Unanchored K48-linked polyubiquitin synthesized by the E3-ubiquitin ligase TRIM6 stimulates the interferon-IKKε kinase-mediated antiviral response

E2 conjugating enzymes: A silent but crucial player in ubiquitin biology

E2 conjugating enzymes serve as the linchpin of the Ubiquitin-Proteasome System (UPS), facilitating ubiquitin (Ub) transfer to substrate proteins and regulating diverse processes critical to cellular homeostasis. The interaction of E2s with E1 activating enzymes and E3 ligases singularly positions them as middlemen of the ubiquitin machinery that guides protein turnover. Structural determinants of E2 enzymes play a pivotal role in these interactions, enabling precise ubiquitin transfer and substrate specificity. Regulation of E2 enzymes is tightly controlled through mechanisms such as post-translational modifications (PTMs), allosteric control, and gene expression modulation. Specific residues that undergo PTMs highlight their impact on E2 function and their role in ubiquitin dynamics. E2 enzymes also cooperate with deubiquitinases (DUBs) to maintain proteostasis. Design of small molecule inhibitors to modulate E2 activity is emerging as promising avenue to restrict ubiquitination as a potential therapeutic intervention. Additionally, E2 enzymes have been implicated in the pathogenesis and progression of neurodegenerative disorders (NDDs), where their dysfunction contributes to disease mechanisms. In summary, examining E2 enzymes from structural and functional perspectives offers potential to advance our understanding of cellular processes and assist in discovery of new therapeutic targets.

DNA methylation signatures of severe RSV infection in infants: evidence from non-invasive saliva samples

BACKGROUND

Respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) poses significant morbidity and mortality risks in childhood, particularly for previously healthy infants admitted to hospitals lacking predisposing risk factors for severe disease. This study aimed to investigate the role of the host epigenome in RSV infection severity using non-invasive buccal swabs from sixteen hospitalized infants admitted to the hospital for RSV infection. Eight patients had severe symptoms, and eight had mild to moderate symptoms. For DNA methylation analyses, the Illumina EPIC BeadChip was used with DNA isolated from saliva samples. To evaluate the basal DNA methylation level of the identified biomarkers a cohort of healthy control children was used. Furthermore, DNA methylation levels of candidate genes were confirmed by pyrosequencing in both the discovery and validation cohorts of patients with mild to moderate symptoms.

RESULTS

A panel of differentially methylated positions (DMPs) distinguishing severe from mild to moderate symptoms in infants was identified. DMPs were determined using a threshold of an adjusted P-value (false discovery rate, FDR) < 0.01 and an absolute difference in DNA methylation (delta beta) > 0.10. Differentially methylated regions (DMRs) were identified in the ZBTB38 (implicated in asthma and pulmonary disease) and the TRIM6-TRM34 gene region (associated with viral infections). The differential DNA methylation of these genes was validated in an independent replication cohort. A weighted correlation network analysis emphasized the pivotal role of a module with RAB11FIP5 as the hub gene, known for its critical function in regulating viral infections.

CONCLUSIONS

Oral mucosa methylation may play a role in determining the severity of RSV disease in infants.

A No-Brainer! The Therapeutic Potential of TRIM Proteins in Viral and Central Nervous System Diseases

Tripartite motif (TRIM) proteins comprise an important class of E3 ubiquitin ligases that regulate numerous biological processes including protein expression, cellular signaling pathways, and innate immunity. This ubiquitous participation in fundamental aspects of biology has made TRIM proteins a focus of study in many fields and has illuminated the negative impact they exert when functioning improperly. Disruption of TRIM function has been linked to the success of various pathogens and separately to the occurrence and development of several neurodegenerative diseases, making TRIM proteins an appealing candidate to study for novel therapeutic approaches. Here, we review the current findings on TRIM proteins that demonstrate their analogous properties in the distinct fields of viral infection and central nervous system (CNS) disorders. We also examine recent advancements in drug development and targeted protein degradation as potential strategies for TRIM-mediated therapeutic treatments and discuss the implications these technologies have on future research directions.

Identification of RING E3 pseudoligases in the TRIM protein family

TRIpartite Motif (TRIM) family proteins have diverse roles across a broad variety of cellular functions, which are largely presumed to depend on their ubiquitin E3 ligase activity, conferred by a RING domain. However, recent reports have shown that some TRIMs lack detectable ubiquitination activity in isolation, despite containing a RING domain. Here, we present parallel in cellulo, in vitro, and in silico structure-function analyses of the ubiquitin E3 ligase activity and RING domain structural characteristics of the whole TRIM protein family. In-depth follow-up studies of this comprehensive dataset reveals a number of 'pseudoligases', whose RING domains have structurally diverged at either the homodimerisation or E2~ubiquitin interfaces, thereby disrupting their ability to catalyse ubiquitin transfer. Together, these data raise intriguing open questions regarding the unknown TRIM functions in physiology and disease.

USP5 inhibits anti-RNA viral innate immunity by deconjugating K48-linked unanchored and K63-linked anchored ubiquitin on IRF3

Interferon regulatory factor 3 (IRF3) is a central hub transcription factor that controls host antiviral innate immunity. The expression and function of IRF3 are tightly regulated by the post-translational modifications. However, it is unknown whether unanchored ubiquitination and deubiquitination of IRF3 involve modulating antiviral innate immunity against RNA viruses. Here, we find that USP5, a deubiquitinase (DUB) regulating unanchored polyubiquitin, is downregulated during host anti-RNA viral innate immunity in a type I interferon (IFN-I) receptor (IFNAR)-dependent manner. USP5 is further identified to inhibit IRF3-triggered antiviral immune responses through its DUB enzyme activity. K48-linked unanchored ubiquitin promotes IRF3-driven transcription of IFN-β and induction of IFN-stimulated genes (ISGs) in a dose-dependent manner. USP5 simultaneously removes both K48-linked unanchored and K63-linked anchored polyubiquitin chains on IRF3. Our study not only provides evidence that unanchored ubiquitin regulates anti-RNA viral innate immunity but also proposes a novel mechanism for DUB-controlled IRF3 activation, suggesting that USP5 is a potential target for the treatment of RNA viral infectious diseases.

KSHV hijacks the antiviral kinase IKKε to initiate lytic replication

IKKε is a traditional antiviral kinase known for positively regulating the production of type I interferon (IFN) and the expression of IFN-stimulated genes (ISGs) during various virus infections. However, through an inhibitor screen targeting cellular kinases, we found that IKKε plays a crucial role in the lytic replication of Kaposi's sarcoma-associated herpesvirus (KSHV). Mechanistically, during KSHV lytic replication, IKKε undergoes significant SUMOylation at both Lys321 and Lys549 by the viral SUMO E3 ligase ORF45. This SUMOylation event leads to the association of IKKε with PML, resulting in the disruption of PML nuclear bodies (PML NBs) and subsequent increase in lytic replication of KSHV. Notably, IKKε does not affect the total expression level of PML but facilitates the translocation of PML from the nucleus to the cytoplasm during KSHV lytic replication. Further experiments utilizing mutations on the SUMOylation sites of IKKε or inhibiting IKKε using BAY-985 showed that these actions no longer impact PML NBs and completely suppress the lytic replication of KSHV. These findings not only emphasize the essential role of IKKε in the life cycle of KSHV but also illustrate how KSHV exploits IKKε through SUMOylation modification to enhance its own replication process.

