinase (Akt), and decreased the levels of Bax and cleaved caspase-3, while the PI3K inhibitor LY294002 reversed these effects.

CONCLUSION

These data suggest that mNGF suppressed neuronal apoptosis and ameliorated the abnormal behaviors in VPA-induced ASD rats, in part, by activating the PI3K/Akt signaling pathway.

Elevated ROS levels during the early development of Angelman syndrome alter the apoptotic capacity of the developing neural precursor cells

Angelman syndrome (AS) is a rare genetic neurodevelopmental disorder caused by the maternally inherited loss of function of the UBE3A gene. AS is characterized by a developmental delay, lack of speech, motor dysfunction, epilepsy, autistic features, happy demeanor, and intellectual disability. While the cellular roles of UBE3A are not fully understood, studies suggest that the lack of UBE3A function is associated with elevated levels of reactive oxygen species (ROS). Despite the accumulating evidence emphasizing the importance of ROS during early brain development and its involvement in different neurodevelopmental disorders, up to date, the levels of ROS in AS neural precursor cells (NPCs) and the consequences on AS embryonic neural development have not been elucidated. In this study we show multifaceted mitochondrial aberration in AS brain-derived embryonic NPCs, which exhibit elevated mitochondrial membrane potential (ΔΨm), lower levels of endogenous reduced glutathione, excessive mitochondrial ROS (mROS) levels, and increased apoptosis compared to wild-type (WT) littermates. In addition, we report that glutathione replenishment by glutathione-reduced ethyl ester (GSH-EE) corrects the excessive mROS levels and attenuates the enhanced apoptosis in AS NPCs. Studying the glutathione redox imbalance and mitochondrial abnormalities in embryonic AS NPCs provides an essential insight into the involvement of UBE3A in early neural development, information that can serve as a powerful avenue towards a broader view of AS pathogenesis. Moreover, since mitochondrial dysfunction and elevated ROS levels were associated with other neurodevelopmental disorders, the findings herein suggest some potential shared underlying mechanisms for these disorders as well.

Assessment of Neuroanatomical Endophenotypes of Autism Spectrum Disorder and Association With Characteristics of Individuals With Schizophrenia and the General Population

Importance

Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is associated with significant clinical, neuroanatomical, and genetic heterogeneity that limits precision diagnostics and treatment.

Objective

To assess distinct neuroanatomical dimensions of ASD using novel semisupervised machine learning methods and to test whether the dimensions can serve as endophenotypes also in non-ASD populations.

Design, Setting, and Participants

This cross-sectional study used imaging data from the publicly available Autism Brain Imaging Data Exchange (ABIDE) repositories as the discovery cohort. The ABIDE sample included individuals diagnosed with ASD aged between 16 and 64 years and age- and sex-match typically developing individuals. Validation cohorts included individuals with schizophrenia from the Psychosis Heterogeneity Evaluated via Dimensional Neuroimaging (PHENOM) consortium and individuals from the UK Biobank to represent the general population. The multisite discovery cohort included 16 internationally distributed imaging sites. Analyses were performed between March 2021 and March 2022.

Main Outcomes and Measures

The trained semisupervised heterogeneity through discriminative analysis models were tested for reproducibility using extensive cross-validations. It was then applied to individuals from the PHENOM and the UK Biobank. It was hypothesized that neuroanatomical dimensions of ASD would display distinct clinical and genetic profiles and would be prominent also in non-ASD populations.

Results

Heterogeneity through discriminative analysis models trained on T1-weighted brain magnetic resonance images of 307 individuals with ASD (mean [SD] age, 25.4 [9.8] years; 273 [88.9%] male) and 362 typically developing control individuals (mean [SD] age, 25.8 [8.9] years; 309 [85.4%] male) revealed that a 3-dimensional scheme was optimal to capture the ASD neuroanatomy. The first dimension (A1: aginglike) was associated with smaller brain volume, lower cognitive function, and aging-related genetic variants (FOXO3; Z = 4.65; P = 1.62 × 10-6). The second dimension (A2: schizophrenialike) was characterized by enlarged subcortical volumes, antipsychotic medication use (Cohen d = 0.65; false discovery rate-adjusted P = .048), partially overlapping genetic, neuroanatomical characteristics to schizophrenia (n = 307), and significant genetic heritability estimates in the general population (n = 14 786; mean [SD] h2, 0.71 [0.04]; P < 1 × 10-4). The third dimension (A3: typical ASD) was distinguished by enlarged cortical volumes, high nonverbal cognitive performance, and biological pathways implicating brain development and abnormal apoptosis (mean [SD] β, 0.83 [0.02]; P = 4.22 × 10-6).

Conclusions and Relevance

This cross-sectional study discovered 3-dimensional endophenotypic representation that may elucidate the heterogeneous neurobiological underpinnings of ASD to support precision diagnostics. The significant correspondence between A2 and schizophrenia indicates a possibility of identifying common biological mechanisms across the 2 mental health diagnoses.

Preventive effect of quercetin-Loaded nanophytosome against autistic-like damage in maternal separation model: The possible role of Caspase-3, Bax/Bcl-2 and Nrf2

The autism is an abnormality in the neuronal advance which starts before age 3 recognized by defective behaviors. This study aimed to make quercetin-loaded nanophytosomes (QNP) on behavioral deficits, cerebellar oxidative stress and apoptosis in an autistic-like model caused by maternal separation (MS). The newborn rats are randomly categorized into seven groups, including control, positive control, disease, and diseases treated with quercetin (10 and 40 mg/kg) and QNP (10 and 40 mg/kg). Pups exposed to MS for 3 h per day from postnatal days (PND) 1-9 showed behavioral impairment in adult rats compared to control group. The oral administration of quercetin and QNP was constantly started after the lactation period (21 postnatal days) for three weeks. Autistic-like behaviors, antioxidant parameters, and Nrf2, Bax/Bcl-2, and Caspase-3 expressions were surveyed in the cerebellum. Quercetin (40 mg/kg) treated improved some behavioral disorders. Also, the improvement of oxidative stress parameters, Nrf2 and apoptotic factors gene expression was observed in the cerebellum of quercetin (40 mg/kg) treated (p < 0.01). QNP treatment (10 and 40 mg/kg) significantly ameliorated anxiety-like behaviors, line crossing, and grooming index (p < 0.001), lipid peroxidation (p < 0.001), and increased catalase (CAT) (p < 0.001), superoxide dismutase (SOD) (p < 0.001), glutathione peroxidase (GPx) (p < 0.001) activity, and glutathione (GSH) levels (p < 0.05). Moreover, QNP significantly reduced Caspase-3 and Bax expression (p < 0.001), but increased Bcl-2, and Nrf2 expressions (p < 0.001). These findings indicated that QNP due to its high bioavailability was more effective than quercetin can be reduced autistic-like behavior, oxidative and apoptotic damages in the model of MS rats.

