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McMillin SL, Minchew EC, Lowe DA, Spangenburg EE. Skeletal muscle wasting: the estrogen side of sexual dimorphism. Am J Physiol Cell Physiol 2022; 322:C24-C37. [PMID: 34788147 PMCID: PMC8721895 DOI: 10.1152/ajpcell.00333.2021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Abstract
The importance of defining sex differences across various biological and physiological mechanisms is more pervasive now than it has been over the past 15-20 years. As the muscle biology field pushes to identify small molecules and interventions to prevent, attenuate, or even reverse muscle wasting, we must consider the effect of sex as a biological variable. It should not be assumed that a therapeutic will affect males and females with equal efficacy or equivalent target affinities under conditions where muscle wasting is observed. With that said, it is not surprising to find that we have an unclear or even a poor understanding of the effects of sex or sex hormones on muscle wasting conditions. Although recent investigations are beginning to establish experimental approaches that will allow investigators to assess the impact of sex-specific hormones on muscle wasting, the field still needs rigorous scientific tools that will allow the community to address critical hypotheses centered around sex hormones. The focus of this review is on female sex hormones, specifically estrogens, and the roles that these hormones and their receptors play in skeletal muscle wasting conditions. With the overall review goal of assembling the current knowledge in the area of sexual dimorphism driven by estrogens with an effort to provide insights to interested physiologists on necessary considerations when trying to assess models for potential sex differences in cellular and molecular mechanisms of muscle wasting.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shawna L. McMillin
- 1Division of Rehabilitation Science, Department of Rehabilitation Medicine, Medical School, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota,2Division of Physical Therapy, Department of Rehabilitation Medicine, Medical School, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota
| | - Everett C. Minchew
- 3Department of Physiology, Brody School of Medicine, East Carolina Diabetes and Obesity Institute, East Carolina University, Greenville, North Carolina
| | - Dawn A. Lowe
- 1Division of Rehabilitation Science, Department of Rehabilitation Medicine, Medical School, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota,2Division of Physical Therapy, Department of Rehabilitation Medicine, Medical School, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota
| | - Espen E. Spangenburg
- 3Department of Physiology, Brody School of Medicine, East Carolina Diabetes and Obesity Institute, East Carolina University, Greenville, North Carolina
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2
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Sucedaram Y, Johns EJ, Husain R, Abdul Sattar M, H Abdulla M, Nelli G, Rahim NS, Khalilpourfarshbafi M, Abdullah NA. Exposure to High-Fat Style Diet Induced Renal and Liver Structural Changes, Lipid Accumulation and Inflammation in Intact and Ovariectomized Female Rats. J Inflamm Res 2021; 14:689-710. [PMID: 33716510 PMCID: PMC7944944 DOI: 10.2147/jir.s299083] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/25/2020] [Accepted: 02/18/2021] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Purpose We hypothesized that low estrogen levels aggravate obesity-related complications. Diet-induced obesity can cause distinct pathologies, including impaired glucose tolerance, inflammation, and organ injury that leads to fatty liver and chronic kidney diseases. To test this hypothesis, ovariectomized (OVX) rats were fed a high-fat style diet (HFSD), and we examined structural changes and inflammatory response in the kidney and liver. Methods Sprague-Dawley female rats were ovariectomized or sham-operated and divided into four groups: sham-operated rats fed a normal diet (ND); ovariectomized rats fed a normal diet (OVX-ND); sham-operated rats fed a HFSD; ovariectomized rats fed a high-fat style diet (OVX-HFSD). Mean blood pressure and fasting blood glucose were measured on weeks 0 and 10. The rats were sacrificed 10 