Assessment of beverage consumption by young adults in Saudi Arabia

Addressing nutritional issues and eating behaviours among university students: a narrative review

University life is a critical period for establishing healthy eating habits and attitudes. However, university students are at risk of developing poor eating habits due to various factors, including economic conditions, academic stress and lack of information about nutritional concepts. Poor diet quality leads to malnutrition or overnutrition, increasing the risk of preventable diseases. Food environments on university campuses also play a significant role in shaping the dietary habits of students, with the availability of and accessibility to healthy food options being important factors influencing food choices and overall diet quality. Disordered eating habits and body dissatisfaction are prevalent among university students and can lead to eating disorders. Income and living arrangements also influence dietary habits, with low household income and living alone being associated with unhealthy eating habits. This study is a narrative review that aimed to address nutritional issues and eating behaviours, specifically among university students. We investigated the eating behaviours of university students, including their dietary patterns, food choices and food environments. The objective of this review was to provide insights into the nutritional issues and eating behaviours of university students, with the aim of identifying target areas for intervention to improve the overall health and wellbeing among college students. University food environments need to be restructured to promote healthy eating, including the availability, accessibility, affordability and labelling of healthy foods, and policies to limit the availability of unhealthy foods and drinks on campus.

Effects of popular Saudi Arabian beverages on tooth shade after home bleaching: an in vitro analysis

This in vitro study aimed to examine the effects of popular Saudi Arabian beverages on tooth shade after home bleaching. A total of 60 extracted single-rooted teeth were used, of which 45 teeth were bleached using a 35% carbamide peroxide gel and an LED light. After bleaching, the teeth were immersed in three different beverages-Cola, Arabic Qahwa, and Black Coffee-for 14 days, while a control group of unbleached teeth (n = 15) was also exposed to the same beverages (5 teeth/ beverage). Tooth color changes were assessed using a spectrophotometer before and after immersion. Statistical analysis was conducted using Mann-Whitney and t-tests, with significance set at p < 0.05. Results showed that after bleaching, the Cola group had a slightly higher mean E1 value compared to the control, but the difference was not statistically significant (p = 0.087). After 14 days of immersion, both the Cola and control groups exhibited increased changes in tooth shade, with no significant difference in ΔE values. In contrast, the Arabian Qahwa group showed significantly (p = 0.001) greater discoloration than the control group, indicating a stronger staining effect. For the Black Coffee group, the mean E2 value was 16.04 ± 2.97, while the control group had a higher mean of 19.2 ± 2.09, with a statistically significant difference (p = 0.044). The study concluded that beverages such as Cola, Arabic Qahwa, and Black Coffee can influence tooth shade over time. Black Coffee caused significant discoloration, whereas Cola showed statistically insignificant changes. However, Arabic Qahwa led to significant differences in ΔE values compared to the controls, indicating a notable effect on tooth shade.

Relationship between adherence to the mediterranean food pattern and food self-efficacy of higher education students in Portugal: A cross-sectional study

When students begin their academic life, they are subject to psychological, environmental, and economic changes, which may have implications for their dietary habits. This study aims to assess the relationship between adherence to the Mediterranean food pattern (MFP), nutritional status, and food self-efficacy among a sample of higher education students in Portugal. This cross-sectional study was conducted between May and June 2023, through an online questionnaire. A total of 114 students from public and private higher education participated in this study, predominantly female (68.7%) with a median age of 23 (20; 27) years. It was found that higher body mass index (BMI), older age (p > 0.003; r: 0.273), and greater adherence to the MFP were associated with higher food self-efficacy (p > 0.003; r: 0.273). No correlations were found between the other variables. When feeling stressed, students tend to consume more sweets, fast food, and fewer fruits and vegetables. Based on the correlations between BMI, adherence to the MFP, perceived stress, and food self-efficacy, it can be concluded that higher BMI, older age, and greater adherence to the MFP are associated with higher food self-efficacy. These results can be explored for future dietary interventions in this population group.

