1
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Madreiter-Sokolowski CT, Hiden U, Krstic J, Panzitt K, Wagner M, Enzinger C, Khalil M, Abdellatif M, Malle E, Madl T, Osto E, Schosserer M, Binder CJ, Olschewski A. Targeting organ-specific mitochondrial dysfunction to improve biological aging. Pharmacol Ther 2024; 262:108710. [PMID: 39179117 DOI: 10.1016/j.pharmthera.2024.108710] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/27/2024] [Revised: 08/09/2024] [Accepted: 08/20/2024] [Indexed: 08/26/2024]
Abstract
In an aging society, unveiling new anti-aging strategies to prevent and combat aging-related diseases is of utmost importance. Mitochondria are the primary ATP production sites and key regulators of programmed cell death. Consequently, these highly dynamic organelles play a central role in maintaining tissue function, and mitochondrial dysfunction is a pivotal factor in the progressive age-related decline in cellular homeostasis and organ function. The current review examines recent advances in understanding the interplay between mitochondrial dysfunction and organ-specific aging. Thereby, we dissect molecular mechanisms underlying mitochondrial impairment associated with the deterioration of organ function, exploring the role of mitochondrial DNA, reactive oxygen species homeostasis, metabolic activity, damage-associated molecular patterns, biogenesis, turnover, and dynamics. We also highlight emerging therapeutic strategies in preclinical and clinical tests that are supposed to rejuvenate mitochondrial function, such as antioxidants, mitochondrial biogenesis stimulators, and modulators of mitochondrial turnover and dynamics. Furthermore, we discuss potential benefits and challenges associated with the use of these interventions, emphasizing the need for organ-specific approaches given the unique mitochondrial characteristics of different tissues. In conclusion, this review highlights the therapeutic potential of addressing mitochondrial dysfunction to mitigate organ-specific aging, focusing on the skin, liver, lung, brain, skeletal muscle, and lung, as well as on the reproductive, immune, and cardiovascular systems. Based on a comprehensive understanding of the multifaceted roles of mitochondria, innovative therapeutic strategies may be developed and optimized to combat biological aging and promote healthy aging across diverse organ systems.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Ursula Hiden
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Research Unit of Early Life Determinants, Medical University of Graz, Austria
| | - Jelena Krstic
- Division of Cell Biology, Histology and Embryology, Medical University of Graz, BioTechMed-Graz, Austria
| | - Katrin Panzitt
- Diagnostic and Research Institute of Pathology, Medical University of Graz, Austria
| | - Martin Wagner
- Division of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, Medical University of Graz, Austria
| | | | - Michael Khalil
- Department of Neurology, Medical University of Graz, Austria
| | - Mahmoud Abdellatif
- Division of Cardiology, Medical University of Graz, BioTechMed-Graz, Austria
| | - Ernst Malle
- Division of Molecular Biology and Biochemistry, Medical University of Graz, BioTechMed-Graz, Austria
| | - Tobias Madl
- Division of Medicinal Chemistry, Medical University of Graz, BioTechMed-Graz, Austria
| | - Elena Osto
- Division of Physiology and Pathophysiology, Medical University of Graz
| | - Markus Schosserer
- Center for Pathobiochemistry and Genetics, Medical University of Vienna, Austria; Christian Doppler Laboratory for Skin Multimodal Imaging of Aging and Senescence, Austria
| | - Christoph J Binder
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, Medical University of Vienna, Austria
| | - Andrea Olschewski
- Department of Anesthesiology and Intensive Care Medicine, LBI for Lung Vascular Research, Medical University of Graz, Austria.
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2
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Kuhn MK, Proctor EA. Microglial Drivers of Alzheimer's Disease Pathology: An Evolution of Diverse Participating States. Proteins 2024. [PMID: 39219300 DOI: 10.1002/prot.26723] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/17/2024] [Revised: 06/05/2024] [Accepted: 06/12/2024] [Indexed: 09/04/2024]
Abstract
Microglia, the resident immune-competent cells of the brain, become dysfunctional in Alzheimer's disease (AD), and their aberrant immune responses contribute to the accumulation of pathological proteins and neuronal injury. Genetic studies implicate microglia in the development of AD, prompting interest in developing immunomodulatory therapies to prevent or ameliorate disease. However, microglia take on diverse functional states in disease, playing both protective and detrimental roles in AD, which largely overlap and may shift over the disease course, complicating the identification of effective therapeutic targets. Extensive evidence gathered using transgenic mouse models supports an active role of microglia in pathology progression, though results vary and can be contradictory between different types of models and the degree of pathology at the time of study. Here, we review microglial immune signaling and responses that contribute to the accumulation and spread of pathological proteins or directly affect neuronal health. We additionally explore the use of induced pluripotent stem cell (iPSC)-derived models to study living human microglia and how they have contributed to our knowledge of AD and may begin to fill in the gaps left by mouse models. Ultimately, mouse and iPSC-derived models have their own limitations, and a comprehensive understanding of microglial dysfunction in AD will only be established by an integrated view across models and an appreciation for their complementary viewpoints and limitations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Madison K Kuhn
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania, USA
- Department of Neurosurgery, Penn State College of Medicine, Hershey, Pennsylvania, USA
- Department of Pharmacology, Penn State College of Medicine, Hershey, Pennsylvania, USA
- Center for Neural Engineering, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania, USA
| | - Elizabeth A Proctor
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania, USA
- Department of Neurosurgery, Penn State College of Medicine, Hershey, Pennsylvania, USA
- Department of Pharmacology, Penn State College of Medicine, Hershey, Pennsylvania, USA
- Center for Neural Engineering, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania, USA
- Department of Engineering Science & Mechanics, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania, USA
- Penn State Neuroscience Institute, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania, USA
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3
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Wculek SK, Forisch S, Miguel V, Sancho D. Metabolic homeostasis of tissue macrophages across the lifespan. Trends Endocrinol Metab 2024; 35:793-808. [PMID: 38763781 DOI: 10.1016/j.tem.2024.04.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/18/2024] [Revised: 04/19/2024] [Accepted: 04/22/2024] [Indexed: 05/21/2024]
Abstract
Macrophages are present in almost all organs. Apart from being immune sentinels, tissue-resident macrophages (TRMs) have organ-specific functions that require a specialized cellular metabolism to maintain homeostasis. In addition, organ-dependent metabolic adaptations of TRMs appear to be fundamentally distinct in homeostasis and in response to a challenge, such as infection or injury. Moreover, TRM function becomes aberrant with advancing age, contributing to inflammaging and organ deterioration, and a metabolic imbalance may underlie TRM immunosenescence. Here, we outline current understanding of the particular metabolic states of TRMs across organs and the relevance for their function. Moreover, we discuss the concomitant aging-related decline in metabolic plasticity and functions of TRMs, highlighting potential novel therapeutic avenues to promote healthy aging.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stefanie K Wculek
- Institute for Research in Biomedicine (IRB Barcelona), The Barcelona Institute of Science and Technology (BIST), Barcelona, Spain.
| | - Stephan Forisch
- Institute for Research in Biomedicine (IRB Barcelona), The Barcelona Institute of Science and Technology (BIST), Barcelona, Spain
| | - Verónica Miguel
- Centro Nacional de Investigaciones Cardiovasculares Carlos III (CNIC), Madrid, Spain
| | - David Sancho
- Centro Nacional de Investigaciones Cardiovasculares Carlos III (CNIC), Madrid, Spain.
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4
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De Paula GC, Aldana BI, Battistella R, Fernández-Calle R, Bjure A, Lundgaard I, Deierborg T, Duarte JMN. Extracellular vesicles released from microglia after palmitate exposure impact brain function. J Neuroinflammation 2024; 21:173. [PMID: 39014461 PMCID: PMC11253458 DOI: 10.1186/s12974-024-03168-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/29/2024] [Accepted: 07/09/2024] [Indexed: 07/18/2024] Open
Abstract
Dietary patterns that include an excess of foods rich in saturated fat are associated with brain dysfunction. Although microgliosis has been proposed to play a key role in the development of brain dysfunction in diet-induced obesity (DIO), neuroinflammation with cytokine over-expression is not always observed. Thus, mechanisms by which microglia contribute to brain impairment in DIO are uncertain. Using the BV2 cell model, we investigated the gliosis profile of microglia exposed to palmitate (200 µmol/L), a saturated fatty acid abundant in high-fat diet and in the brain of obese individuals. We observed that microglia respond to a 24-hour palmitate exposure with increased proliferation, and with a metabolic network rearrangement that favors energy production from glycolysis rather than oxidative metabolism, despite stimulated mitochondria biogenesis. In addition, while palmitate did not induce increased cytokine expression, it modified the protein cargo of released extracellular vesicles (EVs). When administered intra-cerebroventricularly to mice, EVs secreted from palmitate-exposed microglia in vitro led to memory impairment, depression-like behavior, and glucose intolerance, when compared to mice receiving EVs from vehicle-treated microglia. We conclude that microglia exposed to palmitate can mediate brain dysfunction through the cargo of shed EVs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gabriela C De Paula
- Department of Experimental Medical Science (EMV), Faculty of Medicine, Lund University, Sölvegatan 19, BMC C11, Lund, 221 84, Sweden
- Wallenberg Centre for Molecular Medicine, Lund University, Lund, Sweden
| | - Blanca I Aldana
- Department of Drug Design and Pharmacology, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Roberta Battistella
- Department of Experimental Medical Science (EMV), Faculty of Medicine, Lund University, Sölvegatan 19, BMC C11, Lund, 221 84, Sweden
- Wallenberg Centre for Molecular Medicine, Lund University, Lund, Sweden
| | - Rosalía Fernández-Calle
- Department of Experimental Medical Science (EMV), Faculty of Medicine, Lund University, Sölvegatan 19, BMC C11, Lund, 221 84, Sweden
| | - Andreas Bjure
- Department of Experimental Medical Science (EMV), Faculty of Medicine, Lund University, Sölvegatan 19, BMC C11, Lund, 221 84, Sweden
| | - Iben Lundgaard
- Department of Experimental Medical Science (EMV), Faculty of Medicine, Lund University, Sölvegatan 19, BMC C11, Lund, 221 84, Sweden
- Wallenberg Centre for Molecular Medicine, Lund University, Lund, Sweden
| | - Tomas Deierborg
- Department of Experimental Medical Science (EMV), Faculty of Medicine, Lund University, Sölvegatan 19, BMC C11, Lund, 221 84, Sweden
- Wallenberg Centre for Molecular Medicine, Lund University, Lund, Sweden
| | - João M N Duarte
- Department of Experimental Medical Science (EMV), Faculty of Medicine, Lund University, Sölvegatan 19, BMC C11, Lund, 221 84, Sweden.
- Wallenberg Centre for Molecular Medicine, Lund University, Lund, Sweden.
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5
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Benarroch E. What Is the Role of Lactate in Brain Metabolism, Plasticity, and Neurodegeneration? Neurology 2024; 102:e209378. [PMID: 38574305 DOI: 10.1212/wnl.0000000000209378] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/12/2024] [Accepted: 02/27/2024] [Indexed: 04/06/2024] Open
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Huang Q, Wang Y, Chen S, Liang F. Glycometabolic Reprogramming of Microglia in Neurodegenerative Diseases: Insights from Neuroinflammation. Aging Dis 2024; 15:1155-1175. [PMID: 37611905 PMCID: PMC11081147 DOI: 10.14336/ad.2023.0807] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/06/2023] [Accepted: 08/07/2023] [Indexed: 08/25/2023] Open
Abstract
Neurodegenerative diseases (ND) are conditions defined by progressive deterioration of the structure and function of the nervous system. Some major examples include Alzheimer's disease (AD), Parkinson's disease (PD), and Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS). These diseases lead to various dysfunctions, like impaired cognition, memory, and movement. Chronic neuroinflammation may underlie numerous neurodegenerative disorders. Microglia, an important immunocell in the brain, plays a vital role in defending against neuroinflammation. When exposed to different stimuli, microglia are activated and assume different phenotypes, participating in immune regulation of the nervous system and maintaining tissue homeostasis. The immunological activity of activated microglia is affected by glucose metabolic alterations. However, in the context of chronic neuroinflammation, specific alterations of microglial glucose metabolism and their mechanisms of action remain unclear. Thus, in this paper, we review the glycometabolic reprogramming of microglia in ND. The key molecular targets and main metabolic pathways are the focus of this research. Additionally, this study explores the mechanisms underlying microglial glucose metabolism reprogramming in ND and offers an analysis of the most recent therapeutic advancements. The ultimate aim is to provide insights into the development of potential treatments for ND.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qi Huang
- Department of Rehabilitation, The Central Hospital of Wuhan, Tongji Medical College of Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China.
| | - Yanfu Wang
- Department of Rehabilitation, The Central Hospital of Wuhan, Tongji Medical College of Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China.
| | - Shanshan Chen
- Key Laboratory for Molecular Diagnosis of Hubei Province, The Central Hospital of Wuhan, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China.
| | - Fengxia Liang
- Department of Acupuncture and Moxibustion, Hubei University of Chinese Medicine, Wuhan, China
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7
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Ting KKY. Fructose overconsumption-induced reprogramming of microglia metabolism and function. Front Immunol 2024; 15:1375453. [PMID: 38596671 PMCID: PMC11002174 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2024.1375453] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/23/2024] [Accepted: 03/18/2024] [Indexed: 04/11/2024] Open
Abstract
The overconsumption of dietary fructose has been proposed as a major culprit for the rise of many metabolic diseases in recent years, yet the relationship between a high fructose diet and neurological dysfunction remains to be explored. Although fructose metabolism mainly takes place in the liver and intestine, recent studies have shown that a hyperglycemic condition could induce fructose metabolism in the brain. Notably, microglia, which are tissue-resident macrophages (Mφs) that confer innate immunity in the brain, also express fructose transporters (GLUT5) and are capable of utilizing fructose as a carbon fuel. Together, these studies suggest the possibility that a high fructose diet can regulate the activation and inflammatory response of microglia by metabolic reprogramming, thereby altering the susceptibility of developing neurological dysfunction. In this review, the recent advances in the understanding of microglia metabolism and how it supports its functions will be summarized. The results from both in vivo and in vitro studies that have investigated the mechanistic link between fructose-induced metabolic reprogramming of microglia and its function will then be reviewed. Finally, areas of controversies and their associated implications, as well as directions that warrant future research will be highlighted.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kenneth K. Y. Ting
- Department of Immunology, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada
- Toronto General Hospital Research Institute, University Health Network, Toronto, ON, Canada
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8
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Yang S, Yuan Z, Zhu Y, Liang C, Chen Z, Zhang J, Leng L. Multi-omics analysis reveals GAPDH posttranscriptional regulation of IFN-γ and PHGDH as a metabolic checkpoint of microglia polarization. Brain Behav Immun 2024; 117:155-166. [PMID: 38215888 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbi.2024.01.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/16/2023] [Revised: 01/04/2024] [Accepted: 01/08/2024] [Indexed: 01/14/2024] Open
Abstract
A "switch" in the metabolic pattern of microglia is considered to be required to meet the metabolic demands of cell survival and functions. However, how metabolic switches regulate microglial function remains controversial. We found here that exposure to amyloid-β triggers microglial inflammation accompanied by increasing GAPDH levels. The increase of GAPDH, a glycolysis enzyme, leads to the reduced release of interferon-γ (IFN-γ) from inflammatory microglia. Such alternation is translational and is regulated by the binding of glycolysis enzyme glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase (GAPDH) to IFN-γ mRNA. GAPDH, by engaging/disengaging glycolysis and through influencing IFN-γ expression, regulates microglia functions, including phagocytosis and cytokine production. Phosphoglycerate dehydrogenase (PHGDH), screened from different state microglia by metabolomics combined with METARECON analysis, is a metabolic enzyme adjacent downstream of GAPDH and synthesizes serine on the collateral pathway derived from glycolysis. Polarization of microglial with PHGDH as a metabolic checkpoint can be bidirectionally regulated by adding IL-4 or giving PHGDH inhibitors. Therefore, regulation of metabolic enzymes not only reprograms metabolic patterns, but also manipulates microglia functions. Further study should be performed to explore the mechanism of metabolic checkpoints in human microglia or more in vivo animal experiments, and may expand to the effects of various metabolic substrates or enzyme, such as lipids and amino acids, on the functions of microglia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shangchen Yang
- Fujian Provincial Key Laboratory of Neurodegenerative Disease and Aging Research, Institute of Neuroscience, School of Medicine, Xiamen University, Xiamen, Fujian, China
| | - Ziqi Yuan
- Fujian Provincial Key Laboratory of Neurodegenerative Disease and Aging Research, Institute of Neuroscience, School of Medicine, Xiamen University, Xiamen, Fujian, China
| | - Yufei Zhu
- Fujian Provincial Key Laboratory of Neurodegenerative Disease and Aging Research, Institute of Neuroscience, School of Medicine, Xiamen University, Xiamen, Fujian, China
| | - Chensi Liang
- Fujian Provincial Key Laboratory of Neurodegenerative Disease and Aging Research, Institute of Neuroscience, School of Medicine, Xiamen University, Xiamen, Fujian, China
| | - Zhenlei Chen
- Fujian Provincial Key Laboratory of Neurodegenerative Disease and Aging Research, Institute of Neuroscience, School of Medicine, Xiamen University, Xiamen, Fujian, China
| | - Jie Zhang
- Fujian Provincial Key Laboratory of Neurodegenerative Disease and Aging Research, Institute of Neuroscience, School of Medicine, Xiamen University, Xiamen, Fujian, China.
| | - Lige Leng
- Fujian Provincial Key Laboratory of Neurodegenerative Disease and Aging Research, Institute of Neuroscience, School of Medicine, Xiamen University, Xiamen, Fujian, China.