TRIM7 ubiquitinates SARS-CoV-2 membrane protein to limit apoptosis and viral replication

SARS-CoV-2 is a highly transmissible virus that causes COVID-19 disease. Mechanisms of viral pathogenesis include excessive inflammation and viral-induced cell death, resulting in tissue damage. Here we show that the host E3-ubiquitin ligase TRIM7 acts as an inhibitor of apoptosis and SARS-CoV-2 replication via ubiquitination of the viral membrane (M) protein. Trim7-/- mice exhibit increased pathology and virus titers associated with epithelial apoptosis and dysregulated immune responses. Mechanistically, TRIM7 ubiquitinates M on K14, which protects cells from cell death. Longitudinal SARS-CoV-2 sequence analysis from infected patients reveal that mutations on M-K14 appeared in circulating variants during the pandemic. The relevance of these mutations was tested in a mouse model. A recombinant M-K14/K15R virus shows reduced viral replication, consistent with the role of K15 in virus assembly, and increased levels of apoptosis associated with the loss of ubiquitination on K14. TRIM7 antiviral activity requires caspase-6 inhibition, linking apoptosis with viral replication and pathology.

Exploration of drug repurposing for Mpox outbreaks targeting gene signatures and host-pathogen interactions

Monkeypox (Mpox) is a growing public health concern, with complex interactions within host systems contributing to its impact. This study employs multi-omics approaches to uncover therapeutic targets and potential drug repurposing opportunities to better understand Mpox's molecular pathogenesis. We developed an in silico host-pathogen interaction (HPI) network and applied weighted gene co-expression network analysis (WGCNA) to explore interactions between Mpox and host proteins. Subtype-specific host-pathogen protein-protein interaction networks were constructed, and key modules from the HPI and WGCNA were integrated to identify significant host proteins. To predict upstream signaling pathways and transcription factors, we used eXpression2Kinases and ChIP-X Enrichment Analysis. The multi-Steiner trees method was applied to compare our findings with those from FDA-approved antiviral drugs. Analysis of 55 differentially expressed genes in Mpox infection revealed 11 kinases and 15 transcription factors as key regulators. We identified 16 potential drug targets, categorized into 8 proviral genes (ESR2, ERK1, ERK2, P38, JNK1, CDK4, GSK3B, STAT3) designated for inhibition, and 8 antiviral genes (IKKA, HDAC1, HIPK2, TF65, CSK21, HIPK2, ESR2, GSK3B) designated for activation. Proviral genes are involved in the AKT, Wnt, and STAT3 pathways, while antiviral genes impact the AP-1, NF-κB, apoptosis, and IFN pathways. Promising FDA-approved candidates were identified, including kinase inhibitors, steroid hormone receptor agonists, STAT3 inhibitors, and notably Niclosamide. This study enhances our understanding of Mpox by identifying key therapeutic targets and potential repurposable drugs, providing a valuable framework for developing new treatments.

Structural basis for C-degron selectivity across KLHDCX family E3 ubiquitin ligases

Specificity of the ubiquitin-proteasome system depends on E3 ligase-substrate interactions. Many such pairings depend on E3 ligases binding to peptide-like sequences - termed N- or C-degrons - at the termini of substrates. However, our knowledge of structural features distinguishing closely related C-degron substrate-E3 pairings is limited. Here, by systematically comparing ubiquitylation activities towards a suite of common model substrates, and defining interactions by biochemistry, crystallography, and cryo-EM, we reveal principles of C-degron recognition across the KLHDCX family of Cullin-RING ligases (CRLs). First, a motif common across these E3 ligases anchors a substrate's C-terminus. However, distinct locations of this C-terminus anchor motif in different blades of the KLHDC2, KLHDC3, and KLHDC10 β-propellers establishes distinct relative positioning and molecular environments for substrate C-termini. Second, our structural data show KLHDC3 has a pre-formed pocket establishing preference for an Arg or Gln preceding a C-terminal Gly, whereas conformational malleability contributes to KLHDC10's recognition of varying features adjacent to substrate C-termini. Finally, additional non-consensus interactions, mediated by C-degron binding grooves and/or by distal propeller surfaces and substrate globular domains, can substantially impact substrate binding and ubiquitylatability. Overall, the data reveal combinatorial mechanisms determining specificity and plasticity of substrate recognition by KLDCX-family C-degron E3 ligases.

Linear poly-ubiquitin remodels the proteome and influences hundreds of regulators in Drosophila

Ubiquitin controls many cellular processes via its posttranslational conjugation onto substrates. Its use is highly variable due to its ability to form poly-ubiquitin chains with various topologies. Among them, linear chains have emerged as important regulators of immune responses and protein degradation. Previous studies in Drosophila melanogaster found that expression of linear poly-ubiquitin that cannot be dismantled into single moieties leads to their ubiquitination and degradation or, alternatively, to their conjugation onto proteins. However, it remains largely unknown which proteins are sensitive to linear poly-ubiquitin. To address this question, here we expanded the toolkit to modulate linear chains and conducted ultra-deep coverage proteomics from flies that express noncleavable, linear chains comprising 2, 4, or 6 moieties. We found that these chains regulate shared and distinct cellular processes in Drosophila by impacting hundreds of proteins, such as the circadian factor Cryptochrome. Our results provide key insight into the proteome subsets and cellular pathways that are influenced by linear poly-ubiquitin chains with distinct lengths and suggest that the ubiquitin system is exceedingly pliable.

Intracellular osteopontin potentiates the immunosuppressive activity of mesenchymal stromal cells

INTRODUCTION

Mesenchymal stromal cell (MSC)-based cell therapy is a promising approach for various inflammatory disorders based on their immunosuppressive capacity. Osteopontin (OPN) regulates several cellular functions including tissue repair, bone metabolism and immune reaction. However, the biological function of OPN in regulating the immunosuppressive capacity of MSCs remains elusive.

OBJECTIVES

This study aims to highlight the underlying mechanism of the proinflammatory cytokines affect the therapeutic ability of MSCs through OPN.

METHODS

MSCs in response to the proinflammatory cytokines were collected to determine the expression profile of OPN. In vitro T-cell proliferation assays and gene editing were performed to check the role and mechanisms of OPN in regulating the immunosuppressive capacity of MSCs. Inflammatory disease mouse models were established to evaluate the effect of OPN on improving MSC-based immunotherapy.

RESULTS

We observed that OPN, including its two isoforms iOPN and sOPN, was downregulated in MSCs upon proinflammatory cytokine stimulation. Interestingly, iOPN, but not sOPN, greatly enhanced the immunosuppressive activity of MSCs on T-cell proliferation and thus alleviated the inflammatory pathologies of hepatitis and colitis. Mechanistically, iOPN interacted with STAT1 and mediated its deubiquitination, thereby inducing the master immunosuppressive mediator inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) in MSCs. In addition, iOPN expression was directly downregulated by activated STAT1, which formed a negative feedback loop to restrain MSC immunosuppressive capacity.

CONCLUSION

Our findings demonstrated that iOPN expression modulation in MSCs is a novel strategy to improve MSC-based immunotherapy.

The Ubiquitin Tale: Current Strategies and Future Challenges

Ubiquitin (Ub) is often considered a structurally conserved protein. Ubiquitination plays a prominent role in the regulation of physiological pathways. Since the first mention of Ub in protein degradation pathways, a plethora of nonproteolytic functions of this post-translational modification have been identified and investigated in detail. In addition, several other structurally and functionally related proteins have been identified and investigated for their Ub-like structures and functions. Ubiquitination and Ub-like modifications play vital roles in modulating the pathways involved in crucial biological processes and thus affect the global proteome. In this Review, we provide a snapshot of pathways, substrates, diseases, and novel therapeutic targets that are associated with ubiquitination or Ub-like modifications. In the past few years, a large number of proteomic studies have identified pools of ubiquitinated proteins (ubiquitylomes) involved or induced in healthy or stressed conditions. These comprehensive studies involving identification of new ubiquitination substrates and sites contribute enormously to our understanding of ubiquitination in more depth. However, with the current tools, there are certain limitations that need to be addressed. We review recent technological advancements in ubiquitylomic studies and their limitations and challenges. Overall, large-scale ubiquitylomic studies contribute toward understanding global ubiquitination in the contexts of normal and disease conditions.