Exploring the role of community pharmacists in addressing obesity: a Saudi Arabian perspective

Introduction

Obesity has emerged as a significant public health concern in Saudi Arabia, with rising prevalence rates contributing to an increased risk of chronic diseases such as diabetes and cardiovascular disorders. Community pharmacists, as accessible healthcare providers, hold the potential to play a critical role in weight management. This study aimed to explore the beliefs, practices, and barriers encountered by community pharmacists in Saudi Arabia regarding weight management.

Methods

A cross-sectional survey was conducted among community pharmacists to gather data on their perceptions, practices, and barriers related to obesity management. The data obtained were subjected to descriptive and inferential analysis using a multinomial regression model with the help of SPSS-IBM 2025.

Results

Findings revealed that while a significant majority (73%) recognize obesity as a pressing health issue, only 31% reported receiving formal education on weight management, which impedes their ability to provide effective counseling. The demographic profile of respondents showed a predominance of male pharmacists (91%) aged between 31 and 40 years, which reflects broader societal trends in healthcare professions in the region. Furthermore, barriers such as inadequate staffing (39%), lack of private consultation spaces (37%), and the necessity for additional payment for weight management services (49%) were identified, underscoring the need for targeted support. Pharmacists showed a strong dedication to helping patients adopt healthier lifestyles. Specifically, 76% of pharmacists provided advice on following low-calorie diets, and 83% encouraged patients to increase their physical activity. However, only 33% regularly dispensed weight loss products, indicating a gap in practice.

Discussion

Enhanced education and supportive policies are crucial for pharmacists in obesity management. Future research should focus on developing tailored training programs to fill the knowledge gaps and explore financial incentives to optimize pharmacists' roles in public health initiatives aimed at combating obesity and chronic diseases in Saudi Arabia. By addressing these barriers, community pharmacists can significantly contribute to obesity management and improve health outcomes in their communities.

Microplastic contamination in commercial food and drink products and associated risk of potential human intake in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia

Extensive production and utilization of plastics have resulted in the subsequent accumulation of microplastics (MPs) in the environment, which has become a serious threat to human health globally. Therefore, in this study, 112 drinks and food products were purchased from local markets in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia, and the abundance of MPs was investigated. The dominant size of MPs was 101-250 μm for tuna fish, noodles, bottled water, and disposable containers, 251-500 μm for honey, tea bags, and sugar, and 501-1000 μm for salt, juice, and soft drink samples. FTIR analysis indicated polypropylene, polyethylene, polycarbonate, and polyvinylchloride as the major polymer contents. The average total number of MPs was highest in tea bags (615.71 particles teabag-1), followed by sugar (281.01 particles kg-1), honey (197.67 particles kg-1), and salt (147.30 particles kg-1). Consumption of tea bags exhibited the highest risks of daily and annual MPs intake (15.06 particles kg-1 day-1 and 5496.45 particles kg-1 year-1, respectively), followed by bottled water (4.77 particles kg-1 day-1 and 1741.32 particles kg-1 year-1, respectively). Overall, this study provides vital baseline data about MPs contamination in Saudi Arabia. These findings could be used to develop strategies to minimize MPs contamination in food and beverages. Therefore, monitoring MPs in commonly consumed dietary products to avoid adverse impacts of MPs on human health is critically important.

Association between body esteem and sugar-sweetened beverage intake among Chinese undergraduate students: a cross-sectional study

Background

High intake of sugar-sweetened beverages has been linked to a range of physical, psychological, and emotional issues. Although there were various factors influencing sugar-sweetened beverage intake, the relationship between body esteem and sugar-sweetened beverage intake remains unclear. This study aimed to investigate the association between three dimensions of body esteem (body esteem-appearance, body esteem-attribution, and body esteem-weight) and the likelihood of high sugar-sweetened beverage intake.

Methods

A cross-sectional study was conducted among undergraduate students at Nanjing University of Chinese Medicine. Logistic regression analyses were used to assess the association between the three dimensions of body esteem and the risk of high sugar-sweetened beverage intake. Additionally, restricted cubic splines and subgroup analyses were implemented to further explore the associations.