weeks after initiation of ND or HFSD, the kidney and liver were harvested for histological, immunohistochemical and immunofluorescence studies. Results HFSD-fed rats presented a significantly greater adiposity index compared to their ND counterparts. Liver index, fasting blood glucose and mean blood pressure was increased in OVX-HFSD rats compared to HFSD rats at study terminal. Histological and morphometric studies showed focal interstitial mononuclear cell infiltration in the kidney of HFSD rats with mesangial expansion being greater in the OVX-HFSD rats. Both HFSD fed groups showed increased expressions of renal inflammatory markers, namely TNF-alpha, IL-6 and MCP-1, and infiltrating M1 macrophages with some influence of ovarian hormonal status. HFSD-feeding also caused hepatocellular steatosis which was aggravated in ovariectomized rats fed the same diet. Furthermore, hepatocellular ballooning was observed only in the OVX-HFSD rats. Similarly, HFSD-fed rats showed increased expressions of the inflammatory markers and M1 macrophage infiltration in the liver; however, only IL-6 expression was magnified in the OVX-HFSD. Conclusion Our data suggest that some of the structural changes and inflammatory response in the kidney and liver of rats fed a HFSD are exacerbated by ovariectomy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yamuna Sucedaram
- Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Medicine, Universiti Malaya, Kuala Lumpur, 50603, Malaysia
| | - Edward James Johns
- Department of Physiology, University College Cork, Cork, T12 K8AF, Ireland
| | - Ruby Husain
- Department of Physiology, Universiti Malaya, Kuala Lumpur, 50603, Malaysia
| | - Munavvar Abdul Sattar
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Gelugor, 11800, Pulau Pinang, Malaysia
| | - Mohammed H Abdulla
- Department of Physiology, University College Cork, Cork, T12 K8AF, Ireland
| | - Giribabu Nelli
- Department of Physiology, Universiti Malaya, Kuala Lumpur, 50603, Malaysia
| | - Nur Syahrina Rahim
- Faculty of Medicine & Health Science, Universiti Sains Islam Malaysia, Nilai, 71800, Malaysia
| | | | - Nor Azizan Abdullah
- Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Medicine, Universiti Malaya, Kuala Lumpur, 50603, Malaysia
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Hasan AS, Luo L, Baba S, Li TS. Estrogen is required for maintaining the quality of cardiac stem cells. PLoS One 2021; 16:e0245166. [PMID: 33481861 PMCID: PMC7822545 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0245166] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/26/2020] [Accepted: 12/22/2020] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Compared to the age-matched men, the incidence of cardiovascular diseases is lower in premenopausal but higher in postmenopausal women, suggesting the cardio-protective role of estrogen in females. Although cardiac stem cells (CSCs) express estrogen receptors, yet the effects of estrogen on CSCs remain unclear. In this study, we investigated the potential role of estrogen in maintaining the quality of CSCs by in vivo and in vitro experiments. For the in vivo study, estrogen deficiency was induced by ovariectomy in 6-weeks-old C57BL/6 female mice, and then randomly given 17β-estradiol (E2) replacements at a low dose (0.01 mg/60 days) and high dose (0.18 mg/60 days), or vehicle treatment. All mice were killed 2 months after treatments, and heart tissues were collected for ex vivo expansion of CSCs. Compared to age-matched healthy controls, estrogen deficiency slightly decreased the yield of CSCs with significantly lower telomerase activity and more DNA damage. Interestingly, E2 replacements at low and high doses significantly increased the yield of CSCs and reversed the quality impairment of CSCs following estrogen deficiency. For the in vitro study, twice-passaged CSCs from the hearts of adult healthy female mice were cultured with the supplement of 0.01, 0.1, and 1 μM E2 in the medium for 3 days. We found that E2 supplement increased c-kit expression, increased proliferative activity, improved telomerase activity, and reduced DNA damage of CSCs in a dose-dependent manner. Our data suggested the potential role of estrogen in maintaining the quality of CSCs, providing new insight into the cardio-protective effects of estrogen.