Cyclization of ubiquitin chains reinforces their recognition by ZNF216

Lys48-linked ubiquitin chains, regulating proteasomal protein degradation, are known to include cyclized forms. This cyclization hinders recognition by many downstream proteins by occluding the Ile44-centered patch. In contrast, the A20-like Znf domain of ZNF216 (a ubiquitin-binding protein, A20 Znf) is expected to bind to cyclic ubiquitin chains via constitutively solvent-exposed surfaces. However, the underlying interaction mechanism remains unclear. Here, our ITC and NMR experiments collectively showed that cyclization did not interfere with and even slightly enhance the molecular recognition of diubiquitin by A20 Znf. This effect is explained by the cyclization-induced repression of conformational dynamics in diubiquitin and an enlarged molecular interface in the complex. Thus, these results suggest that cyclic ubiquitin chains can be involved in regulation of ZNF216-dependent proteasomal protein degradation.

The Dual Role of TRIM7 in Viral Infections

The E3 ubiquitin ligase TRIM7 is known to have dual roles during viral infections. Like other TRIM proteins, TRIM7 can regulate the IFN pathway via the regulation of the cytosolic receptors RIG-I or MDA-5, which promote the production of type I interferons (IFN-I) and antiviral immune responses. Alternatively, under certain infectious conditions, TRIM7 can negatively regulate IFN-I signaling, resulting in increased virus replication. A growing body of evidence has also shown that TRIM7 can, in some cases, ubiquitinate viral proteins to promote viral replication and pathogenesis, while in other cases it can promote degradation of viral proteins through the proteasome, reducing virus infection. TRIM7 can also regulate the host inflammatory response and modulate the production of inflammatory cytokines, which can lead to detrimental inflammation. TRIM7 can also protect the host during infection by reducing cellular apoptosis. Here, we discuss the multiple functions of TRIM7 during viral infections and its potential as a therapeutic target.

TRIMming down Flavivirus Infections

Flaviviruses comprise a large number of arthropod-borne viruses, some of which are associated with life-threatening diseases. Flavivirus infections are rising worldwide, mainly due to the proliferation and geographical expansion of their vectors. The main human pathogens are mosquito-borne flaviviruses, including dengue virus, Zika virus, and West Nile virus, but tick-borne flaviviruses are also emerging. As with any viral infection, the body's first line of defense against flavivirus infections is the innate immune defense, of which type I interferon is the armed wing. This cytokine exerts its antiviral activity by triggering the synthesis of hundreds of interferon-induced genes (ISGs), whose products can prevent infection. Among the ISGs that inhibit flavivirus replication, certain tripartite motif (TRIM) proteins have been identified. Although involved in other biological processes, TRIMs constitute a large family of antiviral proteins active on a wide range of viruses. Furthermore, whereas some TRIM proteins directly block viral replication, others are positive regulators of the IFN response. Therefore, viruses have developed strategies to evade or counteract TRIM proteins, and some even hijack certain TRIM proteins to their advantage. In this review, we summarize the current state of knowledge on the interactions between flaviviruses and TRIM proteins, covering both direct and indirect antiviral mechanisms.

TRIM6 promotes glioma malignant progression by enhancing FOXO3A ubiquitination and degradation

PURPOSE

TRIM6, an E3 ubiquitin ligase with tripartite motif, directly targets protein substrates for degradation through ubiquitination. Studies have shown that TRIM6 plays a significant role in tumor development in various human malignancies. Thus, the aim of this study was to investigate the importance of TRIM6 and its associated mechanism in promoting the progression of glioma.

METHODS

The expression of TRIM6 and its prognostic value in glioma patients were collected from the TCGA and CGGA databases. The effects of TRIM6 on glioma were investigated in vitro by CCK8, colony formation, wound healing, and transwell assays. Co-IP and western blot analysis were used to detect the interaction between TRIM6 and FOXO3A. The effects of TRIM6 were verified in vivo in subcutaneously xenograft models, and tumor size, and immunohistochemical changes were observed.

RESULTS

Our analysis of TRIM6 expression in glioma tissues revealed a high level of expression, and the heightened expression of TRIM6 showed a positive correlation with the unfavorable prognosis among glioma/GBM patients. Through loss-of-function and gain-of-function experiments, we observed a profound impact on the proliferation, invasion, and migration abilities of glioma cells both in vitro and in vivo upon deletion of TRIM6. Conversely, the overexpression of TRIM6 intensified the malignant characteristics of glioma. Additionally, our findings revealed a significant interaction between TRIM6 and FOXO3A, wherein TRIM6 contributed to the destabilization of FOXO3A protein by promoting its ubiquitination and subsequent degradation. Experiments conducted in the rescue study affirmed that the promotion of glioma cell proliferation, invasion, and migration is facilitated by TRIM6 through the suppression of FOXO3A protein levels.

CONCLUSIONS

These observations imply that the TRIM6-FOXO3A axis could potentially serve as an innovative focus for intervening in glioma.

TRIM47 promotes HDM-induced bronchial epithelial pyroptosis by regulating NEMO ubiquitination to activate NF-κB/NLRP3 signaling

Asthma is an inflammatory disease. Airway epithelial cell pyroptosis and cytokine secretion promote asthma progression. Tripartite motif 47 (TRIM47) belongs to the E3 ubiquitin ligase family and is associated with apoptosis and inflammation in a range of diseases. However, the role of TRIM47 in asthma has not been explored. In this study, the human bronchial epithelial cell line BEAS-2B was treated with house dust mite (HDM) and TRIM47 expression was detected by RT-qPCR and Western blot. After transfection with TRIM47 interfering and overexpressing plasmids, the synthesis and secretion of cytokines, as well as pyroptosis-related indicators, were examined. Nuclear factor kappa-B (NF-κB) pathway proteins and nod-like receptor protein 3 (NLRP3) inflammasome were measured to explore the mechanism of TRIM47 action. In addition, the effect of TRIM47 on the level of NF-κB essential modulator (NEMO) ubiquitination was detected by an immunoprecipitation assay. The results showed that TRIM47 was upregulated in HDM-induced BEAS-2B cells and that TRIM47 mediated HDM-induced BEAS-2B cell pyroptosis and cytokine secretion. Mechanistically, TRIM47 promoted the K63-linked ubiquitination of NEMO and facilitated NF-κB/NLRP3 pathway activation. In conclusion, TRIM47 may promote cytokine secretion mediating inflammation and pyroptosis in bronchial epithelial cells by activating the NF-κB/NLRP3 pathway. Therefore, TRIM47 may be a potential therapeutic target for HDM-induced asthma.

Unconventional posttranslational modification in innate immunity

Pattern recognition receptors (PRRs) play a crucial role in innate immunity, and a complex network tightly controls their signaling cascades to maintain immune homeostasis. Within the modification network, posttranslational modifications (PTMs) are at the core of signaling cascades. Conventional PTMs, which include phosphorylation and ubiquitination, have been extensively studied. The regulatory role of unconventional PTMs, involving unanchored ubiquitination, ISGylation, SUMOylation, NEDDylation, methylation, acetylation, palmitoylation, glycosylation, and myristylation, in the modulation of innate immune signaling pathways has been increasingly investigated. This comprehensive review delves into the emerging field of unconventional PTMs and highlights their pivotal role in innate immunity.