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9
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Mohammad AR, Hassan ES, Majeed SA. PI3K/AKT and STAT3 pathways mediate the neuroprotective effect of dasatinib from acute cerebral injury in endotoxemic mice. Res Pharm Sci 2024; 19:64-72. [PMID: 39006974 PMCID: PMC11244703 DOI: 10.4103/1735-5362.394821] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/02/2022] [Revised: 05/13/2023] [Accepted: 12/31/2023] [Indexed: 07/16/2024] Open
Abstract
Background and purpose Sepsis induces brain dysfunction and there is still a requirement for an unemployed viable restorative approach. This study aimed to investigate the role of dasatinib in the modulation of proinflammatory mediators, attenuating neuroinflammatory response, and it's signaling pathway during endotoxemia. Experimental approach Twenty-four adult male Swiss-albino mice were randomized into four groups: sham (undergo laparotomy without cecal ligation and puncture, sepsis (laparotomy with cecal ligation and puncture), vehicle-dimethyl sulfoxide, dasatinib (20 mg/kg/day) intraperitoneally. Brain tissue used for assessment of interleukin (IL)-6, IL-1β, tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α), IL-10, Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4), protein kinase B (AKT), phosphoinositide 3-kinases (PI3K), signal transducer and activator of transcription 3 (STAT3), and histopathological examination. Findings/Results Brain tissue levels of TNF-α, IL-6, and IL1 β were higher in the sepsis group than in the sham and vehicle groups. The dasatinib group had considerably lower tissue levels of these markers and significantly higher tissue values of IL-10 than the sepsis and vehicle groups. The sham group had much lower tissue values of TLR4, AKT, STAT3, and PI3k than in sepsis and vehicle groups. Furthermore, tissue levels of these markers in the dasatinib group were considerably lower than those in the sepsis and vehicle groups. Histopathology demonstrated that dasatinib might considerably reduce brain damage and the intensity of neuroinflammation when compared to sepsis and vehicle groups that showed extensive brain inflammation and damage. Conclusion and implication Dasatinib attenuated endotoxemia-induced acute brain damage in mice via modulating effects on TLR4, PI3K, AKT, and STAT3 downstream signaling pathways.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ammar Rasoul Mohammad
- Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, Faculty of Medicine, University of Kufa, Najaf, Iraq
| | - Ekhlas Sabah Hassan
- Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, Faculty of Medicine, University of Kufa, Najaf, Iraq
| | - Sahar Abdulrudha Majeed
- Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, Faculty of Medicine, University of Kufa, Najaf, Iraq
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10
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Ayuda-Durán B, Garzón-García L, González-Manzano S, Santos-Buelga C, González-Paramás AM. Insights into the Neuroprotective Potential of Epicatechin: Effects against Aβ-Induced Toxicity in Caenorhabditis elegans. Antioxidants (Basel) 2024; 13:79. [PMID: 38247503 PMCID: PMC10812808 DOI: 10.3390/antiox13010079] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/09/2023] [Revised: 12/21/2023] [Accepted: 01/05/2024] [Indexed: 01/23/2024] Open
Abstract
Medical therapies to avoid the progression of Alzheimer's disease (AD) are limited to date. Certain diets have been associated with a lower incidence of neurodegenerative diseases. In particular, the regular intake of foods rich in polyphenols, such as epicatechin (EC), could help prevent or mitigate AD progression. This work aims to explore the neuroprotective effects of EC using different transgenic strains of Caenorhabditis elegans, which express human Aβ1-42 peptides and contribute to elucidating the mechanisms involved in the effects of EC in AD. The performed assays indicate that this flavan-3-ol was able to reduce the signs of β-amyloid accumulation in C. elegans, improving motility and chemotaxis and increasing survival in transgenic strain peptide producers compared to nematodes not treated with EC. The neuroprotective effects exhibited by EC in C. elegans could be explained by the modulation of inflammation and stress-associated genes, as well as autophagy, microgliosis, and heat shock signaling pathways, involving the regulation of cpr-5, epg-8, ced-7, ZC239.12, and hsp-16 genes. Overall, the results obtained in this study support the protective effects of epicatechin against Aβ-induced toxicity.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Celestino Santos-Buelga
- Grupo de Investigación en Polifenoles (GIP-USAL), Campus Miguel de Unamuno, Universidad de Salamanca, 37007 Salamanca, Spain; (B.A.-D.); (L.G.-G.); (S.G.-M.)
| | - Ana M. González-Paramás
- Grupo de Investigación en Polifenoles (GIP-USAL), Campus Miguel de Unamuno, Universidad de Salamanca, 37007 Salamanca, Spain; (B.A.-D.); (L.G.-G.); (S.G.-M.)
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11
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Yang C, Pan RY, Guan F, Yuan Z. Lactate metabolism in neurodegenerative diseases. Neural Regen Res 2024; 19:69-74. [PMID: 37488846 PMCID: PMC10479854 DOI: 10.4103/1673-5374.374142] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/28/2023] [Revised: 03/08/2023] [Accepted: 03/30/2023] [Indexed: 07/26/2023] Open
Abstract
Lactate, a byproduct of glycolysis, was thought to be a metabolic waste until the discovery of the Warburg effect. Lactate not only functions as a metabolic substrate to provide energy but can also function as a signaling molecule to modulate cellular functions under pathophysiological conditions. The Astrocyte-Neuron Lactate Shuttle has clarified that lactate plays a pivotal role in the central nervous system. Moreover, protein lactylation highlights the novel role of lactate in regulating transcription, cellular functions, and disease development. This review summarizes the recent advances in lactate metabolism and its role in neurodegenerative diseases, thus providing optimal perspectives for future research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chaoguang Yang
- The Brain Science Center, Beijing Institute of Basic Medical Sciences, Beijing, China
- School of Life Sciences, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, Henan Province, China
| | - Rui-Yuan Pan
- The Brain Science Center, Beijing Institute of Basic Medical Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Fangxia Guan
- School of Life Sciences, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, Henan Province, China
| | - Zengqiang Yuan
- The Brain Science Center, Beijing Institute of Basic Medical Sciences, Beijing, China
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12
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Sun XR, Yao ZM, Chen L, Huang J, Dong SY. Metabolic reprogramming regulates microglial polarization and its role in cerebral ischemia reperfusion. Fundam Clin Pharmacol 2023; 37:1065-1078. [PMID: 37339781 DOI: 10.1111/fcp.12928] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/14/2022] [Revised: 05/12/2023] [Accepted: 06/07/2023] [Indexed: 06/22/2023]
Abstract
The brain is quite sensitive to changes in energy supply because of its high energetic demand. Even small changes in energy metabolism may be the basis of impaired brain function, leading to the occurrence and development of cerebral ischemia/reperfusion (I/R) injury. Abundant evidence supports that metabolic defects of brain energy during the post-reperfusion period, especially low glucose oxidative metabolism and elevated glycolysis levels, which play a crucial role in cerebral I/R pathophysiology. Whereas research on brain energy metabolism dysfunction under the background of cerebral I/R mainly focuses on neurons, the research on the complexity of microglia energy metabolism in cerebral I/R is just emerging. As resident immune cells of the central nervous system, microglia activate rapidly and then transform into an M1 or M2 phenotype to correspond to changes in brain homeostasis during cerebral I/R injury. M1 microglia release proinflammatory factors to promote neuroinflammation, while M2 microglia play a neuroprotective role by secreting anti-inflammatory factors. The abnormal brain microenvironment promotes the metabolic reprogramming of microglia, which further affects the polarization state of microglia and disrupts the dynamic equilibrium of M1/M2, resulting in the aggravation of cerebral I/R injury. Increasing evidence suggests that metabolic reprogramming is a key driver of microglial inflammation. For example, M1 microglia preferentially produce energy through glycolysis, while M2 microglia provide energy primarily through oxidative phosphorylation. In this review, we highlight the emerging significance of regulating microglial energy metabolism in cerebral I/R injury.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiao-Rong Sun
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Pharmacy, Bengbu Medical College, Bengbu, China
| | - Zi-Meng Yao
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Pharmacy, Bengbu Medical College, Bengbu, China
| | - Lei Chen
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Pharmacy, Bengbu Medical College, Bengbu, China
| | - Jie Huang
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Pharmacy, Bengbu Medical College, Bengbu, China
| | - Shu-Ying Dong
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Pharmacy, Bengbu Medical College, Bengbu, China
- Bengbu Medical College Key Laboratory of Cardiovascular and Cerebrovascular Diseases, Bengbu, China
- Anhui Engineering Technology Research Center of Biochemical Pharmaceutical, Bengbu, China
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13
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Mein N, von Stackelberg N, Wickel J, Geis C, Chung HY. Low-dose PLX5622 treatment prevents neuroinflammatory and neurocognitive sequelae after sepsis. J Neuroinflammation 2023; 20:289. [PMID: 38041192 PMCID: PMC10691003 DOI: 10.1186/s12974-023-02975-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/09/2023] [Accepted: 11/28/2023] [Indexed: 12/03/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Sepsis-associated encephalopathy (SAE) is characterized by symptoms of delirium including hallucinations, impaired concentration, agitation, or coma and is associated with poor outcome in the early phase of sepsis. In addition, sepsis survivors often suffer from persisting memory deficits and impaired executive functions. Recent studies provide evidence that microglia are involved in the pathophysiology of SAE. METHODS Here, we investigated whether pharmacological depletion of microglia using PLX5622 (1200 ppm or 300 ppm) in the acute phase of sepsis is able to prevent long-term neurocognitive decline in a male mouse model of polymicrobial sepsis or lipopolysaccharide-induced sterile neuroinflammation. Therefore, we performed the novel object recognition test at different time points after sepsis to address hippocampus-dependent learning. To further assess synapse engulfment in microglia, colocalization analysis was performed using high-resolution 3D Airyscan imaging of Iba1 and Homer1. We also investigated the effect of PLX5622 on acute astrocyte and chronic microglia proliferation in the hippocampus after sepsis induction using immunofluorescence staining. RESULTS High-dose application of the colony stimulating factor 1 receptor (CSF1R) inhibitor PLX5622 (1200 ppm) seven days prior to sepsis induction lead to 70-80% microglia reduction but resulted in fatal outcome of bacterial sepsis or LPS induced inflammation. This is likely caused by severely compromised host immune response upon PLX5622-induced depletion of peripheral monocytes and macrophages. We therefore tested partial microglia depletion using a low-dose of PLX5622 (300 ppm) for seven days prior to sepsis which resulted in an increased survival in comparison to littermates subjected to high-dose CSF1R inhibiton and to a stable microglia reduction of ~ 40%. This partial microglia depletion in the acute stage of sepsis largely prevented the engulfment and microglia-induced stripping of postsynaptic terminals. In addition, PLX5622 low-dose microglia depletion attenuated acute astrogliosis as well as long-term microgliosis and prevented long-term neurocognitive decline after experimental sepsis. CONCLUSIONS We conclude that partial microglia depletion before the induction of sepsis may be sufficient to attenuate long-term neurocognitive dysfunction. Application of PLX5622 (300 ppm) acts by reducing microglia-induced synaptic attachement/engulfment and preventing chronic microgliosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nils Mein
- Section of Translational Neuroimmunology, Department of Neurology, Jena University Hospital, Am Klinikum 1, 07747, Jena, Germany
| | - Nikolai von Stackelberg
- Section of Translational Neuroimmunology, Department of Neurology, Jena University Hospital, Am Klinikum 1, 07747, Jena, Germany
| | - Jonathan Wickel
- Section of Translational Neuroimmunology, Department of Neurology, Jena University Hospital, Am Klinikum 1, 07747, Jena, Germany
- Center for Sepsis Control and Care, Jena University Hospital, 07747, Jena, Germany
| | - Christian Geis
- Section of Translational Neuroimmunology, Department of Neurology, Jena University Hospital, Am Klinikum 1, 07747, Jena, Germany
- Center for Sepsis Control and Care, Jena University Hospital, 07747, Jena, Germany
- German Center for Mental Health, Center for Intervention and Research on Adaptive and Maladaptive Brain Circuits Underlying Mental Health (C-I-R-C), Jena-Magdeburg-Halle, Germany
| | - Ha-Yeun Chung
- Section of Translational Neuroimmunology, Department of Neurology, Jena University Hospital, Am Klinikum 1, 07747, Jena, Germany.
- Center for Sepsis Control and Care, Jena University Hospital, 07747, Jena, Germany.
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14
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Chen H, Guo Z, Sun Y, Dai X. The immunometabolic reprogramming of microglia in Alzheimer's disease. Neurochem Int 2023; 171:105614. [PMID: 37748710 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuint.2023.105614] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/28/2023] [Revised: 09/08/2023] [Accepted: 09/14/2023] [Indexed: 09/27/2023]
Abstract
Alzheimer's disease (AD) is an age-related neurodegenerative disorder (NDD). In the central nervous system (CNS), immune cells like microglia could reprogram intracellular metabolism to alter or exert cellular immune functions in response to environmental stimuli. In AD, microglia could be activated and differentiated into pro-inflammatory or anti-inflammatory phenotypes, and these differences in cellular phenotypes resulted in variance in cellular energy metabolism. Considering the enormous energy requirement of microglia for immune functions, the changes in mitochondria-centered energy metabolism and substrates of microglia are crucial for the cellular regulation of immune responses. Here we reviewed the mechanisms of microglial metabolic reprogramming by analyzing their flexible metabolic patterns and changes that occurred in their metabolism during the development of AD. Further, we summarized the role of drugs in modulating immunometabolic reprogramming to prevent neuroinflammation, which may shed light on a new research direction for AD treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hongli Chen
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Bioactive Substances and Functional Food, College of Biochemical Engineering, Beijing Union University, Beijing, 100023, China
| | - Zichen Guo
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Bioactive Substances and Functional Food, College of Biochemical Engineering, Beijing Union University, Beijing, 100023, China
| | - Yaxuan Sun
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Bioactive Substances and Functional Food, College of Biochemical Engineering, Beijing Union University, Beijing, 100023, China
| | - Xueling Dai
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Bioactive Substances and Functional Food, College of Biochemical Engineering, Beijing Union University, Beijing, 100023, China.