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Affiliation(s)
- Al Shaimaa Hasan
- Department of Stem Cell Biology, Atomic Bomb Disease Institute, Nagasaki University, Nagasaki, Japan
- Department of Medical Pharmacology, Qena Faculty of Medicine, South Valley University, Qena, Egypt
| | - Lan Luo
- Department of Stem Cell Biology, Atomic Bomb Disease Institute, Nagasaki University, Nagasaki, Japan
- School of Medical Technology, Xuzhou Medical University, Xuzhou City, Jiangsu Province, China
| | - Satoko Baba
- Department of Stem Cell Biology, Atomic Bomb Disease Institute, Nagasaki University, Nagasaki, Japan
| | - Tao-Sheng Li
- Department of Stem Cell Biology, Atomic Bomb Disease Institute, Nagasaki University, Nagasaki, Japan
- * E-mail:
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4
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Amput P, Palee S, Arunsak B, Pratchayasakul W, Thonusin C, Kerdphoo S, Jaiwongkam T, Chattipakorn SC, Chattipakorn N. PCSK9 inhibitor and atorvastatin reduce cardiac impairment in ovariectomized prediabetic rats via improved mitochondrial function and Ca 2+ regulation. J Cell Mol Med 2020; 24:9189-9203. [PMID: 32628813 PMCID: PMC7417720 DOI: 10.1111/jcmm.15556] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/01/2020] [Revised: 05/18/2020] [Accepted: 06/08/2020] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Post‐menopausal women have a higher risk of developing cardiometabolic dysfunction. Atorvastatin attenuates dyslipidaemia and cardiac dysfunction but it can have undesirable effects including increased risk of diabetes and myalgia. Currently, the proprotein convertase subtilisin/kexin type 9 (PCSK9) inhibitor efficiently reduces low‐density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL‐C) levels more effectively than atorvastatin. We have been suggested that PCSK9 inhibitor attenuated cardiometabolic impairment more effectively than atorvastatin in ovariectomized prediabetic rats. Female Wistar rats (n = 48) were fed a normal diet (ND) or high‐fat diet (HFD) for 12 weeks. Then, HFD rats were assigned to a sham‐operated (Sham) or ovariectomized (OVX) group. Six weeks after surgery, the OVX group was subdivided into 4 treatment groups: vehicle (HFOV), atorvastatin (HFOA) (40 mg/kg/day; s.c.), PCSK9 inhibitor (HFOP) (4 mg/kg/day; s.c.) and oestrogen (HFOE2) (50 µg/kg/day; s.c.) for an additional 3 weeks. Metabolic parameters, cardiac and mitochondrial function, and [Ca2+]i transients were evaluated. All HFD rats became obese‐insulin resistant. HFS rats had significantly impaired left ventricular (LV) function, cardiac mitochondrial function and [Ca2+]i transient dysregulation. Oestrogen deprivation (HFOV) aggravated all of these impairments. Our findings indicated that the atorvastatin, PCSK9 inhibitor and oestrogen shared similar efficacy in the attenuation in cardiometabolic impairment in ovariectomized prediabetic rats.
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Affiliation(s)
- Patchareeya Amput
- Cardiac Electrophysiology Research and Training Center, Faculty of Medicine, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, Thailand.,Cardiac Electrophysiology Unit, Department of Physiology, Faculty of Medicine, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, Thailand.,Center of Excellence in Cardiac Electrophysiology Research, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, Thailand.,Department of Physical Therapy, Faculty of Allied Health Science, University of Phayao, Phayao, Thailand
| | - Siripong Palee
- Cardiac Electrophysiology Research and Training Center, Faculty of Medicine, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, Thailand.,Center of Excellence in Cardiac Electrophysiology Research, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, Thailand
| | - Busarin Arunsak
- Cardiac Electrophysiology Research and Training Center, Faculty of Medicine, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, Thailand.,Cardiac Electrophysiology Unit, Department of Physiology, Faculty of Medicine, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, Thailand.,Center of Excellence in Cardiac Electrophysiology Research, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, Thailand
| | - Wasana Pratchayasakul
- Cardiac Electrophysiology Research and Training Center, Faculty of Medicine, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, Thailand.,Cardiac Electrophysiology Unit, Department of Physiology, Faculty of Medicine, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, Thailand.,Center of Excellence in Cardiac Electrophysiology Research, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, Thailand
| | - Chanisa Thonusin
- Cardiac Electrophysiology Research and Training Center, Faculty of Medicine, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, Thailand.,Cardiac Electrophysiology Unit, Department of Physiology, Faculty of Medicine, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, Thailand.,Center of Excellence in Cardiac Electrophysiology Research, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, Thailand
| | - Sasiwan Kerdphoo
- Cardiac Electrophysiology Research and Training Center, Faculty of Medicine, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, Thailand.,Center of Excellence in Cardiac Electrophysiology Research, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, Thailand
| | - Thidarat Jaiwongkam
- Cardiac Electrophysiology Research and Training Center, Faculty of Medicine, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, Thailand.,Center of Excellence in Cardiac Electrophysiology Research, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, Thailand
| | - Siriporn C Chattipakorn
- Cardiac Electrophysiology Research and Training Center, Faculty of Medicine, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, Thailand.,Center of Excellence in Cardiac Electrophysiology Research, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, Thailand
| | - Nipon Chattipakorn