Construction of copy number variation landscape and characterization of associated genes in a Bangladeshi cohort of neurodevelopmental disorders

Introduction: Copy number variations (CNVs) play a critical role in the pathogenesis of neurodevelopmental disorders (NDD) among children. In this study, we aim to identify clinically relevant CNVs, genes and their phenotypic characteristics in an ethnically underrepresented homogenous population of Bangladesh. Methods: We have conducted chromosomal microarray analysis (CMA) for 212 NDD patients with male to female ratio of 2.2:1.0 to identify rare CNVs. To identify candidate genes within the rare CNVs, gene constraint metrics [i.e., "Critical-Exon Genes (CEGs)"] were applied to the population data. Autism Diagnostic Observation Schedule-Second Edition (ADOS-2) was followed in a subset of 95 NDD patients to assess the severity of autism and all statistical tests were performed using the R package. Results: Of all the samples assayed, 12.26% (26/212) and 57.08% (121/212) patients carried pathogenic and variant of uncertain significance (VOUS) CNVs, respectively. While 2.83% (6/212) patients' pathogenic CNVs were found to be located in the subtelomeric regions. Further burden test identified females are significant carriers of pathogenic CNVs compared to males (OR = 4.2; p = 0.0007). We have observed an increased number of Loss of heterozygosity (LOH) within cases with 23.85% (26/109) consanguineous parents. Our analyses on imprinting genes show, 36 LOH variants disrupting 69 unique imprinted genes and classified these variants as VOUS. ADOS-2 subset shows severe social communication deficit (p = 0.014) and overall ASD symptoms severity (p = 0.026) among the patients carrying duplication CNV compared to the CNV negative group. Candidate gene analysis identified 153 unique CEGs in pathogenic CNVs and 31 in VOUS. Of the unique genes, 18 genes were found to be in smaller (<1 MB) focal CNVs in our NDD cohort and we identified PSMC3 gene as a strong candidate gene for Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD). Moreover, we hypothesized that KMT2B gene duplication might be associated with intellectual disability. Conclusion: Our results show the utility of CMA for precise genetic diagnosis and its integration into the diagnosis, therapy and management of NDD patients.

Partial changes in apoptotic pathways in hippocampus and hypothalamus of Cc2d1a heterozygous

Alterations in the apoptosis pathway have been linked to changes in serotonin levels seen in autistic patients. Cc2d1a is a repressor of the HTR1A gene involved in the serotonin pathway. The hippocampus and hypothalamus of Cc2d1a ± mice were analyzed for the expression of apoptosis markers (caspase 3, 8 and 9). Gender differences were observed in the expression levels of the three caspases consistent with some altered activity in the open-field assay. The number of apoptotic cells was significantly increased. We concluded that apoptotic pathways are only partially affected in the pathogenesis of the Cc2d1a heterozygous mouse model. A) Apoptosis is suppressed because the cell does not receive a death signal, or the receptor cannot activate the caspase 8 pathway despite the death signal. B) Since Caspase 8 and Caspase 3 expression is downregulated in our mouse model, the mechanism of apoptosis is not activated.

Brief postnatal exposure to bisphenol A affects apoptosis and gene expression in the medial prefrontal cortex and social behavior in rats with sex specificity

Bisphenol A (BPA) is an endocrine disruptor found in polycarbonate plastics and exposure in humans is nearly ubiquitous and it has widespread effects on cognitive, emotional, and reproductive behaviors in both humans and animal models. In our laboratory we previously found that perinatal BPA exposure results in a higher number of neurons in the adult male rat prefrontal cortex (PFC) and less play in adolescents of both sexes. Here we examine changes in the rate of postnatal apoptosis in the rat prefrontal cortex and its timing with brief BPA exposure. Because an increased number of neurons in the PFC is a characteristic of a subtype of autism spectrum disorder, we tested social preference following brief BPA exposure and also expression of a small group of genes. Males and females were exposed to BPA from postnatal days (P) 6 through 8 or from P10 through 12. Both exposures significantly decreased indicators of cell death in the developing medial prefrontal cortex in male subjects only. Additionally, males exposed to BPA from P6 - 8 showed decreased social preference and decreased cortical expression of Shank3 and Homer1, two synaptic scaffolding genes that have been implicated in social deficits. There were no significant effects of BPA in the female subjects. These results draw attention to the negative consequences following brief exposure to BPA during early development.

Lights on for Autism: Exploring Photobiomodulation as an Effective Therapeutic Option

Autism is a neurodevelopmental condition that starts in childhood and continues into adulthood. The core characteristics include difficulties with social interaction and communication, together with restricted and repetitive behaviours. There are a number of key abnormalities of brain structure and function that trigger these behavioural patterns, including an imbalance of functional connectivity and synaptic transmission, neuronal death, gliosis and inflammation. In addition, autism has been linked to alterations in the gut microbiome. Unfortunately, as it stands, there are few treatment options available for patients. In this mini-review, we consider the effectiveness of a potential new treatment for autism, known as photobiomodulation, the therapeutic use of red to near infrared light on body tissues. This treatment has been shown in a range of pathological conditions-to improve the key changes that characterise autism, including the functional connectivity and survival patterns of neurones, the patterns of gliosis and inflammation and the composition of the microbiome. We highlight the idea that photobiomodulation may form an ideal treatment option for autism, one that is certainly worthy of further investigation.