Results

A total of 969 participants were included in the study, with 771 females (79.6%). The mean age of the participants was 20.07 years (standard deviation [SD] = 1.65). After adjusting for covariates, body esteem-appearance was found to be negatively associated with high sugar-sweetened beverage intake (OR = 0.962, 95% CI = 0.935-0.989, p = 0.007), while body esteem-attribution was positively associated with high sugar-sweetened beverage intake (OR = 1.091, 95% CI = 1.046-1.139, p < 0.001). However, no significant association was found between body esteem-weight and high sugar-sweetened beverage intake (p = 0.781). Restricted cubic spline plots showed no non-linear associations between any dimensions of body esteem and the risk of high sugar-sweetened beverage intake (p-nonlinear was 0.912, 0.225, 0.109, respectively). Subgroup analyses revealed no significant interactions.

Conclusion

These findings underscored the significance of targeted health promotion strategies and provided references for educational institutions or governmental bodies to steer undergraduate beverage consumption toward healthier patterns.

Beverages and sugar-sweetened beverages consumption pattern and amount among adolescents using beverage frequency questionnaire: cross-sectional study

BACKGROUND

Over 390 million children and adolescents are affected by overweight and obesity worldwide. Similarly, obesity rates are rising in these age groups in the Middle East and Gulf region including Saudi Arabia. Dietary habits are fundamental in childhood overweight and obesity management. Adolescents consume a higher energy intake from free sugars than any other age group, with beverages becoming a significant source of those sugars. Adolescent beverage consumption has been assessed in various populations. However, limited studies have assessed beverage consumption patterns and amounts among adolescents in the Middle East and the Gulf region. This study used beverage frequency questionnaires to assess adolescents' total beverage consumption(TBC) and sugar-sweetened beverages(SSBs) consumption patterns and amounts. Also, it estimated their contribution to the total energy and nutrient intake and explored the association between consumption and demographic factors, specific obesity parameters, and body composition components.

METHODS

A cross-sectional study was conducted among 15-19years males and females in January and February 2023. Participants(n = 316) were recruited in Riyadh city using a multistage clustered stratified random sampling technique based on region and gender. Participants completed a modified version of the beverage frequency questionnaire. Additionally, anthropometric measurements and body composition were measured.

RESULTS

Participants had a similar TBC(median = 1702 ml/day), but males and females differed in their consumption frequency of various beverage types(7 out of 25). SSB consumption(median = 478 ml/day) accounted for 28% of TBC and 100% and 75% of sugar and carbohydrates from TBC, respectively. BMI/age groups showed similar beverage consumption frequencies in almost all types(24 out of 25). A significant association was found between SSB intake and grade in male participants. The correlation between TBC, SSB consumption, and obesity parameters/body composition components was overall weak(r ≤ 0.5).

CONCLUSIONS

Beverage consumption amounts may not have a potential risk independently among older adolescents. However, beverage consumption habits and quality may vary based on gender and other socio-demographic factors. Highlighting the need for dietary habits, diet quality assessment and improvement in adolescents, and targeted public health interventions. Further research may investigate beverage consumption among younger adolescents, include broader regional comparisons, and explore additional impact factors such as taxation and advertising.

Translation and Validation of a Culturally Adapted Arabic Version of the Beverage Intake Questionnaire (BEVQ)

BACKGROUND

The prevalence of sugar-sweetened beverage (SSB) consumption is on the rise among Arabic adolescents, with a notable increase observed in Iraq. However, no validated tool currently exists to assess SSB consumption apart from the frequency of SSB intake within this population. The objective of this study is to evaluate the beverage consumption patterns of Arabic-speaking adolescents using a validated Beverage Intake Questionnaire (BEVQ) specifically designed for this population.