Emerging roles of tripartite motif family proteins (TRIMs) in breast cancer

Breast cancer (BC) is the most common malignant tumor worldwide. Despite enormous progress made in the past decades, the underlying mechanisms of BC remain further illustrated. Recently, TRIM family proteins proved to be engaged in BC progression through regulating various aspects. Here we reviewed the structures and basic functions of TRIM family members and first classified them into three groups according to canonical polyubiquitination forms that they could mediate: K48- only, K63- only, and both K48- and K63-linked ubiquitination. Afterwards, we focused on the specific biological functions and mechanisms of TRIMs in BCs, including tumorigenesis and invasiveness, drug sensitivity, tumor immune microenvironment (TIME), cell cycle, and metabolic reprogramming. We also explored the potential of TRIMs as novel biomarkers for predicting prognosis and future therapeutic targets in BC.

TRIM7 ubiquitinates SARS-CoV-2 membrane protein to limit apoptosis and viral replication

SARS-CoV-2 is a highly transmissible virus that causes COVID-19 disease. Mechanisms of viral pathogenesis include excessive inflammation and viral-induced cell death, resulting in tissue damage. We identified the host E3-ubiquitin ligase TRIM7 as an inhibitor of apoptosis and SARS-CoV-2 replication via ubiquitination of the viral membrane (M) protein. Trim7 -/- mice exhibited increased pathology and virus titers associated with epithelial apoptosis and dysregulated immune responses. Mechanistically, TRIM7 ubiquitinates M on K14, which protects cells from cell death. Longitudinal SARS-CoV-2 sequence analysis from infected patients revealed that mutations on M-K14 appeared in circulating variants during the pandemic. The relevance of these mutations was tested in a mouse model. A recombinant M-K14/K15R virus showed reduced viral replication, consistent with the role of K15 in virus assembly, and increased levels of apoptosis associated with the loss of ubiquitination on K14. TRIM7 antiviral activity requires caspase-6 inhibition, linking apoptosis with viral replication and pathology.

Ubiquitination in viral entry and replication: Mechanisms and implications

The ubiquitination process is a reversible posttranslational modification involved in many essential cellular functions, such as innate immunity, cell signaling, trafficking, protein stability, and protein degradation. Viruses can use the ubiquitin system to efficiently enter host cells, replicate and evade host immunity, ultimately enhancing viral pathogenesis. Emerging evidence indicates that enveloped viruses can carry free (unanchored) ubiquitin or covalently ubiquitinated viral structural proteins that can increase the efficiency of viral entry into host cells. Furthermore, viruses continuously evolve and adapt to take advantage of the host ubiquitin machinery, highlighting its importance during virus infection. This review discusses the battle between viruses and hosts, focusing on how viruses hijack the ubiquitination process at different steps of the replication cycle, with a specific emphasis on viral entry. We discuss how ubiquitination of viral proteins may affect tropism and explore emerging therapeutics strategies targeting the ubiquitin system for antiviral drug discovery.

Linear ubiquitin chains remodel the proteome and influence the levels of hundreds of regulators in Drosophila

Ubiquitin controls many cellular processes via its post-translational conjugation onto substrates. Its use is highly variable due to its ability to form poly-ubiquitin with various topologies. Among them, linear chains have emerged as important regulators of immune responses and protein degradation. Previous studies in Drosophila melanogaster found that expression of linear poly-ubiquitin that cannot be dismantled into single moieties leads to their own ubiquitination and degradation or, alternatively, to their conjugation onto proteins. However, it remains largely unknown which proteins are sensitive to linear poly-ubiquitin. To address this question, here we expanded the toolkit to modulate linear chains and conducted ultra-deep coverage proteomics from flies that express non-cleavable, linear chains comprising 2, 4, or 6 moieties. We found that these chains regulate shared and distinct cellular processes in Drosophila by impacting hundreds of proteins. Our results provide key insight into the proteome subsets and cellular pathways that are influenced by linear poly-ubiquitin with distinct lengths and suggest that the ubiquitin system is exceedingly pliable.

Decoding the ubiquitin landscape by cutting-edge ubiquitinomic approaches

Functional consequences of protein ubiquitination have gone far beyond the degradation regulation as was initially imagined during its discovery 40 years back. The state-of-the-art has revealed the plethora of signaling pathways that are largely regulated by ubiquitination process in eukaryotes. To no surprise, ubiquitination is often dysregulated in many human diseases, including cancer, neurodegeneration and infection. Hence it has become a major focus with high-gain research value for many investigators to unravel new proteoforms, that are the targets of this ubiquitination modification. Despite many biochemical or proteomic approaches available for ubiquitination detection, mass-spectrometry stood out to be the most efficient and transformative technology to read this complex modification script. Here in this review, we have discussed how different ubiquitin codes can be decoded qualitatively and quantitatively following various sequential proteomic approaches to date reported and indicated the current limitations with scope for improvements.

TRIM6 facilitates SARS-CoV-2 proliferation by catalyzing the K29-typed ubiquitination of NP to enhance the ability to bind viral genomes

The Nucleocapsid Protein (NP) of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) is not only the core structural protein required for viral packaging, but also participates in the regulation of viral replication, and its post-translational modifications such as phosphorylation have been shown to be an important strategy for regulating virus proliferation. Our previous work identified NP could be ubiquitinated, as confirmed by two independent studies. But the function of NP ubiquitination is currently unknown. In this study, we first pinpointed TRIM6 as the E3 ubiquitin ligase responsible for NP ubiquitination, binding to NP's CTD via its RING and B-box-CCD domains. TRIM6 promotes the K29-typed polyubiquitination of NP at K102, K347, and K361 residues, increasing its binding to viral genomic RNA. Consistently, functional experiments such as the use of the reverse genetic tool trVLP model and gene knockout of TRIM6 further confirmed that blocking the ubiquitination of NP by TRIM6 significantly inhibited the proliferation of SARS-CoV-2. Notably, the NP of coronavirus is relatively conserved, and the NP of SARS-CoV can also be ubiquitinated by TRIM6, indicating that NP could be a broad-spectrum anti-coronavirus target. These findings shed light on the intricate interaction between SARS-CoV-2 and the host, potentially opening new opportunities for COVID-19 therapeutic development.

Ebola virus VP35 interacts non-covalently with ubiquitin chains to promote viral replication

Ebolavirus (EBOV) belongs to a family of highly pathogenic viruses that cause severe hemorrhagic fever in humans. EBOV replication requires the activity of the viral polymerase complex, which includes the cofactor and Interferon antagonist VP35. We previously showed that the covalent ubiquitination of VP35 promotes virus replication by regulating interactions with the polymerase complex. In addition, VP35 can also interact non-covalently with ubiquitin (Ub); however, the function of this interaction is unknown. Here, we report that VP35 interacts with free (unanchored) K63-linked polyUb chains. Ectopic expression of Isopeptidase T (USP5), which is known to degrade unanchored polyUb chains, reduced VP35 association with Ub and correlated with diminished polymerase activity in a minigenome assay. Using computational methods, we modeled the VP35-Ub non-covalent interacting complex, identified the VP35-Ub interacting surface, and tested mutations to validate the interface. Docking simulations identified chemical compounds that can block VP35-Ub interactions leading to reduced viral polymerase activity. Treatment with the compounds reduced replication of infectious EBOV in cells and in vivo in a mouse model. In conclusion, we identified a novel role of unanchored polyUb in regulating Ebola virus polymerase function and discovered compounds that have promising anti-Ebola virus activity.