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15
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Ruan Z, Cao G, Qian Y, Fu L, Hu J, Xu T, Wu Y, Lv Y. Single-cell RNA sequencing unveils Lrg1's role in cerebral ischemia‒reperfusion injury by modulating various cells. J Neuroinflammation 2023; 20:285. [PMID: 38037097 PMCID: PMC10687904 DOI: 10.1186/s12974-023-02941-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/28/2023] [Accepted: 10/30/2023] [Indexed: 12/02/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE Cerebral ischemia‒reperfusion injury causes significant harm to human health and is a major contributor to stroke-related deaths worldwide. Current treatments are limited, and new, more effective prevention and treatment strategies that target multiple cell components are urgently needed. Leucine-rich alpha-2 glycoprotein 1 (Lrg1) appears to be associated with the progression of cerebral ischemia‒reperfusion injury, but the exact mechanism of it is unknown. METHODS Wild-type (WT) and Lrg1 knockout (Lrg1-/-) mice were used to investigate the role of Lrg1 after cerebral ischemia‒reperfusion injury. The effects of Lrg1 knockout on brain infarct volume, blood‒brain barrier permeability, and neurological score (based on 2,3,5-triphenyl tetrazolium chloride, evans blue dye, hematoxylin, and eosin staining) were assessed. Single-cell RNA sequencing (scRNA-seq), immunofluorescence, and microvascular albumin leakage tests were utilized to investigate alterations in various cell components in brain tissue after Lrg1 knockout. RESULTS Lrg1 expression was increased in various cell types of brain tissue after cerebral ischemia‒reperfusion injury. Lrg1 knockout reduced cerebral edema and infarct size and improved neurological function after cerebral ischemia‒reperfusion injury. Single-cell RNA sequencing analysis of WT and Lrg1-/- mouse brain tissues after cerebral ischemia‒reperfusion injury revealed that Lrg1 knockout enhances blood‒brain barrier (BBB) by upregulating claudin 11, integrin β5, protocadherin 9, and annexin A2. Lrg1 knockout also promoted an anti-inflammatory and tissue-repairing phenotype in microglia and macrophages while reducing neuron and oligodendrocyte cell death. CONCLUSIONS Our results has shown that Lrg1 mediates numerous pathological processes involved in cerebral ischemia‒reperfusion injury by altering the functional states of various cell types, thereby rendering it a promising therapeutic target for cerebral ischemia‒reperfusion injury.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhaohui Ruan
- Department of Pharmacy, The First Affiliated Hospital of Nanchang University, Nanchang, China
| | - Guosheng Cao
- College of Pharmacy, Hubei University of Chinese Medicine, Wuhan, China
| | - Yisong Qian
- School of Clinical Medicine, Nanchang University, Nanchang, China
| | - Longsheng Fu
- Department of Pharmacy, The First Affiliated Hospital of Nanchang University, Nanchang, China
| | - Jinfang Hu
- Department of Pharmacy, The First Affiliated Hospital of Nanchang University, Nanchang, China
| | - Tiantian Xu
- Department of Pharmacy, The First Affiliated Hospital of Nanchang University, Nanchang, China
| | - Yaoqi Wu
- Department of Pharmacy, The First Affiliated Hospital of Nanchang University, Nanchang, China
| | - Yanni Lv
- Department of Pharmacy, The First Affiliated Hospital of Nanchang University, Nanchang, China.
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16
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Hamza A, Cho JY, Cap KC, Hossain AJ, Kim JG, Park JB. Extracellular pyruvate kinase M2 induces cell migration through p-Tyr42 RhoA-mediated superoxide generation and epithelial-mesenchymal transition. Free Radic Biol Med 2023; 208:614-629. [PMID: 37722568 DOI: 10.1016/j.freeradbiomed.2023.09.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/25/2023] [Revised: 09/12/2023] [Accepted: 09/15/2023] [Indexed: 09/20/2023]
Abstract
In the tumor microenvironment (TME), communication between cancer cells and tumor-associated macrophages (TAMs) through secreted extracellular proteins promotes cancer progression. Here, we observed that co-culturing cancer cells (4T1) and macrophage cells (Raw264.7) significantly enhanced superoxide production in both cell types. Using MALDI-TOF, we identified PKM2 as a highly secreted protein by Raw264.7 cells and bone marrow-derived monocytes. The extracellular recombinant PKM2 protein not only enhanced cancer cell migration and invasion but also increased superoxide production. Additionally, PKM2 was found to associate with the cell surface, and its binding to integrin α5/β1 receptor was inhibited by antibodies specifically targeting it. Furthermore, we investigated downstream signaling pathways involved in PKM2-induced superoxide production. We found that knock-down of RhoA and p47phox using siRNAs effectively abolished superoxide generation in response to extracellular PKM2. Notably, extracellular PKM2 triggered the phosphorylation of p47phox at Ser345 residue and RhoA at Tyr42 residue (p-Tyr42 RhoA). Moreover, extracellular PKM2 exerted regulatory control over the expression of key epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) markers, including ZEB1, Snail1, vimentin, and E-cadherin. Interestingly, p-Tyr42 RhoA translocated to the nucleus, where it bound to the ZEB1 promoter region. In light of these findings, we propose that extracellular PKM2 within the TME plays a critical role in tumorigenesis by promoting cancer cell migration and invasion through RhoA/p47phox signaling pathway.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amir Hamza
- Department of Biochemistry, Hallym University College of Medicine, Chuncheon, Kangwon-do, 24252, Republic of Korea
| | - Jung Yoon Cho
- Institute of Cell Differentiation and Aging, Hallym University College of Medicine, Chuncheon, Kangwon-do, 24252, Republic of Korea
| | - Kim Cuong Cap
- Department of Biochemistry, Hallym University College of Medicine, Chuncheon, Kangwon-do, 24252, Republic of Korea; Institute of Cell Differentiation and Aging, Hallym University College of Medicine, Chuncheon, Kangwon-do, 24252, Republic of Korea
| | - Abu Jubayer Hossain
- Department of Biochemistry, Hallym University College of Medicine, Chuncheon, Kangwon-do, 24252, Republic of Korea; Institute of Cell Differentiation and Aging, Hallym University College of Medicine, Chuncheon, Kangwon-do, 24252, Republic of Korea
| | - Jae-Gyu Kim
- Department of Biochemistry, Hallym University College of Medicine, Chuncheon, Kangwon-do, 24252, Republic of Korea; Institute of Cell Differentiation and Aging, Hallym University College of Medicine, Chuncheon, Kangwon-do, 24252, Republic of Korea
| | - Jae-Bong Park
- Department of Biochemistry, Hallym University College of Medicine, Chuncheon, Kangwon-do, 24252, Republic of Korea; Institute of Cell Differentiation and Aging, Hallym University College of Medicine, Chuncheon, Kangwon-do, 24252, Republic of Korea.
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17
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Haukedal H, Syshøj Lorenzen S, Winther Westi E, Corsi GI, Gadekar VP, McQuade A, Davtyan H, Doncheva NT, Schmid B, Chandrasekaran A, Seemann SE, Cirera S, Blurton-Jones M, Meyer M, Gorodkin J, Aldana BI, Freude K. Alteration of microglial metabolism and inflammatory profile contributes to neurotoxicity in a hiPSC-derived microglia model of frontotemporal dementia 3. Brain Behav Immun 2023; 113:353-373. [PMID: 37543250 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbi.2023.07.024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/16/2022] [Revised: 07/13/2023] [Accepted: 07/30/2023] [Indexed: 08/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Frontotemporal dementia (FTD) is a common cause of early-onset dementia, with no current treatment options. FTD linked to chromosome 3 (FTD3) is a rare sub-form of the disease, caused by a point mutation in the Charged Multivesicular Body Protein 2B (CHMP2B). This mutation causes neuronal phenotypes, such as mitochondrial deficiencies, accompanied by metabolic changes and interrupted endosomal-lysosomal fusion. However, the contribution of glial cells to FTD3 pathogenesis has, until recently, been largely unexplored. Glial cells play an important role in most neurodegenerative disorders as drivers and facilitators of neuroinflammation. Microglia are at the center of current investigations as potential pro-inflammatory drivers. While gliosis has been observed in FTD3 patient brains, it has not yet been systematically analyzed. In the light of this, we investigated the role of microglia in FTD3 by implementing human induced pluripotent stem cells (hiPSC) with either a heterozygous or homozygous CHMP2B mutation, introduced into a healthy control hiPSC line via CRISPR-Cas9 precision gene editing. These hiPSC were differentiated into microglia to evaluate the pro-inflammatory profile and metabolic state. Moreover, hiPSC-derived neurons were cultured with conditioned microglia media to investigate disease specific interactions between the two cell populations. Interestingly, we identified two divergent inflammatory microglial phenotypes resulting from the underlying mutations: a severe pro-inflammatory profile in CHMP2B homozygous FTD3 microglia, and an "unresponsive" CHMP2B heterozygous FTD3 microglial state. These findings correlate with our observations of increased phagocytic activity in CHMP2B homozygous, and impaired protein degradation in CHMP2B heterozygous FTD3 microglia. Metabolic mapping confirmed these differences, revealing a metabolic reprogramming of the CHMP2B FTD3 microglia, displayed as a compensatory up-regulation of glutamine metabolism in the CHMP2B homozygous FTD3 microglia. Intriguingly, conditioned CHMP2B homozygous FTD3 microglia media caused neurotoxic effects, which was not evident for the heterozygous microglia. Strikingly, IFN-γ treatment initiated an immune boost of the CHMP2B heterozygous FTD3 microglia, and conditioned microglia media exposure promoted neural outgrowth. Our findings indicate that the microglial profile, activity, and behavior is highly dependent on the status of the CHMP2B mutation. Our results suggest that the heterozygous state of the mutation in FTD3 patients could potentially be exploited in form of immune-boosting intervention strategies to counteract neurodegeneration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Henriette Haukedal
- Department of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Frederiksberg 1870, Denmark
| | - Signe Syshøj Lorenzen
- Department of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Frederiksberg 1870, Denmark
| | - Emil Winther Westi
- Department of Drug Design and Pharmacology, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen 2100, Denmark
| | - Giulia I Corsi
- Department of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Frederiksberg 1870, Denmark; Center for non-coding RNA in Technology and Health, University of Copenhagen, Frederiksberg 1871, Denmark
| | - Veerendra P Gadekar
- Department of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Frederiksberg 1870, Denmark; Center for non-coding RNA in Technology and Health, University of Copenhagen, Frederiksberg 1871, Denmark
| | - Amanda McQuade
- Institute for Memory Impairment and Neurological Disorders, Stem Cell Research Center, University of California at Irvine, 92697 Irvine, CA, USA
| | - Hayk Davtyan
- Institute for Memory Impairment and Neurological Disorders, Stem Cell Research Center, University of California at Irvine, 92697 Irvine, CA, USA
| | - Nadezhda T Doncheva
- Department of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Frederiksberg 1870, Denmark; Center for non-coding RNA in Technology and Health, University of Copenhagen, Frederiksberg 1871, Denmark; Novo Nordisk Foundation Center for Protein Research, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen 2200, Denmark
| | | | - Abinaya Chandrasekaran
- Department of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Frederiksberg 1870, Denmark
| | - Stefan E Seemann
- Center for non-coding RNA in Technology and Health, University of Copenhagen, Frederiksberg 1871, Denmark
| | - Susanna Cirera
- Department of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Frederiksberg 1870, Denmark
| | - Mathew Blurton-Jones
- Institute for Memory Impairment and Neurological Disorders, Stem Cell Research Center, University of California at Irvine, 92697 Irvine, CA, USA
| | - Morten Meyer
- Department of Neurobiology Research, Institute of Molecular Medicine, University of Southern Denmark, 5000 Odense, Denmark
| | - Jan Gorodkin
- Department of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Frederiksberg 1870, Denmark; Center for non-coding RNA in Technology and Health, University of Copenhagen, Frederiksberg 1871, Denmark
| | - Blanca I Aldana
- Department of Drug Design and Pharmacology, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen 2100, Denmark
| | - Kristine Freude
- Department of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Frederiksberg 1870, Denmark.
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18
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Kagawa Y, Low YL, Pyun J, Doglione U, Short JL, Pan Y, Nicolazzo JA. Fatty Acid-Binding Protein 4 is Essential for the Inflammatory and Metabolic Response of Microglia to Lipopolysaccharide. J Neuroimmune Pharmacol 2023; 18:448-461. [PMID: 37555918 PMCID: PMC10577108 DOI: 10.1007/s11481-023-10079-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/18/2022] [Accepted: 07/10/2023] [Indexed: 08/10/2023]
Abstract
Prolonged activation of microglia leads to excessive release of proinflammatory mediators, which are detrimental to brain health. Therefore, there are significant efforts to identify pathways mediating microglial activation. Recent studies have demonstrated that fatty acid-binding protein 4 (FABP4), a lipid binding protein, is a critical player in macrophage-mediated inflammation. Given that we have previously identified FABP4 in microglia, the aim of this study was to assess whether FABP4 activity contributed to inflammation, metabolism and immune function (i.e. immunometabolism) in immortalised mouse microglia (BV-2 cells) using the proinflammatory stimulus lipopolysaccharide (LPS) to induce general microglial activation. Microglial FABP4 expression was significantly increased following exposure to LPS, an outcome associated with a significant increase in microglial proliferation rate. LPS-stimulated BV-2 microglia demonstrated a significant increase in the production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and tumour necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α), phosphorylation of c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK), increased expression of Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4), and reduced expression of uncoupling protein 2 (UCP2), all of which were reversed following FABP4 genetic silencing and chemical inhibition with BMS309403. The oxidation rate of 3H-oleic acid and microglial uptake of 3H-2-deoxy-D-glucose were modulated with LPS activation, processes which were restored with genetic and chemical inhibition of FABP4. This is the first study to report on the critical role of FABP4 in mediating the deleterious effects of LPS on microglial immunometabolism, suggesting that FABP4 may present as a novel therapeutic target to alleviate microglia-mediated neuroinflammation, a commonly reported factor in multiple neurodegenerative diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yoshiteru Kagawa
- Drug Delivery, Disposition and Dynamics, Monash Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Monash University, 3052, Parkville, VIC, Australia
- Department of Organ Anatomy, Tohoku University Graduate School of Medicine, Sendai, 980-8575, Japan
| | - Yi Ling Low
- Drug Delivery, Disposition and Dynamics, Monash Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Monash University, 3052, Parkville, VIC, Australia
| | - Jae Pyun
- Drug Delivery, Disposition and Dynamics, Monash Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Monash University, 3052, Parkville, VIC, Australia
| | - Umberto Doglione
- Drug Delivery, Disposition and Dynamics, Monash Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Monash University, 3052, Parkville, VIC, Australia
| | - Jennifer L Short
- Drug Discovery Biology, Monash Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Monash University, 3052, Parkville, VIC, Australia
| | - Yijun Pan
- Drug Delivery, Disposition and Dynamics, Monash Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Monash University, 3052, Parkville, VIC, Australia.
| | - Joseph A Nicolazzo
- Drug Delivery, Disposition and Dynamics, Monash Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Monash University, 3052, Parkville, VIC, Australia.
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19
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Wu A, Lee D, Xiong WC. Lactate Metabolism, Signaling, and Function in Brain Development, Synaptic Plasticity, Angiogenesis, and Neurodegenerative Diseases. Int J Mol Sci 2023; 24:13398. [PMID: 37686202 PMCID: PMC10487923 DOI: 10.3390/ijms241713398] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/24/2023] [Revised: 08/21/2023] [Accepted: 08/25/2023] [Indexed: 09/10/2023] Open
Abstract
Neural tissue requires a great metabolic demand despite negligible intrinsic energy stores. As a result, the central nervous system (CNS) depends upon a continuous influx of metabolic substrates from the blood. Disruption of this process can lead to impairment of neurological functions, loss of consciousness, and coma within minutes. Intricate neurovascular networks permit both spatially and temporally appropriate metabolic substrate delivery. Lactate is the end product of anaerobic or aerobic glycolysis, converted from pyruvate by lactate dehydrogenase-5 (LDH-5). Although abundant in the brain, it was traditionally considered a byproduct or waste of glycolysis. However, recent evidence indicates lactate may be an important energy source as well as a metabolic signaling molecule for the brain and astrocytes-the most abundant glial cell-playing a crucial role in energy delivery, storage, production, and utilization. The astrocyte-neuron lactate-shuttle hypothesis states that lactate, once released into the extracellular space by astrocytes, can be up-taken and metabolized by neurons. This review focuses on this hypothesis, highlighting lactate's emerging role in the brain, with particular emphasis on its role during development, synaptic plasticity, angiogenesis, and disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anika Wu
- Department of Neurosciences, School of Medicine, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, OH 44106, USA; (A.W.); (D.L.)
| | - Daehoon Lee
- Department of Neurosciences, School of Medicine, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, OH 44106, USA; (A.W.); (D.L.)