METHODOLOGY

The BEVQ has been authorized by the original author and was meticulously translated through a 10-step protocol. The content validity of the BEVQ was rigorously evaluated by four independent experts using the item-level content validity index (I-CVI), scale-level content validity index average (S-CVI/Ave), sum of the content validity index/universal agreement (S-CVI/UA), and the modified kappa statistic (κ m). The face validity was also conducted on 30 adolescents, ensuring clarity and comprehensive validation.

RESULTS

The translation process required minor modifications to ensure linguistic and cultural equivalence to the original questionnaire. The Arabic version of the BEVQ (BEVQ-A) achieved S-CVI/Ave scores ranging from 0.90 to 0.98 and S-CVI/UA scores ranging from 0.75 to 1.00. The modified kappa statistic (κ m) indicated that the majority of items were categorized as good to excellent. These scores confirmed that the BEVQ-A possessed robust content validity. Additionally, the BEVQ-A demonstratedcomprehensive and clear face validity, with a sum of face validity index (S-FVI) score of 0.97.

CONCLUSION

In conclusion, the Arabic-translated version of the BEVQ is a valid and reliable instrument for assessing total beverage consumption among Arabic-speaking adolescents.

Unlocking the health benefits of melatonin supplementation: A promising preventative and therapeutic strategy

Melatonin (MLT) is crucial in controlling human sleep-wake patterns. While it has long been recognized for regulating circadian rhythms, its demonstrated efficacy in managing various diseases has recently gained considerable attention. This review discusses MLT's potential preventative and therapeutic effects on various diseases. Several studies have focused on examining the molecular mechanisms through which MLT brings about its protective or therapeutic effects on various diseases, including cancer, obesity, coronavirus, and cardiovascular diseases. Numerous preventative and therapeutic applications of MLT have been proposed, resulting from its ability to function as an antioxidant, anti-cancer, anti-inflammatory, and immune-regulating agent. There is a need for further research to determine MLT's long-term effects on antioxidant defense systems, its preventative and therapeutic benefits, and its molecular basis.

Individuals' perceptions of the factors linked to everyday soft drink consumption among university students: qualitative study

Background

Soft drink consumption is continuing to grow worldwide, posing an increasing threat to people's health and general wellbeing. Consequently, we must understand the factors driving soft drink consumption to support improvements to nutrition. This paper adopts a qualitative research approach to explore individuals' perceptions of the factors linked to daily soft drink consumption among university students in Saudi Arabia.

Materials and methods

This research employed purposive sampling to recruit a total of 19 students attending university in Al Madinah Province, Saudi Arabia, all of whom reported that they had previously consumed soft drinks. Over 3 months, data was gathered through a mixture of online and in-person semi-structured interviews. Once completed, the interviews were then transcribed and analyzed using inductive thematic analysis to identify the themes that emerged from the data.

Results

This study reveals five core themes: taste, habit, price, environment and social context, and health concerns. Regarding health concerns, this study finds that the public's increasing concerns about health can reduce people's consumption of soft drinks. Significantly, this research reveals that the rise in health concerns among the public is being driven by the growing conversation about healthy food and the negative impact of consuming sugary soft drinks occurring in wider society.

Conclusion

To conclude, this research underlines the value of adopting a holistic approach to promoting healthier drink choices (and thus reducing soft drink consumption). Interventions that focus on factors associated with soft drink consumption, such as habits, price, environment, social settings, health concerns, and taste, will be better able to decrease soft drink consumption and improve people's nutritional intake.

Energy drinks in Tamale: Understanding youth perceptions, consumption patterns, and related factors