Developmental cell death of cortical projection neurons is controlled by a Bcl11a/Bcl6‐dependent pathway

Developmental neuron death plays a pivotal role in refining organization and wiring during neocortex formation. Aberrant regulation of this process results in neurodevelopmental disorders including impaired learning and memory. Underlying molecular pathways are incompletely determined. Loss of Bcl11a in cortical projection neurons induces pronounced cell death in upper‐layer cortical projection neurons during postnatal corticogenesis. We use this genetic model to explore genetic mechanisms by which developmental neuron death is controlled. Unexpectedly, we find Bcl6, previously shown to be involved in the transition of cortical neurons from progenitor to postmitotic differentiation state to provide a major checkpoint regulating neuron survival during late cortical development. We show that Bcl11a is a direct transcriptional regulator of Bcl6. Deletion of Bcl6 exerts death of cortical projection neurons. In turn, reintroduction of Bcl6 into Bcl11a mutants prevents induction of cell death in these neurons. Together, our data identify a novel Bcl11a/Bcl6‐dependent molecular pathway in regulation of developmental cell death during corticogenesis.

Dysregulation of BMP, Wnt, and Insulin Signaling in Fragile X Syndrome

Drosophila models of neurological disease contribute tremendously to research progress due to the high conservation of human disease genes, the powerful and sophisticated genetic toolkit, and the rapid generation time. Fragile X syndrome (FXS) is the most prevalent heritable cause of intellectual disability and autism spectrum disorders, and the Drosophila FXS disease model has been critical for the genetic screening discovery of new intercellular secretion mechanisms. Here, we focus on the roles of three major signaling pathways: BMP, Wnt, and insulin-like peptides. We present Drosophila FXS model defects compared to mouse models in stem cells/embryos, the glutamatergic neuromuscular junction (NMJ) synapse model, and the developing adult brain. All three of these secreted signaling pathways are strikingly altered in FXS disease models, giving new mechanistic insights into impaired cellular outcomes and neurological phenotypes. Drosophila provides a powerful genetic screening platform to expand understanding of these secretory mechanisms and to test cellular roles in both peripheral and central nervous systems. The studies demonstrate the importance of exploring broad genetic interactions and unexpected regulatory mechanisms. We discuss a number of research avenues to pursue BMP, Wnt, and insulin signaling in future FXS investigations and the development of potential therapeutics.

Progranulin improves neural development via the PI3K/Akt/GSK-3β pathway in the cerebellum of a VPA-induced rat model of ASD

Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is a neurodevelopmental disease featuring social interaction deficits and repetitive/stereotyped behaviours; the prevalence of this disorder has continuously increased. Progranulin (PGRN) is a neurotrophic factor that promotes neuronal survival and differentiation. However, there have not been sufficient studies investigating its effect in animal models of autism. This study investigated the effects of PGRN on autistic phenotypes in rats treated with valproic acid (VPA) and assessed the underlying molecular mechanisms. PGRN was significantly downregulated in the cerebellum at postnatal day 14 (PND14) and PND35 in VPA-exposed rats, which simultaneously showed defective social preference, increased repetitive behaviours, and uncoordinated movements. When human recombinant PGRN (r-PGRN) was injected into the cerebellum of newborn ASD model rats (PND10 and PND17), some of the behavioural defects were alleviated. r-PGRN supplementation also reduced cerebellar neuronal apoptosis and rescued synapse formation in ASD rats. Mechanistically, we confirmed that PGRN protects neurodevelopment via the PI3K/Akt/GSK-3β pathway in the cerebellum of a rat ASD model. Moreover, we found that prosaposin (PSAP) promoted the internalisation and neurotrophic activity of PGRN. These results experimentally demonstrate the therapeutic effects of PGRN on a rat model of ASD for the first time and provide a novel therapeutic strategy for autism.

Intrauterine Viral Infections: Impact of Inflammation on Fetal Neurodevelopment

Intrauterine viral infections during pregnancy by pathogens such as Zika virus, Cytomegalovirus, Rubella and Herpes Simplex virus can lead to prenatal as well as postnatal neurodevelopmental disorders. Although maternal viral infections are common during pregnancy, viruses rarely penetrate the trophoblast. When they do cross, viruses can cause adverse congenital health conditions for the fetus. In this context, maternal inflammatory responses to these neurotropic pathogens play a significant role in negatively affecting neurodevelopment. For instance, intrauterine inflammation poses an increased risk of neurodevelopmental disorders such as microcephaly, schizophrenia, autism spectrum disorder, cerebral palsy and epilepsy. Severe inflammatory responses have been linked to stillbirths, preterm births, abortions and microcephaly. In this review, we discuss the mechanistic basis of how immune system shapes the landscape of the brain and how different neurotropic viral pathogens evoke inflammatory responses. Finally, we list the consequences of neuroinflammation on fetal brain development and discuss directions for future research and intervention strategies.

Lycopene ameliorates propionic acid-induced autism spectrum disorders by inhibiting inflammation and oxidative stress in rats

This study was conducted to study lycopene efficacy in brain-behavior, pro-inflammatory and apoptotic markers, and antioxidant levels in a rodent model. Rats were administered with propionic acid (PPA) (500 mg/kg BW) to induce autism-like disorders, then treated with different lycopene (L) concentrations (5, 10, 20 mg kg^-1  day^-1 ) for 35 days. The groups were: (i);control, (ii);PPA, (iii);PPA + L5, (iv);PPA + L10, and (v);PPA + L20. In this study, serum and brain malondialdehyde (MDA) levels decreased with lycopene supplements compared to the PPA group, similarly to the brain levels of inflammatory factors (IL-1α, IL-8, NF-κB, TNF-α; p < .05). Besides, brain levels of anti-apoptotic Bcl-2 decreased, whereas pro-apoptotic Bax, antioxidant Nrf2, and HO-1 levels in brain increased compared with PPA (p < .05). This study showed that lycopene might have therapeutic value to improve the dysfunctions in learning and memory in a dose-dependent way, along with the antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and antiapoptotic molecular responses in a rat model of ASD-like disorders. PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS: This study suggested that lycopene can reduce propionic acid (PPA)-induced learning and memory impairment and oxidative damage by participating in multiple biological activities such as antioxidant, and anti-inflammatory effects. Lycopene protects serum and brain tissues against PPA induced oxidative damage in rats. These effects may be realized through up-regulation of the brain Nrf2/HO-1 pathway and down-regulation of the IL-1α, IL-8, TNF-α, and NF-κB levels. Lycopene may also contribute to memory and learning function, apoptotic/antiapoptotic modulation, and antioxidant and possible therapeutic efficacy in PPA-induced- Autism spectrum disorder cases.