- Louis Stokes Cleveland Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Cleveland, OH 44106, USA
| | - Wen-Cheng Xiong
- Department of Neurosciences, School of Medicine, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, OH 44106, USA; (A.W.); (D.L.)
- Louis Stokes Cleveland Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Cleveland, OH 44106, USA
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20
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Yang F, Zhao D, Cheng M, Liu Y, Chen Z, Chang J, Dou Y. mTOR-Mediated Immunometabolic Reprogramming Nanomodulators Enable Sensitive Switching of Energy Deprivation-Induced Microglial Polarization for Alzheimer's Disease Management. ACS NANO 2023; 17:15724-15741. [PMID: 37565731 DOI: 10.1021/acsnano.3c03232] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 08/12/2023]
Abstract
Metabolic reprogramming that senses brain homeostasis imbalances is necessary to drive detrimental microglial polarization, and specific targeting of this process contributes to the flexible control of pathological inflammatory responses in Alzheimer's disease (AD), displaying distinctive therapeutic benefits. Herein, glutathione-functionalized gold nanocages loaded with the immunosuppressant fingolimod hydrochloride are developed as brain-targeted and microglia-located immunometabolic reprogramming nanomodulators (GAF NPs) for AD management. By virtue of glutathione-mediated transport properties, this nanomodulator can cross the blood-brain barrier and localize to microglia in AD lesions. Through blocking Akt/mTOR/HIF-1α signaling pathways, GAF NPs not only promote the dominated metabolic shift from glycolysis to oxidative phosphorylation under immune activation but also inhibit transporter-mediated glucose overconsumption by microglia. Correlation analysis based on real-time bioenergetic assessment and 18F-labeled fluorodeoxyglucose (FDG) PET reveals that brain glucose utilization and metabolism restored by GAF NP treatment can serve as a sensitive and effective indicator for microglial M1 to M2 polarization switching, ultimately alleviating neuroinflammation and its derived neurodegeneration as well as ameliorating cognitive decline in AD mice. This work highlights a potential nanomedicine aimed at modifying mTOR-mediated immunometabolic reprogramming to halt energy deprivation-induced AD progression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fan Yang
- School of Life Sciences, Tianjin University, Tianjin 300072, P. R. China
- Department of Radiology and Tianjin Key Laboratory of Functional Imaging, Tianjin Medical University General Hospital, Tianjin 300052, P. R. China
| | - Dongju Zhao
- School of Life Sciences, Tianjin University, Tianjin 300072, P. R. China
| | - Meng Cheng
- Department of Radiology and Tianjin Key Laboratory of Functional Imaging, Tianjin Medical University General Hospital, Tianjin 300052, P. R. China
| | - Yining Liu
- School of Life Sciences, Tianjin University, Tianjin 300072, P. R. China
| | - Ziyao Chen
- School of Life Sciences, Tianjin University, Tianjin 300072, P. R. China
| | - Jin Chang
- School of Life Sciences, Tianjin University, Tianjin 300072, P. R. China
| | - Yan Dou
- Department of Radiology and Tianjin Key Laboratory of Functional Imaging, Tianjin Medical University General Hospital, Tianjin 300052, P. R. China
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Liu X, Cui C, Sun W, Meng J, Guo J, Wu L, Chen B, Liao D, Jiang P. Paclitaxel Induces Neurotoxicity by Disrupting Tricarboxylic Acid Cycle Metabolic Balance in the Mouse Hippocampus. J Toxicol 2023; 2023:5660481. [PMID: 37575636 PMCID: PMC10423086 DOI: 10.1155/2023/5660481] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/07/2022] [Revised: 06/25/2023] [Accepted: 07/07/2023] [Indexed: 08/15/2023] Open
Abstract
Objective It is well known that paclitaxel (PTX)-induced neurotoxicity seriously affects the quality of life of patients and is the main reason for reducing the dose of chemotherapy or even stopping chemotherapy. The current data are limited, and further information is required for practice and verification. The aims of this study were to clarify the molecular mechanism underlying PTX-induced neurotoxicity by combining in vivo and in vitro metabolomics studies and provide new targets for the prevention and treatment of PTX-induced neurotoxicity. Methods In the in vivo study, a PTX-induced neurotoxicity mouse model was established by intraperitoneal injection of PTX (6 mg/kg every three days) for two consecutive weeks. After verification by water maze tests and HE staining of pathological sections, hippocampal metabolites were measured and the differential metabolites and related metabolic pathways were identified by multivariate statistical analysis. In the in vitro study, we investigated the effects of PTX on mouse hippocampal neuron cells, assessing the concentration and time of administration by MTT assays. After modeling, the relevant metabolites in the TCA cycle were quantified by targeted metabolomics using stable isotope labeling. Finally, the key enzymes of the TCA cycle in tissues and cells were verified by RT-PCR. Results Administration of PTX to model mice resulted in neurological damage, shown by both water-maze tests and hippocampal tissue sections. Twenty-four metabolites and five associated metabolic pathways were found to differ significantly between the hippocampal tissues of the model and control groups. These included metabolites and pathways related to the TCA cycle and pyruvate metabolism. Metabolomics analysis using stable isotope labeling showed significant changes in metabolites associated with the TCA cycle compared with the control group (P < 0.05). Finally, RT-PCR verified that the expression of key enzymes in the TCA cycle was changed to different degrees in both hippocampal tissues and cells. Conclusion Our results showed that PTX neurotoxicity in hippocampal tissue and neuron cells was associated with inhibition of the TCA cycle. This inhibition leads to brain insufficiency and impaired metabolism, resulting in various neurotoxic symptoms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xi Liu
- Department of Pharmacy, Linfen People's Hospital, Linfen, China
| | - Changmeng Cui
- Department of Neurosurgery, Affiliated Hospital of Jining Medical University, Jining, China
| | - Wenxue Sun
- Translational Pharmaceutical Laboratory, Jining First People's Hospital, Jining Medical University, Jining, China
| | - Junjun Meng
- Translational Pharmaceutical Laboratory, Jining First People's Hospital, Jining Medical University, Jining, China
| | - Jinxiu Guo
- Translational Pharmaceutical Laboratory, Jining First People's Hospital, Jining Medical University, Jining, China
| | - Linlin Wu
- Department of Oncology, Tengzhou Central People's Hospital, Affiliated to Jining Medical College, Tengzhou, China
| | - Beibei Chen
- ADFA School of Science, University of New South Wales, Canberra, Australia
| | - Dehua Liao
- Department of Pharmacy, Hunan Cancer Hospital, Changsha, China
| | - Pei Jiang
- Translational Pharmaceutical Laboratory, Jining First People's Hospital, Shandong First Medical University Institute of Translational Pharmacy, Jining Medical Research Academy, Jining, China
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22
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de Ruiter Swain J, Michalopoulou E, Noch EK, Lukey MJ, Van Aelst L. Metabolic partitioning in the brain and its hijacking by glioblastoma. Genes Dev 2023; 37:681-702. [PMID: 37648371 PMCID: PMC10546978 DOI: 10.1101/gad.350693.123] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 09/01/2023]
Abstract
The different cell types in the brain have highly specialized roles with unique metabolic requirements. Normal brain function requires the coordinated partitioning of metabolic pathways between these cells, such as in the neuron-astrocyte glutamate-glutamine cycle. An emerging theme in glioblastoma (GBM) biology is that malignant cells integrate into or "hijack" brain metabolism, co-opting neurons and glia for the supply of nutrients and recycling of waste products. Moreover, GBM cells communicate via signaling metabolites in the tumor microenvironment to promote tumor growth and induce immune suppression. Recent findings in this field point toward new therapeutic strategies to target the metabolic exchange processes that fuel tumorigenesis and suppress the anticancer immune response in GBM. Here, we provide an overview of the intercellular division of metabolic labor that occurs in both the normal brain and the GBM tumor microenvironment and then discuss the implications of these interactions for GBM therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jed de Ruiter Swain
- Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory, Cold Spring Harbor, New York 11724, USA
- Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory School of Biological Sciences, Cold Spring Harbor, New York 11724, USA
| | | | - Evan K Noch
- Department of Neurology, Division of Neuro-oncology, Weill Cornell Medicine, New York, New York 10021, USA
| | - Michael J Lukey
- Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory, Cold Spring Harbor, New York 11724, USA;
| | - Linda Van Aelst
- Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory, Cold Spring Harbor, New York 11724, USA;
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23
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Huang ZP, Liu SF, Zhuang JL, Li LY, Li MM, Huang YL, Chen YH, Chen XR, Lin S, Ye LC, Chen CN. Role of microglial metabolic reprogramming in Parkinson's disease. Biochem Pharmacol 2023; 213:115619. [PMID: 37211170 DOI: 10.1016/j.bcp.2023.115619] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/28/2023] [Revised: 05/16/2023] [Accepted: 05/16/2023] [Indexed: 05/23/2023]
Abstract
Parkinson's disease (PD) is a common age-related neurodegenerative disorder characterized by damage to nigrostriatal dopaminergic neurons. Key pathogenic mechanisms underlying PD include alpha-synuclein misfolding and aggregation, impaired protein clearance, mitochondrial dysfunction, oxidative stress, and neuroinflammation. However, to date, no study has confirmed the specific pathogenesis of PD. Similarly, current PD treatment methods still have shortcomings. Although some emerging therapies have proved effective for PD, the specific mechanism still needs further clarification. Metabolic reprogramming, a term first proposed by Warburg, is applied to the metabolic energy characteristics of tumor cells. Microglia have similar metabolic characteristics. Pro-inflammatory M1 type and anti-inflammatory M2 type are the two types of activated microglia, which exhibit different metabolic patterns in glucose, lipid, amino acid, and iron metabolism. Additionally, mitochondrial dysfunction may be involved in microglial metabolic reprogramming by activating various signaling mechanisms. Functional changes in microglia resulting from metabolic reprogramming can cause changes in the brain microenvironment, thus playing an important role in neuroinflammation or tissue repair. The involvement of microglial metabolic reprogramming in PD pathogenesis has been confirmed. Neuroinflammation and dopaminergic neuronal death can effectively be reduced by inhibiting certain metabolic pathways in M1 microglia or reverting M1 cells to the M2 phenotype. This review summarizes the relationship between microglial metabolic reprogramming and PD and provides strategies for PD treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zheng-Ping Huang
- Department of Neurology, Second Affiliated Hospital, Fujian Medical University, Quanzhou, Fujian Province 362000, China
| | - Shu-Fen Liu
- Department of Neurology, Second Affiliated Hospital, Fujian Medical University, Quanzhou, Fujian Province 362000, China
| | - Jian-Long Zhuang
- Prenatal Diagnosis Center, Quanzhou Women's and Children's Hospital, Quanzhou, China
| | - Lin-Yi Li
- Department of Neurology, Second Affiliated Hospital, Fujian Medical University, Quanzhou, Fujian Province 362000, China
| | - Mi-Mi Li
- Department of Neurology, Second Affiliated Hospital, Fujian Medical University, Quanzhou, Fujian Province 362000, China
| | - Ya-Li Huang
- Department of Neurology, Second Affiliated Hospital, Fujian Medical University, Quanzhou, Fujian Province 362000, China
| | - Yan-Hong Chen
- Department of Neurology, Shishi General Hospital, Quanzhou, Fujian Province 362000, China
| | - Xiang-Rong Chen
- Department of Neurosurgery, Second Affiliated Hospital, Second Clinical Medical College, Fujian Medical University, Quanzhou, China
| | - Shu Lin
- Center of Neurological and Metabolic Research, Second Affiliated Hospital of Fujian Medical University, Quanzhou, Fujian Province 362000, China; Group of Neuroendocrinology, Garvan Institute of Medical Research, 384 Victoria St, Sydney, Australia.
| | - Li-Chao Ye
- Department of Neurology, Second Affiliated Hospital, Fujian Medical University, Quanzhou, Fujian Province 362000, China.
| | - Chun-Nuan Chen
- Department of Neurology, Second Affiliated Hospital, Fujian Medical University, Quanzhou, Fujian Province 362000, China.
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24
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Chen S, Fan F, Zhang Y, Zeng J, Li Y, Xu N, Zhang Y, Meng XL, Lin JM. Metabolites from scutellarin alleviating deferoxamine-induced hypoxia injury in BV2 cells cultured on microfluidic chip combined with a mass spectrometer. Talanta 2023; 259:124478. [PMID: 36989966 DOI: 10.1016/j.talanta.2023.124478] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/25/2023] [Revised: 03/11/2023] [Accepted: 03/20/2023] [Indexed: 03/29/2023]
Abstract
The changes of metabolites of tricarboxylic acid (TCA) cycle in cells under hypoxia play a key role in drug screening. In order to dynamically monitor the drug metabolism changes of Scutellarin in the hypoxia environment induced by deferoxamine (DFO), a microfluidic-chip mass spectrometry method was used to study the real-time monitoring of drug metabolism changes under hypoxia conditions. This system has six drug-loading units, cell culture chamber, metabolite collection, filtration, HPLC separation and mass spectrometer. The cells in each microchannel were incubated with continuous flow of culture medium, metabolites will be collected by the fixed card slot, automatic sampling needle will be precise positioned and sampled. Through this new system combined with molecular biological methods, the changes of metabolites in TCA cycle of BV2 cells and drug metabolism of Scutellarin can be determined in real-time. In general, we illustrated a new mechanism of Scutellarin for reducing BV2 cell hypoxia injury and presented a novel analysis strategy that opened a way for real-time online monitoring of the energy metabolic mechanism of the effect of drugs on cells and further provided a superior strategy to screen natural drug candidates for hypoxia-related brain disease treatment.
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25
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Ravenhill SM, Evans AH, Crewther SG. Escalating Bi-Directional Feedback Loops between Proinflammatory Microglia and Mitochondria in Ageing and Post-Diagnosis of Parkinson's Disease. Antioxidants (Basel) 2023; 12:antiox12051117. [PMID: 37237983 DOI: 10.3390/antiox12051117] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/22/2023] [Revised: 05/12/2023] [Accepted: 05/12/2023] [Indexed: 05/28/2023] Open
Abstract
Parkinson's disease (PD) is a chronic and progressive age-related neurodegenerative disease affecting up to 3% of the global population over 65 years of age. Currently, the underlying physiological aetiology of PD is unknown. However, the diagnosed disorder shares many common non-motor symptoms associated with ageing-related neurodegenerative disease progression, such as neuroinflammation, microglial activation, neuronal mitochondrial impairment, and chronic autonomic nervous system dysfunction. Clinical PD has been linked to many interrelated biological and molecular processes, such as escalating proinflammatory immune responses, mitochondrial impairment, lower adenosine triphosphate (ATP) availability, increasing release of neurotoxic reactive oxygen species (ROS), impaired blood brain barrier integrity, chronic activation of microglia, and damage to dopaminergic neurons consistently associated with motor and cognitive decline. Prodromal PD has also been associated with orthostatic hypotension and many other age-related impairments, such as sleep disruption, impaired gut microbiome, and constipation. Thus, this review aimed to present evidence linking mitochondrial dysfunction, including elevated oxidative stress, ROS, and impaired cellular energy production, with the overactivation and escalation of a microglial-mediated proinflammatory immune response as naturally occurring and damaging interlinked bidirectional and self-perpetuating cycles that share common pathological processes in ageing and PD. We propose that both chronic inflammation, microglial activation, and neuronal mitochondrial impairment should be considered as concurrently influencing each other along a continuum rather than as separate and isolated linear metabolic events that affect specific aspects of neural processing and brain function.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Andrew Howard Evans
- Department of Medicine, The Walter and Eliza Hall Institute of Medical Research, Melbourne 3052, Australia
- Epworth Hospital, Richmond 3121, Australia
- Department of Neurology, Royal Melbourne Hospital, Melbourne 3050, Australia
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26
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Westi EW, Andersen JV, Aldana BI. Using stable isotope tracing to unravel the metabolic components of neurodegeneration: Focus on neuron-glia metabolic interactions. Neurobiol Dis 2023; 182:106145. [PMID: 37150307 DOI: 10.1016/j.nbd.2023.106145] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/23/2023] [Revised: 04/17/2023] [Accepted: 05/04/2023] [Indexed: 05/09/2023] Open
Abstract
Disrupted brain metabolism is a critical component of several neurodegenerative diseases. Energy metabolism of both neurons and astrocytes is closely connected to neurotransmitter recycling via the glutamate/GABA-glutamine cycle. Neurons and astrocytes hereby work in close metabolic collaboration which is essential to sustain neurotransmission. Elucidating the mechanistic involvement of altered brain metabolism in disease progression has been aided by the advance of techniques to monitor cellular metabolism, in particular by mapping metabolism of substrates containing stable isotopes, a technique known as isotope tracing. Here we review key aspects of isotope tracing including advantages, drawbacks and applications to different cerebral preparations. In addition, we narrate how isotope tracing has facilitated the discovery of central metabolic features in neurodegeneration with a focus on the metabolic cooperation between neurons and astrocytes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emil W Westi
- Department of Drug Design and Pharmacology, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Jens V Andersen
- Department of Drug Design and Pharmacology, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Blanca I Aldana
- Department of Drug Design and Pharmacology, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Denmark.