Factor inhibiting HIF negatively regulates antiviral innate immunity via hydroxylation of IKKϵ

Activation of type I interferon (IFN-1) signaling is essential to protect host cells from viral infection. The full spectrum of IFN-I induction requires the activation of a number of cellular factors, including IκB kinase epsilon (IKKϵ). However, the regulation of IKKϵ activation in response to viral infection remains largely unknown. Here, we show that factor inhibiting hypoxia-inducible factor (HIF) (FIH), an asparaginyl hydroxylase, interacts with IKKϵ and catalyzes asparagine hydroxylation of IKKϵ at Asn-254, Asn-700, and Asn-701, resulting in the suppression of IKKϵ activation. FIH-mediated hydroxylation of IKKϵ prevents IKKϵ binding to TBK1 and TRAF3 and attenuates the cIAP1/cIAP2/TRAF2 E3 ubiquitin ligase complex-catalyzed K63-linked polyubiquitination of IKKϵ at Lys-416. In addition, Fih-deficient mice and zebrafish are more resistant to viral infection. This work uncovers a previously unrecognized role of FIH in suppressing IKKϵ activation for IFN signaling and antiviral immune responses.

DLG1 promotes the antiviral innate immune response by inhibiting p62-mediated autophagic degradation of IKKε

IMPORTANCE

The type-I interferon (IFN-I) signaling pathway is the first line of antiviral innate immunity. It must be precisely regulated against virus-induced damage. The tightly regulated mechanisms of action of host genes in the antiviral innate immune signaling pathway are still worth studying. Here, we report a novel role of DLG1 in positively regulating the IκB kinase epsilon (IKKε)-mediated IFN-I signaling response against negative-stranded RNA virus replication, whereas the RNA virus inhibits the expression of DLG1 for immune escape. Importantly, the E3 ligase March2 interacts with and promotes K27-linked polyubiquitination of IKKε, and p62 is a cargo receptor that recognizes ubiquitinated IKKε for eventual autophagic degradation. Together, the current findings elucidate the role of DLG1 in the antiviral IFN-I signaling pathway and viral infection repression.

Patterns of Evolution of TRIM Genes Highlight the Evolutionary Plasticity of Antiviral Effectors in Mammals

The innate immune system of mammals is formed by a complex web of interacting proteins, which together constitute the first barrier of entry for infectious pathogens. Genes from the E3-ubiquitin ligase tripartite motif (TRIM) family have been shown to play an important role in the innate immune system by restricting the activity of different retrovirus species. For example, TRIM5 and TRIM22 have both been associated with HIV restriction and are regarded as crucial parts of the antiretroviral machinery of mammals. Our analyses of positive selection corroborate the great significance of these genes for some groups of mammals. However, we also show that many species lack TRIM5 and TRIM22 altogether. By analyzing a large number of mammalian genomes, here we provide the first comprehensive view of the evolution of these genes in eutherians, showcasing that the pattern of accumulation of TRIM genes has been dissimilar across mammalian orders. Our data suggest that these differences are caused by the evolutionary plasticity of the immune system of eutherians, which have adapted to use different strategies to combat retrovirus infections. Altogether, our results provide insights into the dissimilar evolution of a representative family of restriction factors, highlighting an example of adaptive and idiosyncratic evolution in the innate immune system.

Mechanism of selective recognition of Lys48-linked polyubiquitin by macrocyclic peptide inhibitors of proteasomal degradation

Post-translational modification of proteins with polyubiquitin chains is a critical cellular signaling mechanism in eukaryotes with implications in various cellular states and processes. Unregulated ubiquitin-mediated protein degradation can be detrimental to cellular homeostasis, causing numerous diseases including cancers. Recently, macrocyclic peptides were developed that selectively target long Lysine-48-linked polyubiquitin chains (tetra-ubiquitin) to inhibit ubiquitin-proteasome system, leading to attenuation of tumor growth in vivo. However, structural determinants of the chain length and linkage selectivity by these cyclic peptides remained unclear. Here, we uncover the mechanism underlying cyclic peptide's affinity and binding selectivity by combining X-ray crystallography, solution NMR, and biochemical studies. We found that the peptide engages three consecutive ubiquitins that form a ring around the peptide and determined requirements for preferential selection of a specific trimer moiety in longer polyubiquitin chains. The structural insights gained from this work will guide the development of next-generation cyclic peptides with enhanced anti-cancer activity.

TRIM25 negatively regulates IKKε-mediated interferon signaling in black carp

IKKε plays an important role in the activation of IRF3/IRF7 and the production of interferon (IFN), however, its regulation remains obscure in human. E3 ligase TRIM25 has been reported to manipulate the K63-linked ubiquitination of RIG-I, leading to the activation of RIG-I/IFN signaling. To elucidate the role of TRIM25 in teleost, a TRIM25 homolog (bcTRIM25) was cloned and characterized from black carp (Mylopharyngodon piceus). bcTRIM25 contains 653 amino acids, possessing conservative RING, B-box and SPRY domain, which is highly expressed in muscle, spleen and skin. bcTRIM25 knock-down enhanced the antiviral ability of host cells. bcTRIM25 over-expression alone in EPC cells attenuated bcIFNa promoter transcription in the reporter assays and impeded PKR and MX1 expression in qRT-PCR. Interestingly, co-IP assays indicated that bcTRIM25 interacted with bcIKKε and the induced bcIFNa promoter transcription by bcIKKε was notably hindered by bcTRIM25. Furthermore, bcIKKε-induced expression of interferon stimulated genes (ISGs) and antiviral activity were dampened by bcTRIM25. Further exploration showed that bcTRIM25 visibly enhanced the ubiquitination of bcIKKε but significantly attenuated the phosphorylation of bcIKKε. Thus, our data demonstrate for the first time in vertebrate that TRIM25 negatively regulates IKKε through enhancing its ubiquitination, which sheds a light on the regulation of IKKε/IFN signaling.

NS5 hijacks TRAF3 to inhibit type I interferon signaling during duck Tembusu virus infection

The tumor necrosis factor (TNF) receptor-associated factor 3 (TRAF3) is a key signaling molecule in the retinoic acid-inducible gene I (RIG-I) signaling pathway and plays an important role in host innate immune regulation. The function of TRAF3 has been extensively studied in mammals, however, the role of TRAF3 in ducks remains unclear. In order to reveal the function of duck TRAF3 (duTRAF3) in the innate immune response induced by virus infection, the TRAF3 homologue of mallard (Anas platyrhynchos) has been cloned and the function of duTRAF3 is investigated in this study. We sequenced duTRAF3 and found that the open reading frame (ORF) region of duTRAF3 is 1704 bp long and encodes 567 amino acids (aa), which has a similar functional domain to the mammalian gene. Analysis of tissue distribution of duTRAF3 in 7-day-old ducks showed that the expression of duTRAF3 was highest in harderian gland, followed by heart and lung. Subsequently, duck Tembusu virus (DTMUV) has been shown to enhance duTRAF3 expression, and overexpression of duTRAF3 inhibits DTMUV replication in a dose-dependent manner. In addition, duTRAF3 activates the transcriptional activity of IFN-α and its downstream interferon-stimulating genes (ISGs) induced after DTMUV infection. In this process, DTMUV non-structural (NS) protein 5 resists this innate immune process by interacting with TRAF3 and inhibiting TRAF3 expression. These data support the conclusion that duTRAF3 is an antiviral protein that plays a key role in the defense against DTMUV invasion. These results lay a theoretical foundation for developing new anti-DTMUV strategies.