Energy drinks (EDs) have become a popular choice for young people seeking physical and cognitive boosts, with ingredients such as caffeine, taurine, and B vitamins aimed at improving academic, athletic, and alertness levels. However, the popularity of these drinks is also driven by low prices, taste, brand loyalty, and gendered marketing, with boys being more likely to consume them. Despite the supposed benefits, EDs have been associated with high-risk behaviours, deaths, and adverse health effects, especially those related to cardiovascular risk. Meanwhile, in Ghana, the use of EDs is on the rise. Hence, this study aimed to examine the prevalence and consumption patterns, perceptions, and factors associated with ED consumption among the youth of the Tamale Metropolis. The study was cross-sectional, consisting of 541 participants. The group consisted of 340 males and 201 females, between the ages of 15 and 45. A questionnaire was utilized to obtain data on the respondents' consumption patterns and perceptions of EDs, as well as their socio-demographic characteristics. The results of the study indicated that a large percentage of the respondents, 98.7%, had consumed EDs before, while 78.7% currently consume them. Respondents believed that EDs provided additional energy (81.00%) and reduced stress (62.30%). However, they also perceived side effects such as insomnia (60.60%) and restlessness (51.40%). Also, the highest proportion of respondents (83.4%) had poor knowledge of EDs. They were unaware of the classification of EDs and their ingredients, side effects, and benefits. Age, marital status, level of education, work intensity, EDs served at gatherings, and knowledge of EDs was significantly associated with ED consumption (p < .05). Consumption was higher among those aged 26 to 35 years, singles, individuals with no formal education, and those with high work intensity. The high consumption was also associated with low knowledge levels. It is recommended that public health and nutrition professionals engage in further advocacy efforts to improve the youth's knowledge and perception of EDs in a positive manner. In addition, lawmakers should use legislation to influence consumption rates and safeguard the health of consumers.

Association of consumption of sugar-sweetened beverages with elevated blood pressure among college students in Yunnan Province, China

OBJECTIVE

Although some studies have examined the association between eating behaviour and elevated blood pressure (EBP) in adolescents, current data on the association between sugar-sweetened beverages (SSB) and EBP in adolescents in Yunnan Province, China, are lacking.

SETTING

Cluster sampling was used to survey freshmen at a college in Kunming, Yunnan Province, from November to December. Data on SSB consumption were collected using an FFQ measuring height, weight and blood pressure. A logistic regression model was used to analyse the association between SSB consumption and EBP, encompassing prehypertension and hypertension with sex-specific analyses.

PARTICIPANTS

The analysis included 4781 college students.

RESULTS

Elevated systolic blood pressure (SBP) and diastolic blood pressure (DBP) were detected in 35·10 % (1678/4781) and 39·34 % (1881/4781) of patients, respectively. After adjusting for confounding variables, tea beverage consumption was associated with elevated SBP (OR = 1·24, 95 % CI: 1·03, 1·49, P = 0·024), and carbonated beverage (OR = 1·23, 95 % CI: 1·04, 1·45, P = 0·019) and milk beverage (OR = 0·81, 95 % CI: 0·69, 0·95, P = 0·010) consumption was associated with elevated DBP in college students. Moreover, fruit beverage (OR = 1·32, 95 % CI: 1·00, 1·75, P = 0·048) and milk beverage consumption (OR = 0·69, 95 % CI: 0·52, 0·93, P = 0·014) was associated with elevated DBP in males.

CONCLUSION

Our findings indicated that fruit and milk beverage consumption was associated with elevated DBP in males, and no association was observed with EBP in females.

Understanding the Knowledge, Attitudes, and Practices Concerning Sugar-Sweetened Beverages and Beverage Taxation among Saudi University Students

University students should be informed about sugar-sweetened beverages (SSBs). Given the high consumption level of SSBs in Saudi Arabia, this study aims to examine the knowledge, attitudes, and practices related to SSBs and taxes. This cross-sectional study was conducted on 380 students at King Abdulaziz University in Jeddah between September 2022 and March 2023. The data were collected using an online self-administered questionnaire. The results reveal that 93% of the students had high knowledge scores, 99% have positive attitudes, and 37% present good practices toward SSBs. Moreover, 73% of students have high knowledge scores, 83% have positive attitudes, and 32% present good practices regarding SSB taxes. Each of these variables, college education, smoking, family income, body mass index, activities, and sports, showed statistically significant differences between gender with regard to the scores for knowledge, attitudes, and practice towards SSBs and their taxes. Thus, a high percentage of university students present sufficient knowledge of and good attitudes towards SSBs and taxation, unlike the practical results. Policymakers should develop strategic approaches and education campaigns to improve practices towards SSBs.