Mitochondrial dysfunction: A hidden trigger of autism?

Autism is a heterogeneous neurodevelopmental and neuropsychiatric disorder with no precise etiology. Deficits in cognitive functions uncover at early stages and are known to have an environmental and genetic basis. Since autism is multifaceted and also linked with other comorbidities associated with various organs, there is a possibility that there may be a fundamental cellular process responsible for this. These reasons place mitochondria at the point of interest as it is involved in multiple cellular processes predominantly involving metabolism. Mitochondria encoded genes were taken into consideration lately because it is inherited maternally, has its own genome and also functions the time of embryo development. Various researches have linked mitochondrial mishaps like oxidative stress, ROS production and mt-DNA copy number variations to autism. Despite dramatic advances in autism research worldwide, the studies focusing on mitochondrial dysfunction in autism is rather minimal, especially in India. India, owing to its rich diversity, may be able to contribute significantly to autism research. It is vital to urge more studies in this domain as it may help to completely understand the basics of the condition apart from a genetic standpoint. This review focuses on the worldwide and Indian scenario of autism research; mitochondrial abnormalities in autism and possible therapeutic approaches to combat it.

The neuropathology of autism: A systematic review of post-mortem studies of autism and related disorders

Post-mortem studies allow for the direct investigation of brain tissue in those with autism and related disorders. Several review articles have focused on aspects of post-mortem abnormalities but none has brought together the entire post-mortem literature. Here, we systematically review the evidence from post-mortem studies of autism, and of related disorders that present with autistic features. The literature consists of a small body of studies with small sample sizes, but several remarkably consistent findings are evident. Cortical layering is largely undisturbed, but there are consistent reductions in minicolumn numbers and aberrant myelination. Transcriptomics repeatedly implicate abberant synaptic, metabolic, proliferation, apoptosis and immune pathways. Sufficient replicated evidence is available to implicate non-coding RNA, aberrant epigenetic profiles, GABAergic, glutamatergic and glial dysfunction in autism pathogenesis. Overall, the cerebellum and frontal cortex are most consistently implicated, sometimes revealing distinct region-specific alterations. The literature on related disorders such as Rett syndrome, Fragile X and copy number variations (CNVs) predisposing to autism is particularly small and inconclusive. Larger studies, matched for gender, developmental stage, co-morbidities and drug treatment are required.

Abnormal spatiotemporal expression pattern of progranulin and neurodevelopment impairment in VPA-induced ASD rat model

Some environmental risk factors have been proven to contribute to the etiology of autism spectrum disorder (ASD). Exposure to the antiepileptic drug valproic acid (VPA) during pregnancy significantly increases the risk of ASD in humans, and consequently is utilized as a validated animal model of ASD in rodents; however, the precise molecular and cellular mechanisms remain ill-defined. In the present study, we investigated the effect of prenatal VPA exposure on the spatiotemporal dynamics of Progranulin (PGRN) expression, neuronal apoptosis, synapse density, and AKT/GSK-3β pathway activation in the brains of VPA-exposed offspring. Results from behavioral tests were consistent with prior studies showing impaired sociability, restricted interests and increased repetitive behaviors in VPA rats at postnatal days 28-32. Our data also indicated that VPA exposure resulted in abnormal dynamics of PGRN expression in different brain regions at the different development stages. The temporal and spatial patterns of PGRN expression were consistent with the spatiotemporal regularity of abnormalities, which observed in apoptosis-related protein levels, neuron numbers, dendritic spine density, synapse-related protein levels, and AKT/GSK-3β phosphorylation in VPA rats. It suggests that prenatal VPA exposure may affect the spatiotemporal regularity of neuronal apoptosis and synaptic development/regression via interfering with the spatiotemporal process of PGRN expression and downstream AKT/GSK-3β pathway activation. This may be a potential mechanism of the abnormal neuroanatomical changes and ASD-like behaviors in VPA-induced ASD.

Creative Destruction: A Basic Computational Model of Cortical Layer Formation

One of the most characteristic properties of many vertebrate neural systems is the layered organization of different cell types. This cytoarchitecture exists in the cortex, the retina, the hippocampus, and many other parts of the central nervous system. The developmental mechanisms of neural layer formation have been subject to substantial experimental efforts. Here, we provide a general computational model for cortical layer formation in 3D physical space. We show that this multiscale, agent-based model, comprising two distinct stages of apoptosis, can account for the wide range of neuronal numbers encountered in different cortical areas and species. Our results demonstrate the phenotypic richness of a basic state diagram structure. Importantly, apoptosis allows for changing the thickness of one layer without automatically affecting other layers. Therefore, apoptosis increases the flexibility for evolutionary change in layer architecture. Notably, slightly changed gene regulatory dynamics recapitulate the characteristic properties observed in neurodevelopmental diseases. Overall, we propose a novel computational model using gene-type rules, exhibiting many characteristics of normal and pathological cortical development.

Systems Biology Reveals S-Nitrosylation-Dependent Regulation of Mitochondrial Functions in Mice with Shank3 Mutation Associated with Autism Spectrum Disorder

Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is a neurodevelopmental disorder manifested in repetitive behavior, abnormalities in social interactions, and communication. The pathogenesis of this disorder is not clear, and no effective treatment is currently available. Protein S-nitrosylation (SNO), the nitric oxide (NO)-mediated posttranslational modification, targets key proteins implicated in synaptic and neuronal functions. Previously, we have shown that NO and SNO are involved in the ASD mouse model based on the Shank3 mutation. The energy supply to the brain mostly relies on oxidative phosphorylation in the mitochondria. Recent studies show that mitochondrial dysfunction and oxidative stress are involved in ASD pathology. In this work, we performed SNO proteomics analysis of cortical tissues of the Shank3 mouse model of ASD with the focus on mitochondrial proteins and processes. The study was based on the SNOTRAP technology followed by systems biology analysis. This work revealed that 63 mitochondrial proteins were S-nitrosylated and that several mitochondria-related processes, including those associated with oxidative phosphorylation, oxidative stress, and apoptosis, were enriched. This study implies that aberrant SNO signaling induced by the Shank3 mutation can target a wide range of mitochondria-related proteins and processes that may contribute to the ASD pathology. It is the first study to investigate the role of NO-dependent mitochondrial functions in ASD.