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27
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Zhang T, Pang W, Feng T, Guo J, Wu K, Nunez Santos M, Arthanarisami A, Nana AL, Nguyen Q, Kim PJ, Jankowsky JL, Seeley WW, Hu F. TMEM106B regulates microglial proliferation and survival in response to demyelination. SCIENCE ADVANCES 2023; 9:eadd2676. [PMID: 37146150 PMCID: PMC10162677 DOI: 10.1126/sciadv.add2676] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/01/2022] [Accepted: 04/05/2023] [Indexed: 05/07/2023]
Abstract
TMEM106B, a lysosomal transmembrane protein, has been closely associated with brain health. Recently, an intriguing link between TMEM106B and brain inflammation has been discovered, but how TMEM106B regulates inflammation is unknown. Here, we report that TMEM106B deficiency in mice leads to reduced microglia proliferation and activation and increased microglial apoptosis in response to demyelination. We also found an increase in lysosomal pH and a decrease in lysosomal enzyme activities in TMEM106B-deficient microglia. Furthermore, TMEM106B loss results in a significant decrease in the protein levels of TREM2, an innate immune receptor essential for microglia survival and activation. Specific ablation of TMEM106B in microglia results in similar microglial phenotypes and myelination defects in mice, supporting the idea that microglial TMEM106B is critical for proper microglial activities and myelination. Moreover, the TMEM106B risk allele is associated with myelin loss and decreased microglial numbers in humans. Collectively, our study unveils a previously unknown role of TMEM106B in promoting microglial functionality during demyelination.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tingting Zhang
- Department of Molecular Biology and Genetics, Weill Institute for Cell and Molecular Biology, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853, USA
| | - Weilun Pang
- Department of Molecular Biology and Genetics, Weill Institute for Cell and Molecular Biology, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853, USA
| | - Tuancheng Feng
- Department of Molecular Biology and Genetics, Weill Institute for Cell and Molecular Biology, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853, USA
| | - Jennifer Guo
- Department of Molecular Biology and Genetics, Weill Institute for Cell and Molecular Biology, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853, USA
| | - Kenton Wu
- Department of Molecular Biology and Genetics, Weill Institute for Cell and Molecular Biology, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853, USA
| | - Mariela Nunez Santos
- Department of Molecular Biology and Genetics, Weill Institute for Cell and Molecular Biology, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853, USA
| | - Akshayakeerthi Arthanarisami
- Department of Molecular Biology and Genetics, Weill Institute for Cell and Molecular Biology, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853, USA
| | - Alissa L. Nana
- Department of Neurology, University of California, San Francisco, CA 94158, USA
| | - Quynh Nguyen
- Department of Neuroscience, Huffington Center on Aging, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX, USA
| | - Peter J. Kim
- Department of Neuroscience, Huffington Center on Aging, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX, USA
| | - Joanna L. Jankowsky
- Department of Neuroscience, Huffington Center on Aging, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX, USA
- Departments of Molecular and Cellular Biology, Neurology, and Neurosurgery, Huffington Center on Aging, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX, USA
| | - William W. Seeley
- Department of Neurology, University of California, San Francisco, CA 94158, USA
- Department of Pathology, University of California, San Francisco, CA 94158, USA
| | - Fenghua Hu
- Department of Molecular Biology and Genetics, Weill Institute for Cell and Molecular Biology, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853, USA
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28
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Zhang T, Feng T, Wu K, Guo J, Nana AL, Yang G, Seeley WW, Hu F. Progranulin deficiency results in sex-dependent alterations in microglia in response to demyelination. Acta Neuropathol 2023:10.1007/s00401-023-02578-w. [PMID: 37120788 PMCID: PMC10375542 DOI: 10.1007/s00401-023-02578-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/06/2023] [Revised: 04/17/2023] [Accepted: 04/18/2023] [Indexed: 05/01/2023]
Abstract
Heterozygous mutations in the granulin (GRN) gene, resulting in the haploinsufficiency of the progranulin (PGRN) protein, is a leading cause of frontotemporal lobar degeneration (FTLD). Complete loss of the PGRN protein causes neuronal ceroid lipofuscinosis (NCL), a lysosomal storage disorder. Polymorphisms in the GRN gene have also been associated with several other neurodegenerative diseases, including Alzheimer's disease (AD), and Parkinson's disease (PD). PGRN deficiency has been shown to cause myelination defects previously, but how PGRN regulates myelination is unknown. Here, we report that PGRN deficiency leads to a sex-dependent myelination defect with male mice showing more severe demyelination in response to cuprizone treatment. This is accompanied by exacerbated microglial proliferation and activation in the male PGRN-deficient mice. Interestingly, both male and female PGRN-deficient mice show sustained microglial activation after cuprizone removal and a defect in remyelination. Specific ablation of PGRN in microglia results in similar sex-dependent phenotypes, confirming a microglial function of PGRN. Lipid droplets accumulate in microglia specifically in male PGRN-deficient mice. RNA-seq analysis and mitochondrial function assays reveal key differences in oxidative phosphorylation in male versus female microglia under PGRN deficiency. A significant decrease in myelination and accumulation of myelin debris and lipid droplets in microglia were found in the corpus callosum regions of FTLD patients with GRN mutations. Taken together, our data support that PGRN deficiency leads to sex-dependent alterations in microglia with subsequent myelination defects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tingting Zhang
- Department of Molecular Biology and Genetics, Weill Institute for Cell and Molecular Biology, Cornell University, 345 Weill Hall, Ithaca, NY, 14853, USA
| | - Tuancheng Feng
- Department of Molecular Biology and Genetics, Weill Institute for Cell and Molecular Biology, Cornell University, 345 Weill Hall, Ithaca, NY, 14853, USA
| | - Kenton Wu
- Department of Molecular Biology and Genetics, Weill Institute for Cell and Molecular Biology, Cornell University, 345 Weill Hall, Ithaca, NY, 14853, USA
| | - Jennifer Guo
- Department of Molecular Biology and Genetics, Weill Institute for Cell and Molecular Biology, Cornell University, 345 Weill Hall, Ithaca, NY, 14853, USA
| | - Alissa L Nana
- Department of Neurology, University of California, San Francisco, CA, 94158, USA
| | - Guang Yang
- Department of Anesthesiology, Columbia University Irving Medical Center, New York, NY, 10032, USA
| | - William W Seeley
- Department of Neurology, University of California, San Francisco, CA, 94158, USA
- Department of Pathology, University of California, San Francisco, CA, 94158, USA
| | - Fenghua Hu
- Department of Molecular Biology and Genetics, Weill Institute for Cell and Molecular Biology, Cornell University, 345 Weill Hall, Ithaca, NY, 14853, USA.
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29
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Ghosh D, Singh G, Mishra P, Singh A, Kumar A, Sinha N. Alteration in mitochondrial dynamics promotes the proinflammatory response of microglia and is involved in cerebellar dysfunction of young and aged mice following LPS exposure. Neurosci Lett 2023; 807:137262. [PMID: 37116576 DOI: 10.1016/j.neulet.2023.137262] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/07/2023] [Revised: 04/01/2023] [Accepted: 04/17/2023] [Indexed: 04/30/2023]
Abstract
Cerebellar dysfunction is implicated in impaired motor coordination and balance, thus disturbing the dynamics of sensorimotor integration. Neuroinflammation and aging could be prominent contributors to cerebellar aberration. Additionally, changes in mitochondrial dynamics may precede microglia activation in several chronic neurodegenerative diseases; however, the underlying mechanism remains largely unknown.Here using LPS (1 mg/kg i.p. for four consecutive days) stimulation in both young (3 months old) and aged (12 months old) mice, followed by molecular analysis on the 21st day, we have explored the correlation between aging and mitochondrial dynamic alteration in the backdrop of chronic neuroinflammation. Following LPS stimulation, we observed microglia activation and subsequent elevation in proinflammatory cytokines (M1; TNF-α, IFN-γ) with NLRP3 activationand a concomitant reduction in the expression of anti-inflammatory markers (M2; YM1, TGF-β1) in the cerebellar tissue of aged mice compared with the young LPS and aged controls. Remarkably, senescence (p21, p27, p53) and epigenetic (HDAC2) markers were found upregulated in the cerebellum tissue of the aged LPS group, suggesting their crucial role in LPS-induced cerebellar deficit. Further, we demonstrated alteration in the antagonistic forces of mitochondrial fusion and fission with increased expression of the mitochondrial fission-related gene [FIS1] and decreased fusion-related genes [MFN1 and MFN2]. We noted increased mtDNA copy number, microglia activation, and inflammatory response of IL1β and IFN-γ post-chronic neuroinflammation in aged LPS group. Our results suggest that the crosstalk between mitochondrial dynamics and altered microglial activation paradigm in chronic neuroinflammatory conditions may be the key to understanding the cerebellar molecular mechanism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Devlina Ghosh
- Amity Institute of Biotechnology, Amity University Uttar Pradesh, Lucknow Campus, Gomti Nagar Extension, Lucknow 226028, India; Centre of Biomedical Research, SGPGIMS-Campus, Raibareli Road, Lucknow 226014, India.
| | - Gajendra Singh
- Department of Molecular Medicine and Biotechnology, Sanjay Gandhi Postgraduate Institute of Medical Sciences, Lucknow, India
| | - Prabhaker Mishra
- Department of Biostatistics and Health Informatics, Sanjay Gandhi Post Graduate Institute of Medical Sciences, Raebareli Road, Lucknow 226 014, Uttar Pradesh, India
| | - Aditi Singh
- Amity Institute of Biotechnology, Amity University Uttar Pradesh, Lucknow Campus, Gomti Nagar Extension, Lucknow 226028, India
| | - Alok Kumar
- Department of Molecular Medicine and Biotechnology, Sanjay Gandhi Postgraduate Institute of Medical Sciences, Lucknow, India
| | - Neeraj Sinha
- Centre of Biomedical Research, SGPGIMS-Campus, Raibareli Road, Lucknow 226014, India.
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30
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Cheataini F, Ballout N, Al Sagheer T. The effect of neuroinflammation on the cerebral metabolism at baseline and after neural stimulation in neurodegenerative diseases. J Neurosci Res 2023. [PMID: 37186320 DOI: 10.1002/jnr.25198] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/06/2022] [Revised: 03/23/2023] [Accepted: 03/29/2023] [Indexed: 05/17/2023]
Abstract
Neuroinflammation is a reaction of nervous tissue to an attack caused by an infection, a toxin, or a neurodegenerative disease. It involves brain metabolism adaptation in order to meet the increased energy needs of glial cell activation, but the nature of these adaptations is still unknown. Increasing interest concerning neuroinflammation leads to the identification of its role in neurodegenerative diseases. Few reports studied the effect of metabolic alteration on neuroinflammation. Metabolic damage initiates a pro-inflammatory response by microglial activation. Moreover, the exact neuroinflammation effect on cerebral cell metabolism remains unknown. In this study, we reviewed systematically the neuroinflammation effect in animal models' brains. All articles showing the relationship of neuroinflammation with brain metabolism, or with neuronal stimulation in neurodegenerative diseases were considered. Moreover, this review examines also the mitochondrial damage effect in neurodegeneration diseases. Then, different biosensors are classified regarding their importance in the determination of metabolite change. Finally, some therapeutic drugs inhibiting neuroinflammation are cited. Neuroinflammation increases lymphocyte infiltration and cytokines' overproduction, altering cellular energy homeostasis. This review demonstrates the importance of neuroinflammation as a mediator of disease progression. Further, the spread of depolarization effects pro-inflammatory genes expression and microglial activation, which contribute to the degeneration of neurons, paving the road to better management and treatment of neurodegenerative diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fatima Cheataini
- Neuroscience Research Center (NRC), Faculty of Medical Science, Lebanese University, Hadath, Beirut, Lebanon
| | - Nissrine Ballout
- Neuroscience Research Center (NRC), Faculty of Medical Science, Lebanese University, Hadath, Beirut, Lebanon
| | - Tareq Al Sagheer
- Neuroscience Research Center (NRC), Faculty of Medical Science, Lebanese University, Hadath, Beirut, Lebanon
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31
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Qiu W, Liu H, Liu Y, Lu X, Wang L, Hu Y, Feng F, Li Q, Sun H. Regulation of beta-amyloid for the treatment of Alzheimer's disease: Research progress of therapeutic strategies and bioactive compounds. Med Res Rev 2023. [PMID: 36945751 DOI: 10.1002/med.21947] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/23/2021] [Revised: 01/09/2023] [Accepted: 02/26/2023] [Indexed: 03/23/2023]
Abstract
Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a progressive neurodegenerative disease that is difficult to treat. Extracellular amyloid is the principal pathological criterion for the diagnosis of AD. Amyloid β (Aβ) interacts with various receptor molecules on the plasma membrane and mediates a series of signaling pathways that play a vital role in the occurrence and development of AD. Research on receptors that interact with Aβ is currently ongoing. Overall, there are no effective medications to treat AD. In this review, we first discuss the importance of Aβ in the pathogenesis of AD, then summarize the latest progress of Aβ-related targets and compounds. Finally, we put forward the challenges and opportunities in the development of effective AD therapies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Weimin Qiu
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, School of Pharmacy, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing, China
| | - Hui Liu
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, School of Pharmacy, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing, China
| | - Yijun Liu
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, School of Pharmacy, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing, China
| | - Xin Lu
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, School of Pharmacy, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing, China
| | - Lei Wang
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, School of Pharmacy, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing, China
| | - Yanyu Hu
- Department of Natural Medicinal Chemistry, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing, China
| | - Feng Feng
- Department of Natural Medicinal Chemistry, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing, China
- Department of Natural Medicinal Chemistry, Jiangsu Food and Pharmaceuticals Science College, Institute of Food and Pharmaceuticals Research, Jiangsu, Huaian, China
| | - Qi Li
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Basic Medicine, Qingdao University, Qingdao, China
| | - Haopeng Sun
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, School of Pharmacy, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing, China
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32
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ATF5 Attenuates the Secretion of Pro-Inflammatory Cytokines in Activated Microglia. Int J Mol Sci 2023; 24:ijms24043322. [PMID: 36834738 PMCID: PMC9961550 DOI: 10.3390/ijms24043322] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/13/2023] [Revised: 01/30/2023] [Accepted: 02/03/2023] [Indexed: 02/10/2023] Open
Abstract
The highly dynamic changes in microglia necessary to achieve a rapid neuroinflammatory response require a supply of energy from mitochondrial respiration, which leads to the accumulation of unfolded mitochondrial proteins. We previously reported that microglial activation is correlated with the mitochondrial unfolded protein response (UPRmt) in a kaolin-induced hydrocephalus model, but we still do not know the extent to which these changes in microglia are involved in cytokine release. Here, we investigated the activation of BV-2 cells and found that treatment with lipopolysaccharide (LPS) for 48 h increased the secretion of pro-inflammatory cytokines. This increase was accompanied by a concurrent decrease in oxygen consumption rate (OCR) and mitochondrial membrane potential (MMP), in association with the up-regulation of the UPRmt. Inhibition of the UPRmt by knockdown of ATF5, a key upstream regulator of the UPRmt, using small-interfering RNA against ATF5 (siATF5) not only increased production of the pro-inflammatory cytokines, interleukin-6 (IL-6), IL-1β and tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), but also decreased MMP. Our results suggest that ATF5-dependent induction of the UPRmt in microglia acts as a protective mechanism during neuroinflammation and may be a potential therapeutic target for reducing neuroinflammation.