Online Arabic Beverage Frequency Questionnaire (ABFQ): evaluation of validity and reliability

BACKGROUND

Obesity and chronic diseases are significant public health issues in the Middle East and North Africa region. A robust body of evidence demonstrated the association between beverage consumption, obesity, and chronic diseases. Therefore, the assessment of beverage consumption is gaining more interest in health policy development, food industry partnerships, research expansion and community involvement. Although beverage-consumption assessment tools have been developed for various populations, none were developed for the Arabic population. In this study, we developed and validated an online Arabic Beverage Frequency Questionnaire (ABFQ) to assess the total beverage intake among Arabic speaking population.

METHODS

A cross-sectional validation study was conducted among healthy adults aged between 18 and 55 years. Participants (n = 49) completed a 24-item ABFQ on two occasions and provided one 24-h urine sample. For validity, total beverage consumption (ABFQ1) was assessed against a 24-h urine sample using an osmolality test and correlation analysis. Reliability was assessed by comparing the participants' consumption in total and for every 24 individual items from ABFQ1 with the total and individual items in ABFQ2 using correlation and paired sample t-test.

RESULTS

The average daily consumption of beverages was 1504 ml/day, while the average urine osmolality/kg was 614. The validity assessment between ABFQ and urine osmolality indicates a negative correlation. However, the correlation was week and not statistically significant (r_s = -0.2, p = 0.12). In reliability test, correlation analysis was positive and acceptable in all beverage categories (r_s = 0.4 - 0.9; all p < 0.05) except flavored milk (r_s = 0.2; p < 0.181) and sweetened coffee (r_s = 0.3; p < 0.022). Furthermore, no significant differences were found between the means of total consumption in both ABFQ1 and ABFQ2.

CONCLUSIONS

The finding of this study suggest that the ABFQ is a reliable reproducible tool for assessing beverage consumption among Arabic-speaking consumers. However, the survey could not be validated using 24-h urine osmolality only and other methods such as multi dietary records may use in future re-assessment.

Predictors of sugar-sweetened carbonated beverage consumption and its effect on adiposity parameters of female Saudi students

The prevalence of obesity has recently increased, accompanied by a steep increase in the consumption of sugar-sweetened carbonated beverages (SSCBs). This cross-sectional study was conducted to evaluate the impact of SSCB consumption on adiposity parameters and to identify factors associated with increased SSCB intake among young adult females in Makkah, Saudi Arabia. A validated closed questionnaire including 2 sections, general socioeconomic and behavioral characteristics and anthropometric measurements, was used for data collection of female students (n = 1616) from Umm Al-Qura University, Makkah, Saudi Arabia. Furthermore, height, weight, body mass index (BMI), waist circumference (WC), hip circumference (HC), and body composition were measured using an Omron HBF-510 body composition analyzer. Overall, 30.2% of the study participants consumed soda regularly. However, the percentages of occasional and never/rare soda intake were 40.1% and 29.7%, respectively. The results showed that BMI, WC, HC, body fat, and visceral fat increased with increasing SSCB intake. Physical inactivity, low income, smoking, low daily water intake, and obesity were associated with increased consumption of SSCB. In conclusion, a high rate of SSCB consumption increased obesity and body fat content in young adult females in Makkah City. Physical inactivity, low income, smoking, low daily water intake, and obesity were identified as predictors of increased SSCB consumption. Specific health education programs and effective public awareness campaigns could be held to address unhealthy SSCB drinking patterns to help improve young women's health.