- Cardiac Electrophysiology Research and Training Center, Faculty of Medicine, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, Thailand.,Cardiac Electrophysiology Unit, Department of Physiology, Faculty of Medicine, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, Thailand.,Center of Excellence in Cardiac Electrophysiology Research, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, Thailand
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Sharifi F, Reisi P, Malek M. Synaptic plasticity in hippocampal CA1 neurons and learning behavior in acute kidney injury, and estradiol replacement in ovariectomized rats. BMC Neurosci 2019; 20:52. [PMID: 31585527 PMCID: PMC6778372 DOI: 10.1186/s12868-019-0534-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/11/2019] [Accepted: 09/28/2019] [Indexed: 02/02/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Neurological complications may occur in patients with acute or chronic renal failure; however, in cases of acute renal failure, the signs and symptoms are usually more pronounced, and progressed rapidly. Oxidative stress and nitric oxide in the hippocampus, following kidney injury may be involved in cognitive impairment in patients with uremia. Although many women continue taking hormone therapy for menopausal symptom relief, but there are also some controversies about the efficacy of exogenous sex hormones, especially estrogen therapy alone, in postmenopausal women with kidney injury. Herein, to the best of our knowledge for the first time, spatial memory and synaptic plasticity at the CA1 synapse of a uremic ovariectomized rat model of menopause was characterized by estradiol replacement alone. Results While estradiol replacement in ovariectomized rats without uremia, promotes synaptic plasticity, it has an impairing effect on spatial memory through hippocampal oxidative stress under uremic conditions, with no change on synaptic plasticity. It seems that exogenous estradiol potentiated the deleterious effect of acute kidney injury (AKI) with increasing hippocampal oxidative stress. Conclusions Although, estrogen may have some positive effects on cognitive function in healthy subjects, but its efficacy in menopause subjects under uremic states such as renal transplantation, needs to be further investigated in terms of dosage and duration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fatemeh Sharifi
- Department of Physiology, School of Medicine, Isfahan University of Medical Sciences, Isfahan, Iran
| | - Parham Reisi
- Department of Physiology, School of Medicine, Isfahan University of Medical Sciences, Isfahan, Iran
| | - Maryam Malek
- Department of Physiology, School of Medicine, Isfahan University of Medical Sciences, Isfahan, Iran.
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Shi W, Han Y, Guan X, Rong J, Su W, Zha S, Tang Y, Du X, Liu G. Fluoxetine suppresses the immune responses of blood clams by reducing haemocyte viability, disturbing signal transduction and imposing physiological stress. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2019; 683:681-689. [PMID: 31150888 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.05.308] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/23/2019] [Revised: 05/16/2019] [Accepted: 05/20/2019] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
The antidepressant fluoxetine (FLX), a selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor, is widely prescribed for the treatment of depression and anxiety disorders. Nowadays, measurable quantities of FLX have been frequently detected in the aquatic ecosystems worldwide, which may pose a potential threat to aquatic organisms. Although the impacts of FLX exposure on immune responses are increasingly well documented in mammals, they remain poorly understood in aquatic invertebrates. Therefore, to gain a better understanding of the ecotoxicological effects of FLX, the impacts of waterborne FLX exposure on the immune responses of blood clam, Tegillarca granosa, were investigated in this study. Results obtained showed that both cellular and humoural immune responses in T. granosa were suppressed by exposure to waterborne FLX, as indicated by total counts of haemocytes (THC), phagocytic rate, and activities of superoxide dismutases (SOD) and catalase (CAT), suggesting that waterborne FLX renders blood clams more vulnerable to pathogen challenges. To ascertain the mechanisms explaining how waterborne FLX affects immune responses, haemocyte viabilities, intracellular Ca2+ levels, in vivo concentrations of neurotransmitters, physiological stress conditions (as indicated by in vivo concentrations of cortisol), and expressions of key regulatory genes from Ca2+ and neurotransmitter signal transduction, as well as immune-related signalling pathways, were examined after 10 days of FLX exposure by blood clams via 1, 10 and 100 μg/L waterborne FLX. The results obtained indicated that immune response suppression caused by waterborne FLX could be due to (i) inhibited haemocyte viabilities, which subsequently reduce the THC; (ii) altered intracellular Ca2+ and neurotransmitter concentrations, which lead to constrained phagocytosis; and (iii) aggravated physiological stress, which thereafter hampers immune-related NFκB signalling pathways.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wei Shi
- College of Animal Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, PR China
| | - Yu Han
- College of Animal Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, PR China
| | - Xiaofan Guan
- College of Animal Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, PR China
| | - Jiahuan Rong
- College of Animal Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, PR China
| | - Wenhao Su
- College of Animal Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, PR China
| | - Shanjie Zha
- College of Animal Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, PR China
| | - Yu Tang
- College of Animal Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, PR China
| | - Xueying Du
- College of Animal Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, PR China
| | - Guangxu Liu
- College of Animal Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, PR China.