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33
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Wang D, Gu X, Ma X, Chen J, Zhang Q, Yu Z, Li J, Hu M, Tan X, Tang Y, Xu J, Xu M, Song Q, Song H, Jiang G, Tang Z, Gao X, Chen H. Nanopolyphenol rejuvenates microglial surveillance of multiple misfolded proteins through metabolic reprogramming. Acta Pharm Sin B 2023; 13:834-851. [PMID: 36873190 PMCID: PMC9978858 DOI: 10.1016/j.apsb.2022.07.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/04/2022] [Revised: 06/14/2022] [Accepted: 06/15/2022] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Microglial surveillance plays an essential role in clearing misfolded proteins such as amyloid-beta, tau, and α-synuclein aggregates in neurodegenerative diseases. However, due to the complex structure and ambiguous pathogenic species of the misfolded proteins, a universal approach to remove the misfolded proteins remains unavailable. Here, we found that a polyphenol, α-mangostin, reprogrammed metabolism in the disease-associated microglia through shifting glycolysis to oxidative phosphorylation, which holistically rejuvenated microglial surveillance capacity to enhance microglial phagocytosis and autophagy-mediated degradation of multiple misfolded proteins. Nanoformulation of α-mangostin efficiently delivered α-mangostin to microglia, relieved the reactive status and rejuvenated the misfolded-proteins clearance capacity of microglia, which thus impressively relieved the neuropathological changes in both Alzheimer's disease and Parkinson's disease model mice. These findings provide direct evidences for the concept of rejuvenating microglial surveillance of multiple misfolded proteins through metabolic reprogramming, and demonstrate nanoformulated α-mangostin as a potential and universal therapy against neurodegenerative diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dayuan Wang
- Department of Pharmacology and Chemical Biology, State Key Laboratory of Oncogenes and Related Genes, Shanghai Universities Collaborative Innovation Center for Translational Medicine, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai 200025, China
| | - Xiao Gu
- Department of Pharmacology and Chemical Biology, State Key Laboratory of Oncogenes and Related Genes, Shanghai Universities Collaborative Innovation Center for Translational Medicine, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai 200025, China
| | - Xinyi Ma
- Department of Pharmacology and Chemical Biology, State Key Laboratory of Oncogenes and Related Genes, Shanghai Universities Collaborative Innovation Center for Translational Medicine, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai 200025, China
| | - Jun Chen
- Key Laboratory of Smart Drug Delivery, Ministry of Education, School of Pharmacy, Fudan University, Shanghai 201203, China
| | - Qizhi Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Smart Drug Delivery, Ministry of Education, School of Pharmacy, Fudan University, Shanghai 201203, China
| | - Zhihua Yu
- Department of Pharmacology and Chemical Biology, State Key Laboratory of Oncogenes and Related Genes, Shanghai Universities Collaborative Innovation Center for Translational Medicine, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai 200025, China
| | - Juan Li
- Department of Pharmacology and Chemical Biology, State Key Laboratory of Oncogenes and Related Genes, Shanghai Universities Collaborative Innovation Center for Translational Medicine, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai 200025, China
| | - Meng Hu
- Department of Pharmacology and Chemical Biology, State Key Laboratory of Oncogenes and Related Genes, Shanghai Universities Collaborative Innovation Center for Translational Medicine, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai 200025, China
| | - Xiaofang Tan
- Department of Pharmacology and Chemical Biology, State Key Laboratory of Oncogenes and Related Genes, Shanghai Universities Collaborative Innovation Center for Translational Medicine, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai 200025, China
| | - Yuyun Tang
- Department of Pharmacology and Chemical Biology, State Key Laboratory of Oncogenes and Related Genes, Shanghai Universities Collaborative Innovation Center for Translational Medicine, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai 200025, China
| | - Jianrong Xu
- Department of Pharmacology and Chemical Biology, State Key Laboratory of Oncogenes and Related Genes, Shanghai Universities Collaborative Innovation Center for Translational Medicine, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai 200025, China.,Shanghai Frontiers Science Center of TCM Chemical Biology, Institute of Interdisciplinary Integrative Medicine Research, Shanghai University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Shanghai, 201203, China
| | - Minjun Xu
- Key Laboratory of Smart Drug Delivery, Ministry of Education, School of Pharmacy, Fudan University, Shanghai 201203, China
| | - Qingxiang Song
- Department of Pharmacology and Chemical Biology, State Key Laboratory of Oncogenes and Related Genes, Shanghai Universities Collaborative Innovation Center for Translational Medicine, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai 200025, China
| | - Huahua Song
- Department of Pharmacology and Chemical Biology, State Key Laboratory of Oncogenes and Related Genes, Shanghai Universities Collaborative Innovation Center for Translational Medicine, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai 200025, China
| | - Gan Jiang
- Department of Pharmacology and Chemical Biology, State Key Laboratory of Oncogenes and Related Genes, Shanghai Universities Collaborative Innovation Center for Translational Medicine, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai 200025, China
| | - Zaiming Tang
- Key Laboratory of Cell Differentiation and Apoptosis of Chinese Ministry of Education, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai 200025, China
| | - Xiaoling Gao
- Department of Pharmacology and Chemical Biology, State Key Laboratory of Oncogenes and Related Genes, Shanghai Universities Collaborative Innovation Center for Translational Medicine, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai 200025, China
| | - Hongzhuan Chen
- Department of Pharmacology and Chemical Biology, State Key Laboratory of Oncogenes and Related Genes, Shanghai Universities Collaborative Innovation Center for Translational Medicine, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai 200025, China.,Shanghai Frontiers Science Center of TCM Chemical Biology, Institute of Interdisciplinary Integrative Medicine Research, Shanghai University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Shanghai, 201203, China
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Bhusal A, Ortega A, Suk K. Editorial: Dysfunctional microglia in neurological disorders. Front Cell Neurosci 2023; 17:1133019. [PMID: 36761353 PMCID: PMC9903061 DOI: 10.3389/fncel.2023.1133019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/28/2022] [Accepted: 01/02/2023] [Indexed: 01/25/2023] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Anup Bhusal
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Medicine, Kyungpook National University, Daegu, Republic of Korea,Department of Biomedical Science, School of Medicine, Kyungpook National University, Daegu, Republic of Korea
| | - Arturo Ortega
- Department of Toxicology, Centro de Investigación y de Estudios Avanzados del Instituto Politécnico Nacional, Mexico City, Mexico
| | - Kyoungho Suk
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Medicine, Kyungpook National University, Daegu, Republic of Korea,Department of Biomedical Science, School of Medicine, Kyungpook National University, Daegu, Republic of Korea,Brain Science and Engineering Institute, Kyungpook National University, Daegu, Republic of Korea,*Correspondence: Kyoungho Suk ✉
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35
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O’Reilly CL, Miller BF, Lewis TL. Exercise and mitochondrial remodeling to prevent age-related neurodegeneration. J Appl Physiol (1985) 2023; 134:181-189. [PMID: 36519568 PMCID: PMC9829476 DOI: 10.1152/japplphysiol.00611.2022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Healthy brain activity requires precise ion and energy management creating a strong reliance on mitochondrial function. Age-related neurodegeneration leads to a decline in mitochondrial function and increased oxidative stress, with associated declines in mitochondrial mass, respiration capacity, and respiration efficiency. The interdependent processes of mitochondrial protein turnover and mitochondrial dynamics, known together as mitochondrial remodeling, play essential roles in mitochondrial health and therefore brain function. This mini-review describes the role of mitochondria in neurodegeneration and brain health, current practices for assessing both aspects of mitochondrial remodeling, and how exercise mitigates the adverse effects of aging in the brain. Exercise training elicits functional adaptations to improve brain health, and current literature strongly suggests that mitochondrial remodeling plays a vital role in these positive adaptations. Despite substantial implications that the two aspects of mitochondrial remodeling are interdependent, very few investigations have simultaneously measured mitochondrial dynamics and protein synthesis. An improved understanding of the partnership between mitochondrial protein turnover and mitochondrial dynamics will provide a better understanding of their role in both brain health and disease, as well as how they induce protection following exercise.
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Affiliation(s)
- Colleen L. O’Reilly
- 1Aging and Metabolism Research Program, Oklahoma Medical Research Foundation, Oklahoma City, Oklahoma
| | - Benjamin F. Miller
- 1Aging and Metabolism Research Program, Oklahoma Medical Research Foundation, Oklahoma City, Oklahoma,2Oklahoma City Veterans Association, Oklahoma City, Oklahoma
| | - Tommy L. Lewis
- 1Aging and Metabolism Research Program, Oklahoma Medical Research Foundation, Oklahoma City, Oklahoma
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36
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Hunt NJ, Wahl D, Westwood LJ, Lockwood GP, Le Couteur DG, Cogger VC. Targeting the liver in dementia and cognitive impairment: Dietary macronutrients and diabetic therapeutics. Adv Drug Deliv Rev 2022; 190:114537. [PMID: 36115494 PMCID: PMC10125004 DOI: 10.1016/j.addr.2022.114537] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/30/2022] [Revised: 09/04/2022] [Accepted: 09/07/2022] [Indexed: 01/24/2023]
Abstract
Many people living with dementia and cognitive impairment have dysfunctional mitochondrial and insulin-glucose metabolism resembling type 2 diabetes mellitus and old age. Evidence from human trials shows that nutritional interventions and anti-diabetic medicines that target nutrient-sensing pathways overcome these deficits in glucose and energy metabolism and can improve cognition and/or reduce symptoms of dementia. The liver is the main organ that mediates the systemic effects of diets and many diabetic medicines; therefore, it is an intermediate target for such dementia interventions. A challenge is the efficacy of these treatments in older age. Solutions include the targeted hepatic delivery of diabetic medicines using nanotechnologies and titration of macronutrients to optimize hepatic energy metabolism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicholas J Hunt
- Faculty of Medicine and Health, The University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW 2008, Australia; Charles Perkins Centre, The University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW 2008, Australia; Sydney Nano Institute, The University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW 2008, Australia; ANZAC Research Institute & Centre for Education and Research on Ageing, Concord Repatriation General Hospital, Concord, NSW 2139, Australia
| | - Devin Wahl
- Department of Health and Exercise Science & Centre for Healthy Aging, Colorado State University, CO 80523, United States
| | - Lara J Westwood
- Faculty of Medicine and Health, The University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW 2008, Australia; ANZAC Research Institute & Centre for Education and Research on Ageing, Concord Repatriation General Hospital, Concord, NSW 2139, Australia
| | - Glen P Lockwood
- Faculty of Medicine and Health, The University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW 2008, Australia; ANZAC Research Institute & Centre for Education and Research on Ageing, Concord Repatriation General Hospital, Concord, NSW 2139, Australia
| | - David G Le Couteur
- Faculty of Medicine and Health, The University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW 2008, Australia; Charles Perkins Centre, The University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW 2008, Australia; ANZAC Research Institute & Centre for Education and Research on Ageing, Concord Repatriation General Hospital, Concord, NSW 2139, Australia
| | - Victoria C Cogger
- Faculty of Medicine and Health, The University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW 2008, Australia; ANZAC Research Institute & Centre for Education and Research on Ageing, Concord Repatriation General Hospital, Concord, NSW 2139, Australia.
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37
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Leng L, Yuan Z, Pan R, Su X, Wang H, Xue J, Zhuang K, Gao J, Chen Z, Lin H, Xie W, Li H, Chen Z, Ren K, Zhang X, Wang W, Jin ZB, Wu S, Wang X, Yuan Z, Xu H, Chow HM, Zhang J. Microglial hexokinase 2 deficiency increases ATP generation through lipid metabolism leading to β-amyloid clearance. Nat Metab 2022; 4:1287-1305. [PMID: 36203054 DOI: 10.1038/s42255-022-00643-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 20.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/22/2022] [Accepted: 08/18/2022] [Indexed: 01/20/2023]
Abstract
Microglial cells consume adenosine triphosphate (ATP) during phagocytosis to clear neurotoxic β-amyloid in Alzheimer's disease (AD). However, the contribution of energy metabolism to microglial function in AD remains unclear. Here, we demonstrate that hexokinase 2 (HK2) is elevated in microglia from an AD mouse model (5xFAD) and AD patients. Genetic deletion or pharmacological inhibition of HK2 significantly promotes microglial phagocytosis, lowers the amyloid plaque burden and attenuates cognitive impairment in male AD mice. Notably, the ATP level is dramatically increased in HK2-deficient or inactive microglia, which can be attributed to a marked upregulation in lipoprotein lipase (LPL) expression and subsequent increase in lipid metabolism. We further show that two downstream metabolites of HK2, glucose-6-phosphate and fructose-6-phosphate, can reverse HK2-deficiency-induced upregulation of LPL, thus supporting ATP production and microglial phagocytosis. Our findings uncover a crucial role for HK2 in phagocytosis through regulation of microglial energy metabolism, suggesting a potential therapeutic strategy for AD by targeting HK2.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lige Leng
- Fujian Provincial Key Laboratory of Neurodegenerative Disease and Aging Research, Institute of Neuroscience, School of Medicine, Xiamen University, Xiamen, China.
| | - Ziqi Yuan
- Fujian Provincial Key Laboratory of Neurodegenerative Disease and Aging Research, Institute of Neuroscience, School of Medicine, Xiamen University, Xiamen, China
| | - Ruiyuan Pan
- The Brain Science Center, Beijing Institute of Basic Medical Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Xiao Su
- Fujian Provincial Key Laboratory of Neurodegenerative Disease and Aging Research, Institute of Neuroscience, School of Medicine, Xiamen University, Xiamen, China
| | - Han Wang
- Fujian Provincial Key Laboratory of Neurodegenerative Disease and Aging Research, Institute of Neuroscience, School of Medicine, Xiamen University, Xiamen, China
| | - Jin Xue
- Fujian Provincial Key Laboratory of Neurodegenerative Disease and Aging Research, Institute of Neuroscience, School of Medicine, Xiamen University, Xiamen, China
| | - Kai Zhuang
- Fujian Provincial Key Laboratory of Neurodegenerative Disease and Aging Research, Institute of Neuroscience, School of Medicine, Xiamen University, Xiamen, China
| | - Ju Gao
- Department of Pathology, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, OH, USA
| | - Zhenlei Chen
- Fujian Provincial Key Laboratory of Neurodegenerative Disease and Aging Research, Institute of Neuroscience, School of Medicine, Xiamen University, Xiamen, China
| | - Hui Lin
- Fujian Provincial Key Laboratory of Neurodegenerative Disease and Aging Research, Institute of Neuroscience, School of Medicine, Xiamen University, Xiamen, China
| | - Wenting Xie
- Fujian Provincial Key Laboratory of Neurodegenerative Disease and Aging Research, Institute of Neuroscience, School of Medicine, Xiamen University, Xiamen, China
| | - Huifang Li
- Fujian Provincial Key Laboratory of Neurodegenerative Disease and Aging Research, Institute of Neuroscience, School of Medicine, Xiamen University, Xiamen, China
| | - Zhenyi Chen
- Department of Anesthesiology, First Affiliated Hospital of Xiamen University, Xiamen, Fujian, China
| | - Keke Ren
- Department of Neurobiology, School of Basic Medicine, Fourth Military Medcial University, Xi'an, Shaanxi, China
| | - Xiao Zhang
- Beijing Institute of Ophthalmology, Beijing Tongren Eye Center, Beijing Tongren Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing Ophthalmology & Visual Sciences Key Lab, Beijing, China
| | - Wenting Wang
- Department of Neurobiology, School of Basic Medicine, Fourth Military Medcial University, Xi'an, Shaanxi, China
| | - Zi-Bing Jin
- Beijing Institute of Ophthalmology, Beijing Tongren Eye Center, Beijing Tongren Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing Ophthalmology & Visual Sciences Key Lab, Beijing, China
| | - Shengxi Wu
- Department of Neurobiology, School of Basic Medicine, Fourth Military Medcial University, Xi'an, Shaanxi, China
| | - Xinglong Wang
- Department of Pathology, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, OH, USA
| | - Zengqiang Yuan
- The Brain Science Center, Beijing Institute of Basic Medical Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Huaxi Xu
- Fujian Provincial Key Laboratory of Neurodegenerative Disease and Aging Research, Institute of Neuroscience, School of Medicine, Xiamen University, Xiamen, China
| | - Hei-Man Chow
- School of Life Sciences, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Sha Tin, Hong Kong
| | - Jie Zhang
- Fujian Provincial Key Laboratory of Neurodegenerative Disease and Aging Research, Institute of Neuroscience, School of Medicine, Xiamen University, Xiamen, China.