SERPINB1 promotes Senecavirus A replication by degrading IKBKE and regulating the IFN pathway via autophagy

IMPORTANCE

Senecavirus A (SVA) is an emerging picornavirus associated with vesicular disease, which wide spreads around the world. It has evolved multiple strategies to evade host immune surveillance. The mechanism and pathogenesis of the virus infection remain unclear. In this study, we show that SERPINB1, a member of the SERPINB family, promotes SVA replication, and regulates both innate immunity and the autophagy pathway. SERPINB1 catalyzes K48-linked polyubiquitination of IκB kinase epsilon (IKBKE) and degrades IKBKE through the proteasome pathway. Inhibition of IKBKE expression by SERPINB1 induces autophagy to decrease type I interferon signaling, and ultimately promotes SVA proliferation. These results provide importantly the theoretical basis of SVA replication and pathogenesis. SERPINB1 could be a potential therapeutic target for the control of viral infection.

Pteropus vampyrus TRIM40 Is an Interferon-Stimulated Gene That Antagonizes RIG-I-like Receptors

Nipah virus (NiV; genus: Henipavirus; family: Paramyxoviridae) naturally infects Old World fruit bats (family Pteropodidae) without causing overt disease. Conversely, NiV infection in humans and other mammals can be lethal. Comparing bat antiviral responses with those of humans may illuminate the mechanisms that facilitate bats' tolerance. Tripartite motif proteins (TRIMs), a large family of E3-ubiquitin ligases, fine-tune innate antiviral immune responses, and two human TRIMs interact with Henipavirus proteins. We hypothesize that NiV infection induces the expression of an immunosuppressive TRIM in bat, but not human cells, to promote tolerance. Here, we show that TRIM40 is an interferon-stimulated gene (ISG) in pteropodid but not human cells. Knockdown of bat TRIM40 increases gene expression of IFNβ, ISGs, and pro-inflammatory cytokines following poly(I:C) transfection. In Pteropus vampyrus, but not human cells, NiV induces TRIM40 expression within 16 h after infection, and knockdown of TRIM40 correlates with reduced NiV titers as compared to control cells. Bats may have evolved to express TRIM40 in response to viral infections to control immunopathogenesis.

An integrated approach of NMR experiments and MD simulations visualizes structural dynamics of a cyclic multi-domain protein

Cyclization can stabilize the structure of proteins, as previously demonstrated in single-domain proteins. Although Lys48-linked polyubiquitin, a multi-domain protein, is also known to be cyclized in human cells, the structural effects of cyclization remain unclear. Here, we examined the impact of cyclization on the structural stability and dynamics of cyclic Lys48-linked diubiquitin (Ub2 ). As expected, cyclization increased the thermal stability of Ub2 and its resistance to proteolytic digestion, indicating that cyclization stabilized the structure of Ub2 . Furthermore, cyclization repressed the interdomain motion in Ub2 , but cyclic Ub2 still exhibited microsecond conformational exchange in NMR relaxation dispersion experiments. A series of long coarse-grained (CG) MD simulations visualized how cyclization slowed down the intrinsic nanosecond open-closed domain motion of Ub2 to microseconds. Thus, CG-MD analysis helped to explain the unexpected NMR relaxation results, thereby facilitating characterization of the structural stabilization of cyclic Ub2 .

The Molecular and Function Characterization of Porcine MID2

Midline2 (MID2/TRIM1) is a member of the tripartite motif-containing (TRIM) family, which is involved in a wide range of cellular processes. However, fundamental studies on porcine MID2 (pMID2) are still lacking. In this study, we identified and characterized the full length MID2 gene of pig (Sus scrofa). The sequence alignment analysis results showed that pMID2 had an N-terminal RING zinc-finger domain, BBC domain, and C-terminal COS box, FN3 motif, and PRY-SPRY domain that were conserved and similar to those of other vertebrates. Furthermore, pMID2 had the highest expression levels in porcine lung and spleen. Serial deletion and site-directed mutagenesis showed that the putative nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB) binding site may be an essential transcription factor for regulating the transcription expression of pMID2. Furthermore, the immunofluorescence assay indicated that pMID2 presented in the cell membrane and cytoplasm. To further study the functions of pMID2, we identified and determined its potential ability to perceive poly (I:C) and IFN-α stimulation. Stimulation experiments showed pMID2 enhanced poly (I:C)-/IFN-α-induced JAK-STAT signaling pathway, indicating that pMID2 might participate in the immune responses. In conclusion, we systematically and comprehensively analyzed the characterizations and functions of pMID2, which provide valuable information to explore the pMID2 functions in innate immunity. Our findings not only enrich the current knowledge of MID2 in IFN signaling regulation but also offer the basis for future research of pig MID2 gene.

Molecular characterization and functional analysis of TRIM37 from black tiger shrimp (Penaeus monodon)

The family of TRIM proteins with E3 ubiquitin ligase activity served important roles in the regulation of innate immune processes, in particular antiviral and proinflammatory cytokine responses. In this study, a novel TRIM37 homolog was identified from Penaeus monodon (named PmTRIM37). The PmTRIM37 protein contained three conserved domains (one RING finger domain, a B-box, and one Coiled-coil region) at its N-terminal and one Meprin and MATH domain at its C-terminal. The MATH domain was the characteristic of TRIM37 family. PmTRIM37 has relatively high expression in immune-related tissues such as hepatopancreas, gills, lymphoid organs and hemocytes. The expression levels of PmTRIM37 in hepatopancreas and lymphoid organs were significantly up-regulated after white spot syndrome virus (WSSV) infection. Knock down of PmTRIM37 promoted WSSV replication and VP28 expression, suggesting that PmTRIM37 played a negative role in WSSV infection. Further studies revealed that PmTRIM37 positively regulated the NF-κB pathway and Antimicrobial peptides (AMP) expression during WSSV infection. These findings indicated that PmTRIM37 might restrict WSSV replication by positively regulating NF-κB pathway during WSSV infection in P. monodon.

Evolution and expression of the duck TRIM gene repertoire

Tripartite motif (TRIM) proteins are involved in development, innate immunity, and viral restriction. TRIM gene repertoires vary between species, likely due to diversification caused by selective pressures from pathogens; however, this has not been explored in birds. We mined a de novo assembled transcriptome for the TRIM gene repertoire of the domestic mallard duck (Anas platyrhynchos), a reservoir host of influenza A viruses. We found 57 TRIM genes in the duck, which represent all 12 subfamilies based on their C-terminal domains. Members of the C-IV subfamily with C-terminal PRY-SPRY domains are known to augment immune responses in mammals. We compared C-IV TRIM proteins between reptiles, birds, and mammals and show that many C-IV subfamily members have arisen independently in these lineages. A comparison of the MHC-linked C-IV TRIM genes reveals expansions in birds and reptiles. The TRIM25 locus with related innate receptor modifiers is adjacent to the MHC in reptile and marsupial genomes, suggesting the ancestral organization. Within the avian lineage, both the MHC and TRIM25 loci have undergone significant TRIM gene reorganizations and divergence, both hallmarks of pathogen-driven selection. To assess the expression of TRIM genes, we aligned RNA-seq reads from duck tissues. C-IV TRIMs had high relative expression in immune relevant sites such as the lung, spleen, kidney, and intestine, and low expression in immune privileged sites such as in the brain or gonads. Gene loss and gain in the evolution of the TRIM repertoire in birds suggests candidate immune genes and potential targets of viral subversion.