Targeting PI3K-AKT/mTOR signaling in the prevention of autism

PI3K-AKT/mTOR signaling pathway represents an essential signaling mechanism for mammalian enzyme-related receptors in transducing signals or biological processes such as cell development, differentiation, cell survival, protein synthesis, and metabolism. Upregulation of the PI3K-AKT/mTOR signaling pathway involves many human brain abnormalities, including autism and other neurological dysfunctions. Autism is a neurodevelopmental disorder associated with behavior and psychiatric illness. This research-based review discusses the functional relationship between the neuropathogenic factors associated with PI3K-AKT/mTOR signaling pathway. Ultimately causes autism-like conditions associated with genetic alterations, neuronal apoptosis, mitochondrial dysfunction, and neuroinflammation. Therefore, inhibition of the PI3K-AKT/mTOR signaling pathway may have an effective therapeutic value for autism treatment. The current review also summarizes the involvement of PI3K-AKT/mTOR signaling pathway inhibitors in the treatment of autism and other neurodegenerative disorders.

In Silico Exploration of the Potential Role of Acetaminophen and Pesticides in the Etiology of Autism Spectrum Disorder

Recent epidemiological studies suggest that prenatal exposure to acetaminophen (APAP) is associated with increased risk of Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD), a neurodevelopmental disorder affecting 1 in 59 children in the US. Maternal and prenatal exposure to pesticides from food and environmental sources have also been implicated to affect fetal neurodevelopment. However, the underlying mechanisms for ASD are so far unknown, likely with complex and multifactorial etiology. The aim of this study was to explore the potential effects of APAP and pesticide exposure on development with regards to the etiology of ASD by highlighting common genes and biological pathways. Genes associated with APAP, pesticides, and ASD through human research were retrieved from molecular and biomedical literature databases. The interaction network of overlapping genetic associations was subjected to network topology analysis and functional annotation of the resulting clusters. These genes were over-represented in pathways and biological processes (FDR p < 0.05) related to apoptosis, metabolism of reactive oxygen species (ROS), and carbohydrate metabolism. Since these three biological processes are frequently implicated in ASD, our findings support the hypothesis that cell death processes and specific metabolic pathways, both of which appear to be targeted by APAP and pesticide exposure, may be involved in the etiology of ASD. This novel exposures-gene-disease database mining might inspire future work on understanding the biological underpinnings of various ASD risk factors.

Effects of cytokines on nuclear factor-kappa B, cell viability, and synaptic connectivity in a human neuronal cell line

Maternal infection during pregnancy is associated with increased risk of psychiatric and neurodevelopmental disorders (NDDs). Experimental animal models demonstrate that maternal immune activation (MIA) elevates inflammatory cytokine levels in the maternal and fetal compartments and causes behavioral changes in offspring. Individual cytokines have been shown to modulate neurite outgrowth and synaptic connectivity in cultured rodent neurons, but whether clinically relevant cytokine mixtures similarly modulate neurodevelopment in human neurons is not known. To address this, we quantified apoptosis, neurite outgrowth, and synapse number in the LUHMES human neuronal cell line exposed to varying concentrations of: (1) a mixture of 12 cytokines and chemokines (EMA) elevated in mid-gestational serum samples from mothers of children with autism and intellectual disability; (2) an inflammatory cytokine mixture (ICM) comprised of five cytokines elevated in experimental MIA models; or (3) individual cytokines in ICM. At concentrations that activated nuclear factor-kappa B (NF-κB) in LUHMES cells, EMA and ICM induced caspase-3/7 activity. ICM altered neurite outgrowth, but only at concentrations that also reduced cell viability, whereas ICM reduced synapse number independent of changes in cell viability. Individual cytokines in ICM phenocopied the effects of ICM on NF-κB activation and synaptic connectivity, but did not completely mimic the effects of ICM on apoptosis. These results demonstrate that clinically relevant cytokine mixtures modulate apoptosis and synaptic density in developing human neurons. Given the relevance of these neurodevelopmental processes in NDDs, our findings support the hypothesis that cytokines contribute to the adverse effects of MIA on children.

Molecular Pathways within Autism Spectrum Disorder Endophenotypes

Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is a condition that includes a number of neurodevelopmental mental disorders. Recent genetic/genomic investigations have reported an increased prevalence of copy number variations (CNVs) in individuals with autism. Despite the extensive evidence of a genetic component, the genes involved are not known and the background is heterogeneous among subjects. As such, it is highly likely that multiple events (molecular cascades) are implicated in the development of autism. The aim of this work was to shed some light on the biological background behind this condition. We hypothesized that the heterogeneous alterations found within different individuals may converge into one or more specific biological functions (pathways) linked to the heterogeneous phenotypes commonly observed in subjects with ASD. We analyzed a sample of 107 individuals for CNV alterations and checked the genes located within the altered loci (1366). Then, we characterized the subjects for distinct phenotypes. After creating subsamples based on symptoms, the CNVs related to each specific symptom were used to create distinct networks associated with each phenotype (18 in total in the sample under analysis). These networks were independently clustered and enriched to identify potential common pathways involved in autism and variably combined with the clinical phenotype. The first 10 pathways of the analysis are discussed.

The impact of glutathione metabolism in autism spectrum disorder

This paper reviews the potential role of glutathione (GSH) in autism spectrum disorder (ASD). GSH plays a key role in the detoxification of xenobiotics and maintenance of balance in intracellular redox pathways. Recent data showed that imbalances in the GSH redox system are an important factor in the pathophysiology of ASD. Furthermore, ASD is accompanied by decreased concentrations of reduced GSH in part caused by oxidation of GSH into glutathione disulfide (GSSG). GSSG can react with protein sulfhydryl (SH) groups, thereby causing proteotoxic stress and other abnormalities in SH-containing enzymes in the brain and blood. Moreover, alterations in the GSH metabolism via its effects on redox-independent mechanisms are other processes associated with the pathophysiology of ASD. GSH-related regulation of glutamate receptors such as the N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor can contribute to glutamate excitotoxicity. Synergistic and antagonistic interactions between glutamate and GSH can result in neuronal dysfunction. These interactions can involve transcription factors of the immune pathway, such as activator protein 1 and nuclear factor (NF)-κB, thereby interacting with neuroinflammatory mechanisms, ultimately leading to neuronal damage. Neuronal apoptosis and mitochondrial dysfunction are recently outlined as significant factors linking GSH impairments with the pathophysiology of ASD. Moreover, GSH regulates the methylation of DNA and modulates epigenetics. Existing data support a protective role of the GSH system in ASD development. Future research should focus on the effects of GSH redox signaling in ASD and should explore new therapeutic approaches by targeting the GSH system.