- Department of Anesthesiology, First Affiliated Hospital of Xiamen University, Xiamen, Fujian, China.
- Institute of Neuroscience, Fujian Medical University, Fuzhou, China.
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Abstract
To maintain energy supply to the brain, a direct energy source called adenosine triphosphate (ATP) is produced by oxidative phosphorylation and aerobic glycolysis of glucose in the mitochondria and cytoplasm. Brain glucose metabolism is reduced in many neurodegenerative diseases, including Alzheimer's disease (AD), where it appears presymptomatically in a progressive and region-specific manner. Following dysregulation of energy metabolism in AD, many cellular repair/regenerative processes are activated to conserve the energy required for cell viability. Glucose metabolism plays an important role in the pathology of AD and is closely associated with the tricarboxylic acid cycle, type 2 diabetes mellitus, and insulin resistance. The glucose intake in neurons is from endothelial cells, astrocytes, and microglia. Damage to neurocentric glucose also damages the energy transport systems in AD. Gut microbiota is necessary to modulate bidirectional communication between the gastrointestinal tract and brain. Gut microbiota may influence the process of AD by regulating the immune system and maintaining the integrity of the intestinal barrier. Furthermore, some therapeutic strategies have shown promising therapeutic effects in the treatment of AD at different stages, including the use of antidiabetic drugs, rescuing mitochondrial dysfunction, and epigenetic and dietary intervention. This review discusses the underlying mechanisms of alterations in energy metabolism in AD and provides potential therapeutic strategies in the treatment of AD.
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Afridi R, Rahman MH, Suk K. Implications of glial metabolic dysregulation in the pathophysiology of neurodegenerative diseases. Neurobiol Dis 2022; 174:105874. [PMID: 36154877 DOI: 10.1016/j.nbd.2022.105874] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/13/2021] [Revised: 08/28/2022] [Accepted: 09/21/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Glial cells are the most abundant cells of the brain, outnumbering neurons. These multifunctional cells are crucial for maintaining brain homeostasis by providing trophic and nutritional support to neurons, sculpting synapses, and providing an immune defense. Glia are highly plastic and undergo both structural and functional alterations in response to changes in the brain microenvironment. Glial phenotypes are intimately regulated by underlying metabolic machinery, which dictates the effector functions of these cells. Altered brain energy metabolism and chronic neuroinflammation are common features of several neurodegenerative diseases. Microglia and astrocytes are the major glial cells fueling the ongoing neuroinflammatory process, exacerbating neurodegeneration. Distinct metabolic perturbations in microglia and astrocytes, including altered carbohydrate, lipid, and amino acid metabolism have been documented in neurodegenerative diseases. These disturbances aggravate the neurodegenerative process by potentiating the inflammatory activation of glial cells. This review covers the recent advances in the molecular aspects of glial metabolic changes in the pathophysiology of neurodegenerative diseases. Finally, we discuss studies exploiting glial metabolism as a potential therapeutic avenue in neurodegenerative diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ruqayya Afridi
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Medicine, Kyungpook National University, Daegu 41944, Republic of Korea; BK21 Plus KNU Biomedical Convergence Program, Department of Biomedical Sciences, School of Medicine, Kyungpook National University, Daegu 41944, Republic of Korea
| | - Md Habibur Rahman
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Medicine, Kyungpook National University, Daegu 41944, Republic of Korea; Department of Neurology, The Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21287, USA
| | - Kyoungho Suk
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Medicine, Kyungpook National University, Daegu 41944, Republic of Korea; BK21 Plus KNU Biomedical Convergence Program, Department of Biomedical Sciences, School of Medicine, Kyungpook National University, Daegu 41944, Republic of Korea; Brain Science and Engineering Institute, Kyungpook National University, Daegu 41944, Republic of Korea.
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40
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Ma X, Zhang Y, Gou D, Ma J, Du J, Wang C, Li S, Cui H. Metabolic Reprogramming of Microglia Enhances Proinflammatory Cytokine Release through EphA2/p38 MAPK Pathway in Alzheimer’s Disease. J Alzheimers Dis 2022; 88:771-785. [DOI: 10.3233/jad-220227] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
Background: The activation of microglia and neuroinflammation has been implicated in the pathogenesis of Alzheimer’s disease (AD), but the exact roles of microglia and the underlying mechanisms remain unclear. Objective: To clarify how the metabolic reprogramming of microglia induce by amyloid-β (Aβ)1-42 to affect the release of proinflammatory cytokines in AD. Methods: MTS assay was used to detect the viability of BV2 cells treated with different concentrations of Aβ1-42 for different periods of time. The expression levels of proinflammatory cytokines were determined by qRT-PCR and western blot assay in BV2 cells and hippocampus of mice. RNA sequencing was applied to evaluate the gene expression profiles in response to HK2 knockdown in BV2 cells treated with Aβ1-42. Results: Low concentrations of Aβ1-42 increased the viability of BV2 cells and promoted the release of proinflammatory cytokines, and this process is accompanied by increased glycolysis. Inhibition of glycolysis significantly downregulated the release of proinflammatory cytokines in BV2 cells and hippocampus of mice treated with Aβ1-42. The results of RNA sequencing revealed the expression of chemokine ligand 2 (Cxcl2) and ephrin receptor tyrosine kinase A2 (EphA2) were significantly downregulated when knocked down HK2 in BV2 cells. Subsequently, the expression of proinflammatory cytokines was downregulated in BV2 cell after knocking down EphA2. Conclusion: This study demonstrated that EphA2/p38 MAPK pathway is involved the release of proinflammatory cytokines in microglia induced by Aβ1-42 in AD, which is accompanied by metabolic reprogramming from oxidative phosphorylation (OXPHOS) to glycolysis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaowei Ma
- Department of Anatomy, Hebei Medical University, Shijiazhuang, P.R. China
- Neuroscience Research Center, Hebei Medical University, Shijiazhuang, P.R. China
- Hebei Key Laboratory of Neurodegenerative Disease Mechanism, Shijiazhuang, P.R. China
- Department of Neurology, The First Hospital of Hebei Medical University, Shijiazhuang, P.R. China
| | - Yizhou Zhang
- Department of Anatomy, Hebei Medical University, Shijiazhuang, P.R. China
- Neuroscience Research Center, Hebei Medical University, Shijiazhuang, P.R. China
- Hebei Key Laboratory of Neurodegenerative Disease Mechanism, Shijiazhuang, P.R. China
| | - Dongyun Gou
- Department of Neurology, The First Hospital of Hebei Medical University, Shijiazhuang, P.R. China
| | - Jingle Ma
- Department of Anatomy, Hebei Medical University, Shijiazhuang, P.R. China
| | - Juan Du
- Department of Anatomy, Hebei Medical University, Shijiazhuang, P.R. China
- Neuroscience Research Center, Hebei Medical University, Shijiazhuang, P.R. China
- Hebei Key Laboratory of Neurodegenerative Disease Mechanism, Shijiazhuang, P.R. China
| | - Chang Wang
- Department of Anatomy, Hebei Medical University, Shijiazhuang, P.R. China
- Neuroscience Research Center, Hebei Medical University, Shijiazhuang, P.R. China
- Hebei Key Laboratory of Neurodegenerative Disease Mechanism, Shijiazhuang, P.R. China
| | - Sha Li
- Department of Anatomy, Hebei Medical University, Shijiazhuang, P.R. China
- Neuroscience Research Center, Hebei Medical University, Shijiazhuang, P.R. China
- Hebei Key Laboratory of Neurodegenerative Disease Mechanism, Shijiazhuang, P.R. China
| | - Huixian Cui
- Department of Anatomy, Hebei Medical University, Shijiazhuang, P.R. China
- Neuroscience Research Center, Hebei Medical University, Shijiazhuang, P.R. China
- Hebei Key Laboratory of Neurodegenerative Disease Mechanism, Shijiazhuang, P.R. China
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41
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Bhatia S, Rawal R, Sharma P, Singh T, Singh M, Singh V. Mitochondrial Dysfunction in Alzheimer's Disease: Opportunities for Drug Development. Curr Neuropharmacol 2022; 20:675-692. [PMID: 33998995 PMCID: PMC9878959 DOI: 10.2174/1570159x19666210517114016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/16/2021] [Revised: 03/24/2021] [Accepted: 04/28/2021] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Alzheimer's disease (AD) is one of the major reasons for 60-80% cases of senile dementia occurring as a result of the accumulation of plaques and tangles in the hippocampal and cortical neurons of the brain leading to neurodegeneration and cell death. The other pathological features of AD comprise abnormal microvasculature, network abnormalities, interneuronal dysfunction, increased β-amyloid production and reduced clearance, increased inflammatory response, elevated production of reactive oxygen species, impaired brain metabolism, hyperphosphorylation of tau, and disruption of acetylcholine signaling. Among all these pathologies, Mitochondrial Dysfunction (MD), regardless of it being an inciting insult or a consequence of the alterations, is related to all the associated AD pathologies. Observed altered mitochondrial morphology, distribution and movement, increased oxidative stress, dysregulation of enzymes involved in mitochondrial functioning, impaired brain metabolism, and impaired mitochondrial biogenesis in AD subjects suggest the involvement of mitochondrial malfunction in the progression of AD. Here, various pre-clinical and clinical evidence establishing MD as a key mediator in the progression of neurodegeneration in AD are reviewed and discussed with an aim to foster future MD based drug development research for the management of AD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shiveena Bhatia
- Chitkara College of Pharmacy, Chitkara University, Punjab, India
| | - Rishi Rawal
- School of Pharmaceutical Education and Research, Jamia Hamdard, New Delhi, India
| | - Pratibha Sharma
- Chitkara College of Pharmacy, Chitkara University, Punjab, India
| | - Tanveer Singh
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences and Drug Research, Punjabi University, Patiala, Punjab, India
| | - Manjinder Singh
- Chitkara College of Pharmacy, Chitkara University, Punjab, India;,Address correspondence to this author at the Chitkara College of Pharmacy, Chitkara University, Punjab, India; E-mails: ;
| | - Varinder Singh
- Chitkara College of Pharmacy, Chitkara University, Punjab, India;,Address correspondence to this author at the Chitkara College of Pharmacy, Chitkara University, Punjab, India; E-mails: ;
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42
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Wculek SK, Dunphy G, Heras-Murillo I, Mastrangelo A, Sancho D. Metabolism of tissue macrophages in homeostasis and pathology. Cell Mol Immunol 2022; 19:384-408. [PMID: 34876704 PMCID: PMC8891297 DOI: 10.1038/s41423-021-00791-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 129] [Impact Index Per Article: 64.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2021] [Accepted: 09/25/2021] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Cellular metabolism orchestrates the intricate use of tissue fuels for catabolism and anabolism to generate cellular energy and structural components. The emerging field of immunometabolism highlights the importance of cellular metabolism for the maintenance and activities of immune cells. Macrophages are embryo- or adult bone marrow-derived leukocytes that are key for healthy tissue homeostasis but can also contribute to pathologies such as metabolic syndrome, atherosclerosis, fibrosis or cancer. Macrophage metabolism has largely been studied in vitro. However, different organs contain diverse macrophage populations that specialize in distinct and often tissue-specific functions. This context specificity creates diverging metabolic challenges for tissue macrophage populations to fulfill their homeostatic roles in their particular microenvironment and conditions their response in pathological conditions. Here, we outline current knowledge on the metabolic requirements and adaptations of macrophages located in tissues during homeostasis and selected diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stefanie K Wculek
- Immunobiology Laboratory, Centro Nacional de Investigaciones Cardiovasculares (CNIC), Melchor Fernández Almagro 3, Madrid, 28029, Spain.
| | - Gillian Dunphy
- Immunobiology Laboratory, Centro Nacional de Investigaciones Cardiovasculares (CNIC), Melchor Fernández Almagro 3, Madrid, 28029, Spain
| | - Ignacio Heras-Murillo
- Immunobiology Laboratory, Centro Nacional de Investigaciones Cardiovasculares (CNIC), Melchor Fernández Almagro 3, Madrid, 28029, Spain
| | - Annalaura Mastrangelo
- Immunobiology Laboratory, Centro Nacional de Investigaciones Cardiovasculares (CNIC), Melchor Fernández Almagro 3, Madrid, 28029, Spain
| | - David Sancho
- Immunobiology Laboratory, Centro Nacional de Investigaciones Cardiovasculares (CNIC), Melchor Fernández Almagro 3, Madrid, 28029, Spain.
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43
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Mishra A, Wang Y, Yin F, Vitali F, Rodgers KE, Soto M, Mosconi L, Wang T, Brinton RD. A tale of two systems: Lessons learned from female mid-life aging with implications for Alzheimer's prevention & treatment. Ageing Res Rev 2022; 74:101542. [PMID: 34929348 PMCID: PMC8884386 DOI: 10.1016/j.arr.2021.101542] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/31/2021] [Revised: 12/05/2021] [Accepted: 12/13/2021] [Indexed: 02/03/2023]
Abstract
Neurological aging is frequently viewed as a linear process of decline, whereas in reality, it is a dynamic non-linear process. The dynamic nature of neurological aging is exemplified during midlife in the female brain. To investigate fundamental mechanisms of midlife aging that underlie risk for development of Alzheimer's disease (AD) in late life, we investigated the brain at greatest risk for the disease, the aging female brain. Outcomes of our research indicate that mid-life aging in the female is characterized by the emergence of three phases: early chronological (pre-menopause), endocrinological (peri-menopause) and late chronological (post-menopause) aging. The endocrinological aging program is sandwiched between early and late chronological aging. Throughout the three stages of midlife aging, two systems of biology, metabolic and immune, are tightly integrated through a network of signaling cascades. The network of signaling between these two systems of biology underlie an orchestrated sequence of adaptative starvation responses that shift the brain from near exclusive dependence on a single fuel, glucose, to utilization of an auxiliary fuel derived from lipids, ketone bodies. The dismantling of the estrogen control of glucose metabolism during mid-life aging is a critical contributor to the shift in fuel systems and emergence of dynamic neuroimmune phenotype. The shift in fuel reliance, puts the largest reservoir of local fatty acids, white matter, at risk for catabolism as a source of lipids to generate ketone bodies through astrocytic beta oxidation. APOE4 genotype accelerates the tipping point for emergence of the bioenergetic crisis. While outcomes derived from research conducted in the female brain are not directly translatable to the male brain, the questions addressed in a female centric program of research are directly applicable to investigation of the male brain. Like females, males with AD exhibit deficits in the bioenergetic system of the brain, activation of the immune system and hallmark Alzheimer's pathologies. The drivers and trajectory of mechanisms underlying neurodegeneration in the male brain will undoubtedly share common aspects with the female in addition to factors unique to the male. Preclinical and clinical evidence indicate that midlife endocrine aging can also be a transitional bridge to autoimmune disorders. Collectively, the data indicate that endocrinological aging is a critical period "tipping point" in midlife which can initiate emergence of the prodromal stage of late-onset-Alzheimer's disease. Interventions that target both immune and metabolic shifts that occur during midlife aging have the potential to alter the trajectory of Alzheimer's risk in late life. Further, to achieve precision medicine for AD, chromosomal sex is a critical variable to consider along with APOE genotype, other genetic risk factors and stage of disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aarti Mishra
- Center for Innovation in Brain Science, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ 85719, USA
| | - Yiwei Wang
- Center for Innovation in Brain Science, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ 85719, USA
| | - Fei Yin
- Center for Innovation in Brain Science, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ 85719, USA
| | - Francesca Vitali
- Center for Innovation in Brain Science, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ 85719, USA
| | - Kathleen E Rodgers
- Center for Innovation in Brain Science, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ 85719, USA
| | - Maira Soto
- Center for Innovation in Brain Science, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ 85719, USA
| | - Lisa Mosconi
- Department of Neurology, Weill Cornell Medicine, New York, NY 10021, USA
| | - Tian Wang
- Center for Innovation in Brain Science, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ 85719, USA
| | - Roberta D Brinton
- Center for Innovation in Brain Science, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ 85719, USA.