Development of a Food Frequency Questionnaire for Assessing Habitual Intake of Free Sugar Among Children in Saudi Arabia

The World Health Organization emphasizes the urgency to assess and limit the intake of free sugar (FS) among individuals in order to prevent several non-communicable diseases. However, data regarding intake of FS are lacking in Saudi Arabia and in the Middle East. A reliable valid tool is needed to assess children's habitual intake of FS. Thus, we aimed to develop and validate a food frequency questionnaire (FFQ) that assesses children's habitual intake of FS in Saudi Arabia. In this cross-sectional study, 424 healthy Saudi children ages 6–12 years were included using river sampling method. Sociodemographic data and contact information were collected from mothers using an online survey. Dietary data were collected using 24-h dietary recalls (reference method) and a semi-quantitative FFQ through phone interviews. Items and food groups included in the initial draft of the FFQ were adopted from previous work. Content validity was done to the FFQ with total of 12 food groups and 41 food items. Next, a pilot study was conducted to estimate the sample size needed for the study and to ensure that all items reported in the 24-h dietary recalls were included in the final draft of the FFQ. Finally, data were collected to assess the validity and reliability of the FFQ at the population level. Mean intake of FS assessed by the FFQ was significantly higher than that assessed by the 24-h dietary recalls. Spearman's correlation between total FS assessed by the FFQ and 24-h dietary recall was positively low (rs = 0.30, p &lt; 0.001). The coefficient alpha indicated an acceptable level of internal consistency (α = 0.74, p &lt; 0.001). Test-retest reliability for total FS intake assessed by the FFQ was positively high (rs = 0.82). A slight agreement between FS intake assessed by the FFQ and the 24-h dietary recall was seen among the study sample (κ = 0.21, p &lt; 0.001). The newly developed FFQ was found to be reasonably valid in assessing children's habitual intake of FS in Saudi Arabia. Validating the instrument among older population in Saudi Arabia is warranted.

Dry Eye Disease Symptoms and Its Association with Daily Beverage Intake Among Adults in Saudi Arabia

Purpose

To evaluate the association between dry eye disease (DED) symptoms and daily beverage intake among adults in Saudi Arabia.

Patients and Methods

In this cross-sectional, questionnaire-based study, we distributed an online questionnaire to men and women older than 18 years living in Saudi Arabia. The questionnaire consisted of items related to the sociodemographic characteristics of the participants and two validated indices: the Ocular Surface Disease Index (OSDI) and the brief 15-item Beverage Intake Questionnaire (BEVQ-15). Participants were excluded if they were aged less than 18 years; wore contact lenses; had existing eye disease (excluding refractive errors), history of eye surgery (including corrective eye surgeries), or autoimmune diseases (rheumatoid arthritis, systemic lupus erythematosus, Sjogren’s syndrome); or were currently taking specific medications including antidepressants, antihistamines, and diuretics.

Results

After applying the study exclusion criteria, a total of 615 participants were included in the statistical analysis. The majority of participants were 18–34 years old (450, 73.2%), and men (381, 62%) exceeded women (234, 38%) by approximately 1.5-fold. OSDI scores showed that 344 participants (55.9%) had DED symptoms, 145 (23.6%) had mild dry eyes; and 106 (17.2%) and 93 (15.1%) had moderate and severe dry eyes, respectively. There was a significant association between sex and DED symptoms (p = 0.012); the frequency of DED symptoms in women exceeded that in men. However, no significant differences were observed with other demographic data such as age and location of residence. Although beverage intake was moderately correlated to OSDI score (R = 0.27), we found no significant association between beverage intake and DED symptoms.

Conclusion

This is the first study to highlight the association between DED symptoms and daily beverage intake. We found a significant association between DED symptoms and female sex. However, no significant association was found between DED symptoms and other demographic characteristics or beverage intake.

Dispensing Practices for Weight Management Products in Eastern Saudi Arabia: A Survey of Community Pharmacists