Cell Adhesion Molecules Involved in Neurodevelopmental Pathways Implicated in 3p-Deletion Syndrome and Autism Spectrum Disorder

Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is characterized by impaired social interaction, language delay and repetitive or restrictive behaviors. With increasing prevalence, ASD is currently estimated to affect 0.5–2.0% of the global population. However, its etiology remains unclear due to high genetic and phenotypic heterogeneity. Copy number variations (CNVs) are implicated in several forms of syndromic ASD and have been demonstrated to contribute toward ASD development by altering gene dosage and expression. Increasing evidence points toward the p-arm of chromosome 3 (chromosome 3p) as an ASD risk locus. Deletions occurring at chromosome 3p result in 3p-deletion syndrome (Del3p), a rare genetic disorder characterized by developmental delay, intellectual disability, facial dysmorphisms and often, ASD or ASD-associated behaviors. Therefore, we hypothesize that overlapping molecular mechanisms underlie the pathogenesis of Del3p and ASD. To investigate which genes encoded in chromosome 3p could contribute toward Del3p and ASD, we performed a comprehensive literature review and collated reports investigating the phenotypes of individuals with chromosome 3p CNVs. We observe that high frequencies of CNVs occur in the 3p26.3 region, the terminal cytoband of chromosome 3p. This suggests that CNVs disrupting genes encoded within the 3p26.3 region are likely to contribute toward the neurodevelopmental phenotypes observed in individuals affected by Del3p. The 3p26.3 region contains three consecutive genes encoding closely related neuronal immunoglobulin cell adhesion molecules (IgCAMs): Close Homolog of L1 (CHL1), Contactin-6 (CNTN6), and Contactin-4 (CNTN4). CNVs disrupting these neuronal IgCAMs may contribute toward ASD phenotypes as they have been associated with key roles in neurodevelopment. CHL1, CNTN6, and CNTN4 have been observed to promote neurogenesis and neuronal survival, and regulate neuritogenesis and synaptic function. Furthermore, there is evidence that these neuronal IgCAMs possess overlapping interactomes and participate in common signaling pathways regulating axon guidance. Notably, mouse models deficient for these neuronal IgCAMs do not display strong deficits in axonal migration or behavioral phenotypes, which is in contrast to the pronounced defects in neuritogenesis and axon guidance observed in vitro. This suggests that when CHL1, CNTN6, or CNTN4 function is disrupted by CNVs, other neuronal IgCAMs may suppress behavioral phenotypes by compensating for the loss of function.

Characterization of genome-wide association study data reveals spatiotemporal heterogeneity of mental disorders

Background

Psychiatric disorders such as schizophrenia (SCZ), bipolar disorder (BIP), major depressive disorder (MDD), attention deficit-hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), and autism spectrum disorder (ASD) are often related to brain development. Both shared and unique biological and neurodevelopmental processes have been reported to be involved in these disorders.

Methods

In this work, we developed an integrative analysis framework to seek for the sensitive spatiotemporal point during brain development underlying each disorder. Specifically, we first identified spatiotemporal gene co-expression modules for four brain regions three developmental stages (prenatal, birth to 11 years old, and older than 13 years), totaling 12 spatiotemporal sites. By integrating GWAS summary statistics and the spatiotemporal co-expression modules, we characterized the risk genes and their co-expression partners for five disorders.

Results

We found that SCZ and BIP, ASD and ADHD tend to cluster with each other and keep a distance from other psychiatric disorders. At the gene level, we identified several genes that were shared among the most significant modules, such as CTNNB1 and LNX1, and a hub gene, ATF2, in multiple modules. Moreover, we pinpointed two spatiotemporal points in the prenatal stage with active expression activities and highlighted one postnatal point for BIP. Further functional analysis of the disorder-related module highlighted the apoptotic signaling pathway for ASD and the immune-related and cell-cell adhesion function for SCZ, respectively.

Conclusion

Our study demonstrated the dynamic changes of disorder-related genes at the network level, shedding light on the spatiotemporal regulation during brain development.

Autism and Williams syndrome: Dissimilar socio-cognitive profiles with similar patterns of abnormal gene expression in the blood

LAY ABSTRACT

Autism spectrum disorders and Williams syndrome are complex cognitive conditions exhibiting quite opposite features in the social domain: whereas people with autism spectrum disorders are mostly hyposocial, subjects with Williams syndrome are usually reported as hypersocial. At the same time, autism spectrum disorders and Williams syndrome share some common underlying behavioral and cognitive deficits. It is not clear, however, which genes account for the attested differences (and similarities) in the socio-cognitive domain. In this article, we adopted a comparative molecular approach and looked for genes that might be differentially (or similarly) regulated in the blood of people with these conditions. We found a significant overlap between genes dysregulated in the blood of patients compared to neurotypical controls, with most of them being upregulated or, in some cases, downregulated. Still, genes with similar expression trends can exhibit quantitative differences between conditions, with most of them being more dysregulated in Williams syndrome than in autism spectrum disorders. Differentially expressed genes are involved in aspects of brain development and function (particularly dendritogenesis) and are expressed in brain areas (particularly the cerebellum, the thalamus, and the striatum) of relevance for the autism spectrum disorder and the Williams syndrome etiopathogenesis. Overall, these genes emerge as promising candidates for the similarities and differences between the autism spectrum disorder and the Williams syndrome socio-cognitive profiles.