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44
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Mayorga-Weber G, Rivera FJ, Castro MA. Neuron-glia (mis)interactions in brain energy metabolism during aging. J Neurosci Res 2022; 100:835-854. [PMID: 35085408 DOI: 10.1002/jnr.25015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/12/2021] [Revised: 11/08/2021] [Accepted: 12/06/2021] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Life expectancy in humans is increasing, resulting in a growing aging population, that is accompanied by an increased disposition to develop cognitive deterioration. Hypometabolism is one of the multiple factors related to inefficient brain function during aging. This review emphasizes the metabolic interactions between glial cells (astrocytes, oligodendrocytes, and microglia) and neurons, particularly, during aging. Glial cells provide support and protection to neurons allowing adequate synaptic activity. We address metabolic coupling from the expression of transporters, availability of substrates, metabolic pathways, and mitochondrial activity. In aging, the main metabolic exchange machinery is altered with inefficient levels of nutrients and detrimental mitochondrial activity that results in high reactive oxygen species levels and reduced ATP production, generating a highly inflammatory environment that favors deregulated cell death. Here, we provide an overview of the glial-to-neuron mechanisms, from the molecular components to the cell types, emphasizing aging as the crucial risk factor for developing neurodegenerative/neuroinflammatory diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gonzalo Mayorga-Weber
- Instituto de Bioquímica y Microbiología, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad Austral de Chile, Valdivia, Chile
| | - Francisco J Rivera
- Center for Interdisciplinary Studies on the Nervous System (CISNe), Universidad Austral de Chile, Valdivia, Chile.,Laboratory of Stem Cells and Neuroregeneration, Instituto de Anatomía, Histología y Patología, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad Austral de Chile, Valdivia, Chile.,Institute of Molecular Regenerative Medicine, Paracelsus Medical University, Salzburg, Austria.,Spinal Cord Injury and Tissue Regeneration Center Salzburg (SCI-TReCS), Paracelsus Medical University, Salzburg, Austria
| | - Maite A Castro
- Instituto de Bioquímica y Microbiología, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad Austral de Chile, Valdivia, Chile.,Center for Interdisciplinary Studies on the Nervous System (CISNe), Universidad Austral de Chile, Valdivia, Chile.,Janelia Research Campus, HHMI, Ashburn, VA, USA
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45
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Takahashi S, Mashima K. Neuroprotection and Disease Modification by Astrocytes and Microglia in Parkinson Disease. Antioxidants (Basel) 2022; 11:antiox11010170. [PMID: 35052674 PMCID: PMC8773262 DOI: 10.3390/antiox11010170] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/13/2021] [Revised: 01/03/2022] [Accepted: 01/13/2022] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Oxidative stress and neuroinflammation are common bases for disease onset and progression in many neurodegenerative diseases. In Parkinson disease, which is characterized by the degeneration of dopaminergic neurons resulting in dopamine depletion, the pathogenesis differs between hereditary and solitary disease forms and is often unclear. In addition to the pathogenicity of alpha-synuclein as a pathological disease marker, the involvement of dopamine itself and its interactions with glial cells (astrocyte or microglia) have attracted attention. Pacemaking activity, which is a hallmark of dopaminergic neurons, is essential for the homeostatic maintenance of adequate dopamine concentrations in the synaptic cleft, but it imposes a burden on mitochondrial oxidative glucose metabolism, leading to reactive oxygen species production. Astrocytes provide endogenous neuroprotection to the brain by producing and releasing antioxidants in response to oxidative stress. Additionally, the protective function of astrocytes can be modified by microglia. Some types of microglia themselves are thought to exacerbate Parkinson disease by releasing pro-inflammatory factors (M1 microglia). Although these inflammatory microglia may further trigger the inflammatory conversion of astrocytes, microglia may induce astrocytic neuroprotective effects (A2 astrocytes) simultaneously. Interestingly, both astrocytes and microglia express dopamine receptors, which are upregulated in the presence of neuroinflammation. The anti-inflammatory effects of dopamine receptor stimulation are also attracting attention because the functions of astrocytes and microglia are greatly affected by both dopamine depletion and therapeutic dopamine replacement in Parkinson disease. In this review article, we will focus on the antioxidative and anti-inflammatory effects of astrocytes and their synergism with microglia and dopamine.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shinichi Takahashi
- Department of Neurology and Stroke, Saitama Medical University International Medical Center, 1397-1 Yamane, Hidaka-shi 350-1298, Japan
- Department of Physiology, Keio University School of Medicine, 35 Shinanomachi, Shinjuku-ku, Tokyo 160-8582, Japan;
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +81-42-984-4111 (ext. 7412); Fax: +81-42-984-0664
| | - Kyoko Mashima
- Department of Physiology, Keio University School of Medicine, 35 Shinanomachi, Shinjuku-ku, Tokyo 160-8582, Japan;
- Department of Neurology, Tokyo Saiseikai Central Hospital, 1-4-17 Mita, Minato-ku, Tokyo 108-0073, Japan
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46
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Elevated microglial oxidative phosphorylation and phagocytosis stimulate post-stroke brain remodeling and cognitive function recovery in mice. Commun Biol 2022; 5:35. [PMID: 35017668 PMCID: PMC8752825 DOI: 10.1038/s42003-021-02984-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/10/2021] [Accepted: 12/09/2021] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
New research shows that disease-associated microglia in neurodegenerative brains present features of elevated phagocytosis, lysosomal functions, and lipid metabolism, which benefit brain repair. The underlying mechanisms remain poorly understood. Intracellular pH (pHi) is important for regulating aerobic glycolysis in microglia, where Na/H exchanger (NHE1) is a key pH regulator by extruding H+ in exchange of Na+ influx. We report here that post-stroke Cx3cr1-CreER+/-;Nhe1flox/flox (Nhe1 cKO) brains displayed stimulation of microglial transcriptomes of rate-limiting enzyme genes for glycolysis, tricarboxylic acid cycle, and oxidative phosphorylation. The other upregulated genes included genes for phagocytosis and LXR/RXR pathway activation as well as the disease-associated microglia hallmark genes (Apoe, Trem2, Spp1). The cKO microglia exhibited increased oxidative phosphorylation capacity, and higher phagocytic activity, which likely played a role in enhanced synaptic stripping and remodeling, oligodendrogenesis, and remyelination. This study reveals that genetic blockade of microglial NHE1 stimulated oxidative phosphorylation immunometabolism, and boosted phagocytosis function which is associated with tissue remodeling and post-stroke cognitive function recovery.
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47
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Functional Characterization of Human Pluripotent Stem Cell-Derived Models of the Brain with Microelectrode Arrays. Cells 2021; 11:cells11010106. [PMID: 35011667 PMCID: PMC8750870 DOI: 10.3390/cells11010106] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/23/2021] [Revised: 12/22/2021] [Accepted: 12/24/2021] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Human pluripotent stem cell (hPSC)-derived neuron cultures have emerged as models of electrical activity in the human brain. Microelectrode arrays (MEAs) measure changes in the extracellular electric potential of cell cultures or tissues and enable the recording of neuronal network activity. MEAs have been applied to both human subjects and hPSC-derived brain models. Here, we review the literature on the functional characterization of hPSC-derived two- and three-dimensional brain models with MEAs and examine their network function in physiological and pathological contexts. We also summarize MEA results from the human brain and compare them to the literature on MEA recordings of hPSC-derived brain models. MEA recordings have shown network activity in two-dimensional hPSC-derived brain models that is comparable to the human brain and revealed pathology-associated changes in disease models. Three-dimensional hPSC-derived models such as brain organoids possess a more relevant microenvironment, tissue architecture and potential for modeling the network activity with more complexity than two-dimensional models. hPSC-derived brain models recapitulate many aspects of network function in the human brain and provide valid disease models, but certain advancements in differentiation methods, bioengineering and available MEA technology are needed for these approaches to reach their full potential.
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48
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Fan F, Xu N, Sun Y, Li X, Gao X, Yi X, Zhang Y, Meng X, Lin JM. Uncovering the Metabolic Mechanism of Salidroside Alleviating Microglial Hypoxia Inflammation Based on Microfluidic Chip-Mass Spectrometry. J Proteome Res 2021; 21:921-929. [PMID: 34851127 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jproteome.1c00647] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/23/2023]
Abstract
Microglia are the main immune cells in the brain playing a critical role in neuroinflammation, and numerous pieces of evidence have proved that energy metabolism is closely associated with inflammation in activated microglia. Salidroside (Sal) isolated from Tibetan medicine Rhodiola crenulate can inhibit microglial hypoxia inflammation (HI). However, whether the inhibition is due to the intervening energy metabolic process in microglia is not clear. In this work, the hypoxic microenvironment of BV2 microglial cells was simulated using deferoxamine (DFO) in vitro and the change of cell metabolites (lactate, succinate, malate, and fumarate) was real-time online investigated based on a cell microfluidic chip-mass spectrometry (CM-MS) system. Meanwhile, for confirming the metabolic mechanism of BV2 cells under hypoxia, the level of HI-related factors (LDH, ROS, HIF-1α, NF-κB p65, TNF-α, IL-1β, and IL-6) was detected by molecular biotechnology. Integration of the detected results revealed that DFO-induced BV2 cell HI was associated with the process of energy metabolism, in which cell energy metabolism changed from oxidative phosphorylation to glycolysis. Furthermore, administration of Sal treatment could effectively invert this change, and two metabolites of Sal were identified: tyrosol and 4-hydroxyphenylacetic acid. In general, we illustrated a new mechanism of Sal for reducing BV2 cell HI injury and presented a novel analysis strategy that opened a way for real-time online monitoring of the energy metabolic mechanism of the effect of drugs on cells and further provided a superior strategy to screen natural drug candidates for HI-related brain disease treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fangfang Fan
- State Key Laboratory of Southwestern Chinese Medicine Resources, Innovative Institute of Chinese Medicine and Pharmacy, Chengdu University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Chengdu 611137, China.,School of Ethnic Medicine, Chengdu University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Chengdu 611137, China.,Department of Chemistry, Beijing Key Laboratory of Microanalytical Methods and Instrumentation, MOE Key Laboratory of Bioorganic Phosphorus Chemistry & Chemical Biology, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China
| | - Ning Xu
- Department of Chemistry, Beijing Key Laboratory of Microanalytical Methods and Instrumentation, MOE Key Laboratory of Bioorganic Phosphorus Chemistry & Chemical Biology, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China.,Institute of Quality Standard and Testing Technology for Agro-Products, The Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing 100081, China
| | - Yucheng Sun
- Department of Chemistry, Beijing Key Laboratory of Microanalytical Methods and Instrumentation, MOE Key Laboratory of Bioorganic Phosphorus Chemistry & Chemical Biology, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China
| | - Xuanhao Li
- State Key Laboratory of Southwestern Chinese Medicine Resources, Innovative Institute of Chinese Medicine and Pharmacy, Chengdu University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Chengdu 611137, China
| | - Xinchang Gao
- Department of Chemistry, Beijing Key Laboratory of Microanalytical Methods and Instrumentation, MOE Key Laboratory of Bioorganic Phosphorus Chemistry & Chemical Biology, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China
| | - Xizhen Yi
- Department of Chemistry, Beijing Key Laboratory of Microanalytical Methods and Instrumentation, MOE Key Laboratory of Bioorganic Phosphorus Chemistry & Chemical Biology, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China
| | - Yi Zhang
- School of Ethnic Medicine, Chengdu University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Chengdu 611137, China
| | - Xianli Meng
- State Key Laboratory of Southwestern Chinese Medicine Resources, Innovative Institute of Chinese Medicine and Pharmacy, Chengdu University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Chengdu 611137, China.,School of Ethnic Medicine, Chengdu University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Chengdu 611137, China
| | - Jin-Ming Lin
- Department of Chemistry, Beijing Key Laboratory of Microanalytical Methods and Instrumentation, MOE Key Laboratory of Bioorganic Phosphorus Chemistry & Chemical Biology, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China
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49
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Cleland NRW, Al-Juboori SI, Dobrinskikh E, Bruce KD. Altered substrate metabolism in neurodegenerative disease: new insights from metabolic imaging. J Neuroinflammation 2021; 18:248. [PMID: 34711251 PMCID: PMC8555332 DOI: 10.1186/s12974-021-02305-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/11/2021] [Accepted: 10/21/2021] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Neurodegenerative diseases (NDs), such as Alzheimer's disease (AD), Parkinson's disease (PD) and multiple sclerosis (MS), are relatively common and devastating neurological disorders. For example, there are 6 million individuals living with AD in the United States, a number that is projected to grow to 14 million by the year 2030. Importantly, AD, PD and MS are all characterized by the lack of a true disease-modifying therapy that is able to reverse or halt disease progression. In addition, the existing standard of care for most NDs only addresses the symptoms of the disease. Therefore, alternative strategies that target mechanisms underlying the neuropathogenesis of disease are much needed. Recent studies have indicated that metabolic alterations in neurons and glia are commonly observed in AD, PD and MS and lead to changes in cell function that can either precede or protect against disease onset and progression. Specifically, single-cell RNAseq studies have shown that AD progression is tightly linked to the metabolic phenotype of microglia, the key immune effector cells of the brain. However, these analyses involve removing cells from their native environment and performing measurements in vitro, influencing metabolic status. Therefore, technical approaches that can accurately assess cell-specific metabolism in situ have the potential to be transformative to our understanding of the mechanisms driving AD. Here, we review our current understanding of metabolism in both neurons and glia during homeostasis and disease. We also evaluate recent advances in metabolic imaging, and discuss how emerging modalities, such as fluorescence lifetime imaging microscopy (FLIM) have the potential to determine how metabolic perturbations may drive the progression of NDs. Finally, we propose that the temporal, regional, and cell-specific characterization of brain metabolism afforded by FLIM will be a critical first step in the rational design of metabolism-focused interventions that delay or even prevent NDs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicholas R W Cleland
- Endocrinology, Metabolism and Diabetes, Division of Endocrinology, Metabolism and Diabetes, Department of Medicine, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, USA
- School of Medicine, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, USA
| | - Saif I Al-Juboori
- Section of Neonatology, Department of Pediatrics, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, USA
| | - Evgenia Dobrinskikh
- Section of Neonatology, Department of Pediatrics, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, USA
- Division of Pulmonary Sciences and Critical Care, Department of Medicine, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, USA
| | - Kimberley D Bruce
- Endocrinology, Metabolism and Diabetes, Division of Endocrinology, Metabolism and Diabetes, Department of Medicine, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, USA.
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50
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Effects of aging on protein expression in mice brain microvessels: ROS scavengers, mRNA/protein stability, glycolytic enzymes, mitochondrial complexes, and basement membrane components. GeroScience 2021; 44:371-388. [PMID: 34708300 PMCID: PMC8811117 DOI: 10.1007/s11357-021-00468-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/30/2021] [Accepted: 09/23/2021] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Differentially expressed (DE) proteins in the cortical microvessels (MVs) of young, middle-aged, and old male and female mice were evaluated using discovery-based proteomics analysis (> 4,200 quantified proteins/group). Most DE proteins (> 90%) showed no significant differences between the sexes; however, some significant DE proteins showing sexual differences in MVs decreased from young (8.3%), to middle-aged (3.7%), to old (0.5%) mice. Therefore, we combined male and female data for age-dependent comparisons but noted sex differences for examination. Key proteins involved in the oxidative stress response, mRNA or protein stability, basement membrane (BM) composition, aerobic glycolysis, and mitochondrial function were significantly altered with aging. Relative abundance of superoxide dismutase-1/-2, catalase and thioredoxin were reduced with aging. Proteins participating in either mRNA degradation or pre-mRNA splicing were significantly increased in old mice MVs, whereas protein stabilizing proteins decreased. Glycolytic proteins were not affected in middle age, but the relative abundance of these proteins decreased in MVs of old mice. Although most of the 41 examined proteins composing mitochondrial complexes I–V were reduced in old mice, six of these proteins showed a significant reduction in middle-aged mice, but the relative abundance increased in fourteen proteins. Nidogen, collagen, and laminin family members as well as perlecan showed differing patterns during aging, indicating BM reorganization starting in middle age. We suggest that increased oxidative stress during aging leads to adverse protein profile changes of brain cortical MVs that affect mRNA/protein stability, BM integrity, and ATP synthesis capacity.
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