Ebola Virus VP35 Interacts Non-Covalently with Ubiquitin Chains to Promote Viral Replication Creating New Therapeutic Opportunities

Ebolavirus (EBOV) belongs to a family of highly pathogenic viruses that cause severe hemorrhagic fever in humans. EBOV replication requires the activity of the viral polymerase complex, which includes the co-factor and Interferon antagonist VP35. We previously showed that the covalent ubiquitination of VP35 promotes virus replication by regulating interactions with the polymerase complex. In addition, VP35 can also interact non-covalently with ubiquitin (Ub); however, the function of this interaction is unknown. Here, we report that VP35 interacts with free (unanchored) K63-linked polyUb chains. Ectopic expression of Isopeptidase T (USP5), which is known to degrade unanchored polyUb chains, reduced VP35 association with Ub and correlated with diminished polymerase activity in a minigenome assay. Using computational methods, we modeled the VP35-Ub non-covalent interacting complex, identified the VP35-Ub interacting surface and tested mutations to validate the interface. Docking simulations identified chemical compounds that can block VP35-Ub interactions leading to reduced viral polymerase activity that correlated with reduced replication of infectious EBOV. In conclusion, we identified a novel role of unanchored polyUb in regulating Ebola virus polymerase function and discovered compounds that have promising anti-Ebola virus activity.

Proteomic approaches to study ubiquitinomics

As originally described some 40 years ago, protein ubiquitination was thought to serve primarily as a static mark for protein degradation. In the ensuing years, it has become clear that 'ubiquitination' is a structurally diverse and dynamic post-translational modification and is intricately involved in a myriad of signaling pathways in all eukaryote cells. And like other key pathways in the functional proteome, ubiquitin signaling is often disrupted, sometimes severely so, in human pathophysiology. As a result of its central role in normal physiology and human disease, the ubiquitination field is now represented across the full landscape of biomedical research from fundamental structural and biochemical studies to translational and clinical research. In recent years, mass spectrometry has emerged as a powerful technology for the detection and characterization of protein ubiquitination. Herein we detail qualitative and quantitative proteomic methods using a compare/contrast approach to highlight their strengths and weaknesses.

Modulation of virus-induced neuroinflammation by the autophagy receptor SHISA9 in mice

Microglia and astrocytes are subgroups of brain glia cells that support and protect neurons within the central nervous system (CNS). At early stages of viral infection in the CNS, they are predominant responding cells and lead to recruitment of peripheral immune cells for viral clearance. Inhibitor of nuclear factor κB kinase subunit epsilon (IKKi) is critical for type I interferon signalling and inflammation, which modulate heterogenic immune responses during CNS infection. Balanced autophagy is vital to maintain brain integrity, yet regulation of autophagy and immune activity within brain glia cells is poorly understood. Here we identify SHISA9 as an autophagy cargo receptor that mediates the autophagy-dependent degradation of IKKi during herpes simplex virus type 1 infection. IKKi is recognized by SHISA9 through unanchored K48-linked poly-ubiquitin chains and bridged to autophagosome membrane components GABARAPL1. Single-cell RNA sequencing analysis shows that SHISA9 has temporal characteristics while modulating both antiviral and inflammatory responses in microglia and astrocytes at different stages during viral infection. We found that Shisa9-/- mice are highly susceptible to herpes simplex virus encephalitis, have pathogenic astrocytes and display more severe neuroinflammation compared with wild-type mice. Taken together, our study unravels a critical role of selective autophagy by orchestrating immune heterogeneity of different CNS resident cells through the SHISA9-IKKi axis.

An expanded lexicon for the ubiquitin code

Our understanding of the ubiquitin code has greatly evolved from conventional E1, E2 and E3 enzymes that modify Lys residues on specific substrates with a single type of ubiquitin chain to more complex processes that regulate and mediate ubiquitylation. In this Review, we discuss recently discovered endogenous mechanisms and unprecedented pathways by which pathogens rewrite the ubiquitin code to promote infection. These processes include unconventional ubiquitin modifications involving ester linkages with proteins, lipids and sugars, or ubiquitylation through a phosphoribosyl bridge involving Arg42 of ubiquitin. We also introduce the enzymatic pathways that write and reverse these modifications, such as the papain-like proteases of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus (SARS-CoV) and SARS-CoV-2. Furthermore, structural studies have revealed that the ultimate functions of ubiquitin are mediated not simply by straightforward recognition by ubiquitin-binding domains. Instead, elaborate multivalent interactions between ubiquitylated targets or ubiquitin chains and their readers (for example, the proteasome, the MLL1 complex or DOT1L) can elicit conformational changes that regulate protein degradation or transcription. The newly discovered mechanisms provide opportunities for innovative therapeutic interventions for diseases such as cancer and infectious diseases.

Early Pregnancy Regulates Expression of IkappaB Family in Ovine Spleen and Lymph Nodes

Early pregnancy modulates the maternal immune system, including the spleen and lymph nodes, which participate in maternal innate and adaptive immune responses. Methods: Ovine spleens and lymph nodes were sampled at day 16 of the estrous cycle, and at days 13, 16 and 25 of gestation, and qRT-PCR, Western blot and immunohistochemistry analysis were used to analyze the expression of the IκB family, including BCL-3, IκBα, IκBβ, IκBε, IKKγ, IκBNS and IκBζ. Early pregnancy induced expression of BCL-3, IκBα, IκBε, IKKγ and IκBζ, and expression of BCL-3, IκBβ and IκBNS peaked at day 16 of pregnancy in the spleen. However, early pregnancy suppressed the expression of BCL-3 and IκBNS, but stimulated the expression of IκBβ and IκBζ, and expression levels of IκBα, IκBβ, IκBε and IKKγ peaked in lymph nodes at days 13 and/or 16 of pregnancy. Early pregnancy changed the expression of the IκB family in the maternal spleen and lymph node in a tissue-specific manner, suggesting that the modulation of the IκB family may be involved in regulation of maternal functions of the spleen and lymph nodes, which are necessary for the establishment of maternal immune tolerance during early pregnancy in sheep.

TRIM6 Reduces Ferroptosis and Chemosensitivity by Targeting SLC1A5 in Lung Cancer

Objective

Ferroptosis, a newly identified form of cell death, plays critical roles in the development and chemoresistance of lung cancer. Tripartite motif 6 (TRIM6) acts as an E3-ubiquitin ligase and can promote the progression of human colorectal cancer. The present study is aimed at investigating its role and potential mechanisms in lung cancer.

Methods

Lentiviral vectors were used to overexpress or knock down TRIM6 in human lung cancer cells. Cell survival, colony formation, lipid peroxidation, intracellular iron levels, and other ferroptotic markers were examined. The role of TRIM6 on ferroptosis and chemosensitivity was further tested in mouse tumor xenograft models.

Results

TRIM6 was highly expressed in human lung cancer tissues and cells, and its expression in the lung cancer cells was further increased by ferroptotic stimulation. TRIM6 overexpression inhibited, while TRIM6 silence promoted erastin- and RSL3-induced glutaminolysis and ferroptosis in the lung cancer cells. Mechanistically, TRIM6 directly interacted with solute carrier family 1 member 5 to promote its ubiquitination and degradation, thereby inhibiting glutamine import, glutaminolysis, lipid peroxidation, and ferroptotic cell death. Moreover, we observed that TRIM6 overexpression reduced the chemotherapeutic effects of cisplatin and paclitaxel. In contrast, TRIM6 silence sensitized human lung cancer cells to cisplatin and paclitaxel in vivo and in vitro.

Conclusion

Our findings for the first time define TRIM6 as a negative regulator of ferroptosis in the lung cancer cells, and TRIM6 overexpression enhances the resistance of human lung cancer cells to chemotherapeutic drugs. Overall, targeting TRIM6 may help to establish novel strategies to treat lung cancer.