Air Pollution-Related Brain Metal Dyshomeostasis as a Potential Risk Factor for Neurodevelopmental Disorders and Neurodegenerative Diseases

Increasing evidence links air pollution (AP) exposure to effects on the central nervous system structure and function. Particulate matter AP, especially the ultrafine (nanoparticle) components, can carry numerous metal and trace element contaminants that can reach the brain in utero and after birth. Excess brain exposure to either essential or non-essential elements can result in brain dyshomeostasis, which has been implicated in both neurodevelopmental disorders (NDDs; autism spectrum disorder, schizophrenia, and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder) and neurodegenerative diseases (NDGDs; Alzheimer’s disease, Parkinson’s disease, multiple sclerosis, and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis). This review summarizes the current understanding of the extent to which the inhalational or intranasal instillation of metals reproduces in vivo the shared features of NDDs and NDGDs, including enlarged lateral ventricles, alterations in myelination, glutamatergic dysfunction, neuronal cell death, inflammation, microglial activation, oxidative stress, mitochondrial dysfunction, altered social behaviors, cognitive dysfunction, and impulsivity. Although evidence is limited to date, neuronal cell death, oxidative stress, and mitochondrial dysfunction are reproduced by numerous metals. Understanding the specific contribution of metals/trace elements to this neurotoxicity can guide the development of more realistic animal exposure models of human AP exposure and consequently lead to a more meaningful approach to mechanistic studies, potential intervention strategies, and regulatory requirements.

The influence of choline treatment on behavioral and neurochemical autistic-like phenotype in Mthfr-deficient mice

Imbalanced one carbon metabolism and aberrant autophagy is robustly reported in patients with autism. Polymorphism in the gene methylenetetrahydrofolate reductase (Mthfr), encoding for a key enzyme in this pathway is associated with an increased risk for autistic-spectrum-disorders (ASDs). Autistic-like core and associated behaviors have been described, with contribution of both maternal and offspring Mthfr^+/- genotype to the different domains of behavior. Preconception and prenatal supplementation with methyl donor rich diet to human subjects and mice reduced the risk for developing autism and autistic-like behavior, respectively. Here we tested the potential of choline supplementation to Mthfr-deficient mice at young-adulthood to reduce behavioral and neurochemical changes reminiscent of autism characteristics. We show that offspring of Mthfr^+/- mothers, whether wildtype or heterozygote, exhibit autistic-like behavior, altered brain p62 protein levels and LC3-II/LC3-I levels ratio, both, autophagy markers. Choline supplementation to adult offspring of Mthfr^+/- mothers for 14 days counteracted characteristics related to repetitive behavior and anxiety both in males and in females and improved social behavior solely in male mice. Choline treatment also normalized deviant cortical levels of the autophagy markers measured in male mice. The results demonstrate that choline supplementation even at adulthood, not tested previously, to offspring of Mthfr-deficient mothers, attenuates the autistic-like phenotype. If this proof of concept is replicated it might promote translation of these results to treatment recommendation for children with ASDs bearing similar genetic/metabolic make-up.

Drosophila models of pathogenic copy-number variant genes show global and non-neuronal defects during development

While rare pathogenic copy-number variants (CNVs) are associated with both neuronal and non-neuronal phenotypes, functional studies evaluating these regions have focused on the molecular basis of neuronal defects. We report a systematic functional analysis of non-neuronal defects for homologs of 59 genes within ten pathogenic CNVs and 20 neurodevelopmental genes in Drosophila melanogaster. Using wing-specific knockdown of 136 RNA interference lines, we identified qualitative and quantitative phenotypes in 72/79 homologs, including 21 lines with severe wing defects and six lines with lethality. In fact, we found that 10/31 homologs of CNV genes also showed complete or partial lethality at larval or pupal stages with ubiquitous knockdown. Comparisons between eye and wing-specific knockdown of 37/45 homologs showed both neuronal and non-neuronal defects, but with no correlation in the severity of defects. We further observed disruptions in cell proliferation and apoptosis in larval wing discs for 23/27 homologs, and altered Wnt, Hedgehog and Notch signaling for 9/14 homologs, including AATF/Aatf, PPP4C/Pp4-19C, and KIF11/Klp61F. These findings were further supported by tissue-specific differences in expression patterns of human CNV genes, as well as connectivity of CNV genes to signaling pathway genes in brain, heart and kidney-specific networks. Our findings suggest that multiple genes within each CNV differentially affect both global and tissue-specific developmental processes within conserved pathways, and that their roles are not restricted to neuronal functions.

Rare copy-number variants (CNVs), or large deletions and duplications in the genome, are associated with both neuronal and non-neuronal clinical features. Previous functional studies for these disorders have primarily focused on understanding the cellular mechanisms for neurological and behavioral phenotypes. To understand how genes within these CNVs contribute to developmental defects in non-neuronal tissues, we assessed 79 homologs of CNV and known neurodevelopmental genes in Drosophila models. We found that most homologs showed developmental defects when knocked down in the adult fly wing, ranging from mild size changes to severe wrinkled wings or lethality. Although a majority of tested homologs showed defects when knocked down specifically in wings or eyes, we found no correlation in the severity of the observed defects in these two tissues. A subset of the homologs showed disruptions in cellular processes in the developing fly wing, including alterations in cell proliferation, apoptosis, and cellular signaling pathways. Furthermore, human CNV genes also showed differences in gene expression patterns and interactions with signaling pathway genes across multiple human tissues. Our findings suggest that genes within CNV disorders affect global developmental processes in both neuronal and non-neuronal tissues.

High Serum Levels of Serum 100 Beta Protein, Neuron-specific Enolase, Tau, Active Caspase-3, M30 and M65 in Children with Autism Spectrum Disorders

Objective

The purpose of this study was therefore to investigate whether neuronal, axonal, and glial cell markers (Neuron-specific enolase [NSE], tau, serum 100 beta protein [S100B], respectively) and apoptosis markers (active caspase 3, M30, M65) and whether these parameters can be used as diagnostic biomarkers in autism spectrum disorders (ASD).

Methods

This study measured the serum S100B, NSE, tau, active caspase 3, M30, and M65 levels in 43 patients with ASD (aged 3−12 years) and in 41 age- and sex-matched healthy controls. ASD severity was rated using the Childhood Autism Rating Scale. The serum levels were determined in the biochemistry laboratory using the ELISA technique. The receiver operator characteristics curve method was employed to evaluate the accuracy of the parameters in diagnosing ASD.

Results

Serum S100B, tau, NSE, active caspase-3, M30, and M65 levels were significantly higher in the patient group than in the control group (p < 0.001, p = 0.002, p = 0.002, p = 0.005, p < 0.001, and p = 0.004, respectively). The cut-off value of S100B was 48.085 pg/ml (sensitivity: 74.4%, specificity: 80.5%, areas under the curve: 0.879, p < 0.001).