Due to changing lifestyles and socioeconomic status, obesity prevalence has been rising in Saudi Arabia, and community pharmacists often counsel patients about its management. The study aimed to evaluate practices of community pharmacists involved in dispensing products for weight control in four cities located in the eastern province of Saudi Arabia. A cross-sectional study was conducted involving community pharmacists in Dammam, Dhahran, Khobar, and Al-Ahsa, using a Likert format questionnaire. Only those who consented to participate were handed the questionnaire. A total of 100 complete responses were analyzed. The median value for packs sold per month for tea containing products Al-Diafa Slimming Tea, Jamue Tea, and Green Tea was ≥6 while the same for orlistat and apple cider vinegar were ≤4. Moreover, >50% of pharmacists mentioned that orlistat and apple cider vinegar were effective while ≥35% mentioned that metformin and Jamue tea were effective. Furthermore, ≥25% mentioned that green tea and Al-Diafa slimming tea were effective. Excluding orlistat, >50% of pharmacists did not know about adverse effects for other products. The rate of dispensing of several weight loss products was significant for participants’ background characteristics, such as time duration of consultation, gender, and age of patients, and pharmacist work experience (p < 0.05). The tea products and orlistat were the most frequently sold products, and community pharmacists appeared most knowledgeable about the effectiveness and adverse effect of orlistat. The pharmacists seemed to be aware about the effectiveness of other weight loss products; however, their knowledge about their potential adverse effects was unsatisfactory.

Investigation of the effects of different beverages on the disintegration time of over-the-counter medications in Saudi Arabia

Full disintegration of Oral solid dosage forms is critically important to achieve reliable clinical performance of the drug. Tablets/capsules are supposed to be taken with a full glass of water; however, many patients do not follow this recommendation as they administer their medications with beverages other than water. This study aims to assess the impact of different commonly consumed beverages in Saudi Arabia on the disintegration times of common over-the-counter (OTC) medication tablets and capsules in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. Five immediate release OTC drugs were chosen: Fevadol®, Solpadeine®, Ralaxon®, Artiz ®, and Brufen®. The disintegration times of these medications were assessed using a disintegration test in five beverages: Coca-cola, arabic coffee, orange juice, buttermilk and an energy drink. Times were compared to the disintegration time in water under two temperature conditions (37 °C and 5 °C). All beverages significantly increased the disintegration times of fevadol, solpadeine, and relaxon in comparison with water. The same was found for burfen, except that arabic coffee did not significantly increase disintegration time (p > 0.05). The disintegration time of artiz tablets was also significantly influenced by all beverages, except for Coca-cola and the energy drink, which had no significant impact on the disintegration time. The tested beverages should not be used as substitutes for water when ingesting medications. Patients should be advised to avoid consuming beverages other than water with therapeutic products. Increasing public awareness of drug-beverage interactions is needed.

Sex Differences in Oral Health and the Consumption of Sugary Diets in a Saudi Arabian Population

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE

Adolescence is a crucial period for developing healthy lifestyle and dietary habits. The growing consumption of high-sugar foods and beverages constitutes a serious public health concern. The aim of this study was to evaluate sex differences in the consumption of a sugary diet and oral health among Saudi adolescents.

SUBJECTS AND METHODS

This cross-sectional study was conducted in the Eastern Province of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia between January and February 2019. A multistage sampling technique was used to recruit 2265 middle-school children aged 12-16 years. Data were collected via the Food Frequency Questionnaire and via an oral health examination, using the WHO criteria. The chi-squared test, Student's t-test, and Mann-Whitney U-test were used to investigate the associations between the study variables.

RESULTS

The most consumed foods and beverages reported were water, juices, and biscuits (90%), while the least consumed were energy drinks and jams. A significant difference was found between males and females in the frequency of consumed sugary foods (P=0.01) and the quantity of consumed sugary beverages (P=0.000); males over all consumption were greater than their counterpart. However, no differences were found between sexes in the frequency of sugary drink consumption (P=0.2). The decayed-missing-filled index score was significantly higher in females (4.29 ± 3.44) than in males (3.61 ± 3.14; P=0.001). The mean plaque index among males and females was 1.72 (±0.79) and 1.20 (±0.78), respectively, while the mean gingival index was 1.31 (±0.77) in males and 0.69 (±0.73) in females-a statistically significant difference (P=0.001).

CONCLUSION

Sex differences were found in sugary diet consumption and oral health status. Thus, policy makers are encouraged to consider sex-based differences when planning preventative programs and initiatives. Nevertheless, further research is needed on the dietary intake patterns of young adults.