Regulation of cGAS/STING signaling and corresponding immune escape strategies of viruses

Innate immunity is the first line of defense against invading external pathogens, and pattern recognition receptors (PRRs) are the key receptors that mediate the innate immune response. Nowadays, there are various PRRs in cells that can activate the innate immune response by recognizing pathogen-related molecular patterns (PAMPs). The DNA sensor cGAS, which belongs to the PRRs, plays a crucial role in innate immunity. cGAS detects both foreign and host DNA and generates a second-messenger cGAMP to mediate stimulator of interferon gene (STING)-dependent antiviral responses, thereby exerting an antiviral immune response. However, the process of cGAS/STING signaling is regulated by a wide range of factors. Multiple studies have shown that viruses directly target signal transduction proteins in the cGAS/STING signaling through viral surface proteins to impede innate immunity. It is noteworthy that the virus utilizes these cGAS/STING signaling regulators to evade immune surveillance. Thus, this paper mainly summarized the regulatory mechanism of the cGAS/STING signaling pathway and the immune escape mechanism of the corresponding virus, intending to provide targeted immunotherapy ideas for dealing with specific viral infections in the future.

DExH/D-box helicases at the frontline of intrinsic and innate immunity against viral infections

DExH/D-box helicases are essential nucleic acid and ribonucleoprotein remodelers involved in all aspects of nucleic acid metabolism including replication, gene expression and post-transcriptional modifications. In parallel to their importance in basic cellular functions, DExH/D-box helicases play multiple roles in viral life cycles, with some of them highjacked by viruses or negatively regulating innate immune activation. However, other DExH/D-box helicases have recurrently been highlighted as direct antiviral effectors or as positive regulators of innate immune activation. Innate immunity relies on the ability of Pathogen Recognition Receptors to recognize viral signatures and trigger the production of interferons (IFNs) and pro-inflammatory cytokines. Secreted IFNs interact with their receptors to establish antiviral cellular reprogramming via expression regulation of the interferon-stimulated genes (ISGs). Several DExH/D-box helicases have been reported to act as viral sensors (DDX3, DDX41, DHX9, DDX1/DDX21/DHX36 complex), and others to play roles in innate immune activation (DDX60, DDX60L, DDX23). In contrast, the DDX39A, DDX46, DDX5 and DDX24 helicases act as negative regulators and impede IFN production upon viral infection. Beyond their role in viral sensing, the ISGs DDX60 and DDX60L act as viral inhibitors. Interestingly, the constitutively expressed DEAD-box helicases DDX56, DDX17, DDX42 intrinsically restrict viral replication. Hence, DExH/D-box helicases appear to form a multilayer network of primary and secondary factors involved in both intrinsic and innate antiviral immunity. In this review, we highlight recent findings on the extent of antiviral defences played by helicases and emphasize the need to better understand their immune functions as well as their complex interplay.

Role of IKKε in the Metabolic Diseases: Physiology, Pathophysiology, and Pharmacology

IKKε (inhibitor of nuclear factor kappa-B kinase ε) is a member of the noncanonical NF-κB pathway. It participates in the inflammatory response and innate immunity against bacteria. In recent decades, IKKε has been closely associated with metabolic regulation. Inhibition of the IKKε pathway can improve fat deposition in the liver, reduce subcutaneous fat inflammation, and improve liver gluconeogenesis in obesity. IKKε is expected to be a new therapeutic target for metabolic diseases such as nonalcoholic fatty liver disease, diabetes, and obesity. Herein, we summarize the structural characterization, physiological function, and pathological role of IKKε in metabolic diseases and small molecule inhibitors of IKKε.

The Immunobiology of Nipah Virus

Nipah virus (NiV) is a highly lethal zoonotic paramyxovirus that emerged in Malaysia in 1998. It is a human pathogen capable of causing severe respiratory infection and encephalitis. The natural reservoir of NiV, Pteropus fruit bats, remains a continuous virus source for future outbreaks, although infection in the bats is largely asymptomatic. NiV provokes serious disease in various mammalian species. In the recent human NiV outbreaks in Bangladesh and India, both bats-to-human and human-to-human transmissions have been observed. NiV has been demonstrated to interfere with the innate immune response via interferon type I signaling, promoting viral dissemination and preventing antiviral response. Studies of humoral immunity in infected NiV patients and animal models have shown that NiV-specific antibodies were produced upon infection and were protective. Studies on cellular immunity response to NiV infection in human and animal models also found that the adaptive immune response, specifically CD4+ and CD8+ T cells, was stimulated upon NiV infection. The experimental vaccines and therapeutic strategies developed have provided insights into the immunological requirements for the development of successful medical countermeasures against NiV. This review summarizes the current understanding of NiV pathogenesis and innate and adaptive immune responses induced upon infection.

Type I and Type II Interferon Antagonism Strategies Used by Paramyxoviridae: Previous and New Discoveries, in Comparison

Paramyxoviridae is a viral family within the order of Mononegavirales; they are negative single-strand RNA viruses that can cause significant diseases in both humans and animals. In order to replicate, paramyxoviruses–as any other viruses–have to bypass an important protective mechanism developed by the host’s cells: the defensive line driven by interferon. Once the viruses are recognized, the cells start the production of type I and type III interferons, which leads to the activation of hundreds of genes, many of which encode proteins with the specific function to reduce viral replication. Type II interferon is produced by active immune cells through a different signaling pathway, and activates a diverse range of genes with the same objective to block viral replication. As a result of this selective pressure, viruses have evolved different strategies to avoid the defensive function of interferons. The strategies employed by the different viral species to fight the interferon system include a number of sophisticated mechanisms. Here we analyzed the current status of the various strategies used by paramyxoviruses to subvert type I, II, and III interferon responses.

Folic acid intervention during pregnancy alters DNA methylation, affecting neural target genes through two distinct mechanisms

BACKGROUND

We previously showed that continued folic acid (FA) supplementation beyond the first trimester of pregnancy appears to have beneficial effects on neurocognitive performance in children followed for up to 11 years, but the biological mechanism for this effect has remained unclear. Using samples from our randomized controlled trial of folic acid supplementation in second and third trimester (FASSTT), where significant improvements in cognitive and psychosocial performance were demonstrated in children from mothers supplemented in pregnancy with 400 µg/day FA compared with placebo, we examined methylation patterns from cord blood (CB) using the EPIC array which covers approximately 850,000 cytosine-guanine (CG) sites across the genome. Genes showing significant differences were verified using pyrosequencing and mechanistic approaches used in vitro to determine effects on transcription.

RESULTS

FA supplementation resulted in significant differences in methylation, particularly at brain-related genes. Further analysis showed these genes split into two groups. In one group, which included the CES1 gene, methylation changes at the promoters were important for regulating transcription. We also identified a second group which had a characteristic bimodal profile, with low promoter and high gene body (GB) methylation. In the latter, loss of methylation in the GB is linked to decreases in transcription: this group included the PRKAR1B/HEATR2 genes and the dopamine receptor regulator PDE4C. Overall, methylation in CB also showed good correlation with methylation profiles seen in a published data set of late gestation foetal brain samples.

CONCLUSION

We show here clear alterations in DNA methylation at specific classes of neurodevelopmental genes in the same cohort of children, born to FA-supplemented mothers, who previously showed improved cognitive and psychosocial performance. Our results show measurable differences at neural genes which are important for transcriptional regulation and add to the supporting evidence for continued FA supplementation throughout later gestation. This trial was registered on 15 May 2013 at www.isrctn.com as ISRCTN19917787.