Conclusion

Apoptosis increased in children with ASD, and neuronal, axonal, and glial cell injury was observed. In addition, S100B may be an important diagnostic biomarker in patients with ASD. Apoptosis, and neuronal, axonal and astrocyte pathologies may play a significant role in the pathogenesis of ASD, and further studies are now required to confirm this.

Genes Positively Selected in Domesticated Mammals Are Significantly Dysregulated in the Blood of Individuals with Autism Spectrum Disorders

Human self-domestication (i.e., the presence of traits in our species that are commonly found in domesticated animals) has been hypothesized to have contributed to the emergence of many human-specific features, including aspects of our cognition and behavior. Signs of self-domestication have been claimed to be attenuated in individuals with autism spectrum disorders (ASD), this conceivably accounting for facets of their distinctive cognitive and behavioral profile, although this possibility needs to be properly tested. In this study, we have found that candidate genes for mammal domestication, but not for neural crest development and function, are significantly dysregulated in the blood of subjects with ASD. The set of differentially expressed genes (DEGs) is enriched in biological and molecular processes, as well as in pathological phenotypes, of relevance for the etiology of ASD, like lipid metabolism, cell apoptosis, the activity of the insulin-like growth factor, gene expression regulation, skin/hair anomalies, musculoskeletal abnormalities, and hearing impairment. Moreover, among the DEGs, there are known candidates for ASD and/or genes involved in biological processes known to be affected in ASD. Our findings give support to the view that one important aspect of the etiopathogenesis of ASD is the abnormal manifestation of features of human self-domestication.

The possible neuroprotective role of grape seed extract on the histopathological changes of the cerebellar cortex of rats prenatally exposed to Valproic Acid: animal model of autism

Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) is a heterogeneous neurodevelopmental disease characterized by defect in verbal and nonverbal communications. As, the cerebellum has the greatest number of neurons and synapses in the central nervous system so, the cerebellum has emerged as one of the target brain areas affected in autism. The aim of this work was to study the biochemical, immunohistochemical and ultrastructural characteristics of autism and the possible neuroprotective role of grape seed extract. In this study 28 male pups were divided into Control groups; Group I (saline), Group II (GSE 400 mg/kg), Group III (VPA 500 mg/kg) and Group IV (VPA and GSE). Cerebellar hemispheres were dissected out and prepared to determine the oxidative stress markers, histological, immunohistochemical and morphometric study were done. A significant elevation in oxidative stress markers in off spring of VPA treated rats in comparison to control group was detected. A significant decrease in the Purkinje cell count and nuclear size were observed. Numerous shrunken cells with hyperchromatic nuclei and ultrastructural degeneration of cytoplasmic organelles were detected. A significant rise in the area percentage of GFAP-positive immune stained cells in comparison to that of the control groups was seen. Strikingly, GSE revealed significant improvement in the oxidative stress markers and then the histological and morphometric picture of the cerebellum. GSE has neuroprotective effect on the cerebellum of VPA treated rats through its potent antioxidant effect.

Assessment of Apoptosis Pathway in Peripheral Blood of Autistic Patients

Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) includes a number of severe neurodevelopmental disorders known by defects in social interaction, impaired verbal and non-verbal interactions, and stereotypic activities and limited interests. Dysregulation of apoptotic pathways have been demonstrated in brain tissues of affected individuals. In the present study, we evaluated expression levels of apoptosis-related genes and miRNAs in peripheral blood of ASD patients compared with healthy subjects. Transcript levels of BCL2, CASP8, and hsa-29c-3p were significantly lower in total ASD patients compared with total normal children (P values = 0.003, 0.002, and 0.01 respectively). When sex of study participants was considered in the analysis, the difference in transcript levels of these genes was significant only in male subjects. Peripheral expression of BCL2 and hsa-29c-3p had 100% sensitivity 92% specificity in ASD diagnosis. The diagnostic power of combination of transcript levels of these genes was estimated to be 78% based on the calculated AUC value. The present study provides evidences for dysregulation of apoptotic pathways in peripheral blood of ASD patients and suggests certain apoptosis-related genes as biomarkers in this regard.

Identification of rare copy number variations reveals PJA2, APCS, SYNPO, and TAC1 as novel candidate genes in Autism Spectrum Disorders

Background

There is a strong evidence for genetic factors as the main causes of Autism Spectrum Disorders (ASD). To date, hundreds of genes have been identified either by copy number variations (CNVs) and/or single nucleotide variations. However, despite all the findings, the genetics of these disorders have not been totally explored.

Methods

Thus, the aim of our work was to identify rare CNVs and genes present in these regions in ASD children, using a high‐resolution comparative genomic hybridization technique and quantitative PCR (qPCR) approach.

Results

Our results have shown 60–70 chromosomal aberrations per patient. We have initially selected 66 CNVs that have been further assessed using qPCR. Finally, we have validated 22 CNVs including 11 deletions and 11 duplications. Ten CNVs are de novo, 11 are inherited and one of unknown origin of transmission. Among the CNVs detected, novel ASD candidate genes PJA2, SYNPO, APCS, and TAC1 have been identified in our group of Lebanese patients. In addition, previously described CNVs have been identified containing genes such as SHANK3, MBP, CHL1, and others.

Conclusion

Our study broadens the population spectrum of studied ASD patients and adds new candidates at the list of genes contributing to these disorders.

Identification of the Key Genes of Autism Spectrum Disorder Through Protein-Protein Interaction Network

Background:

Currently, the prevalence of autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is increasing, which widely spurs the interest in the molecular investigation. Thereby, a better understanding of the given disorder mechanisms is likely to be achieved. Bioinformatics suiting protein-protein interactions analysis via the application of high-throughput studies, such as protein array, is one of these achievements.

Materials and Methods:

The gene expression data from Gene Expression Omnibus (GEO) database were downloaded, and the expression profile of patients with developmental delay and autistic features were analyzed via Cytoscape and its relevant plug-ins.

Results:

Our findings indicated that EGFR, ACTB, RHOA, CALM1, MAPK1, and JUN genes as the hub-bottlenecks and their related terms could be important in ASD risk. In other words, any expression modification in these genes could trigger dysfunctions in the corresponding biological processes.

Conclusion:

We suggest that differentially expressed genes could be used as suitable targets for ASD after being validated.