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7
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Angiogenesis Changes in Ovariectomized Rats with Osteoporosis Treated with Estrogen Replacement Therapy. BIOMED RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2019; 2019:1283717. [PMID: 31355247 PMCID: PMC6637705 DOI: 10.1155/2019/1283717] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/09/2019] [Accepted: 06/10/2019] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
To investigate whether angiogenesis changes in early menopausal osteoporosis treated with estrogen replacement therapy, 120 rats were randomly divided into five groups: sham operation group (SHAM), ovariectomy group (OVX), and ovariectomy plus three different estrogen doses replacement therapy groups (OVX + E2). We detected the bone microarchitecture and measured the expression levels of estrogen receptor beta (ERβ), vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF), osteoprotegerin (OPG), and receptor activator of NF-κB ligand (RANKL). CD31 immunofluorescence and silica gel perfusion imaging were used to analyze the vascular distribution. We confirmed that the femur BMD of ovariectomized rats was significantly lower than SHAM group and OVX+E2 groups. After estrogen therapy, the local microvascular formation increased after estrogen treatment in a dose dependent manner. ERβ was downregulated and VEGF was upregulated, positively correlated with estrogen dosage. We successfully constructed an osteoporosis model of ovariectomized rats with estrogen replacement therapy. We also found angiogenesis changed in early menopausal osteoporosis treated with estrogen replacement therapy. We indicated that estrogen replacement therapy increased angiogenesis through VEGF upregulation. However, we observed that, at the highest doses of estrogen studied, increased angiogenesis was associated with a decrease in BMD, the underlying mechanisms of which remain unclear.
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8
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Poirier D, Roy J, Maltais R, Ayan D. Antisulfatase, Osteogenic, and Anticancer Activities of Steroid Sulfatase Inhibitor EO-33 in Mice. J Med Chem 2019; 62:5512-5521. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.jmedchem.9b00382] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Donald Poirier
- Laboratory of Medicinal Chemistry, Endocrinology and Nephrology Unit, CHU de Québec—Research Center, Québec, Québec G1V 4G2, Canada
- Department of Molecular Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, Université Laval, Québec, Québec G1V 0A6, Canada
| | - Jenny Roy
- Laboratory of Medicinal Chemistry, Endocrinology and Nephrology Unit, CHU de Québec—Research Center, Québec, Québec G1V 4G2, Canada
| | - René Maltais
- Laboratory of Medicinal Chemistry, Endocrinology and Nephrology Unit, CHU de Québec—Research Center, Québec, Québec G1V 4G2, Canada
| | - Diana Ayan
- Laboratory of Medicinal Chemistry, Endocrinology and Nephrology Unit, CHU de Québec—Research Center, Québec, Québec G1V 4G2, Canada
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Baltaci AK, Sunar F, Mogulkoc R, Toy H. The Effect of Zinc Deficiency and Supplementation on Elements in the Kidney Tissue of Ovariectomized Rats: Histopathologic Changes. INT J VITAM NUTR RES 2019; 87:131-138. [PMID: 30816794 DOI: 10.1024/0300-9831/a000396] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
The objective of the present study is to determine the effects of zinc deficiency in and zinc supplementation to ovariectomized rats on some elements in kidney tissue. The study included 40 Sprague-Dawley type adult female rats. The experimental animals were randomized into four groups with equal numbers as follows: Group 1: Control (10). Group 2: Ovariectomized control (10). Group 3: Ovariectomized + zinc supplemented (10). Group 4: Ovariectomized + zinc deficient (10). After the animals were decapitated at the end of the experiment, element levels were determined by Atomic Emission (ICP-AES) as mg/g/wet tissue for calcium, phosphate, zinc, aluminum, copper, iron, lithium, and manganese and μg/g/wet tissue for magnesium in the kidney tissue. Additionally, the tissue samples were subjected to a histopathologic assessment. An examination of the study results showed that ovariectomy significantly reduced calcium, phosphorus, and zinc levels, while zinc supplementation to the rats following ovariectomy restored the reduced element levels to normal (0.10 ± 0.03, 0.85 ± 0.16, 0.11 ± 0.03 vs 0.19 ± 0.06, 1.86 ± 0.18, 0.52 ± 0.05). Group 4, which was both ovariectomized and fed on a zinc-deficient diet, had significantly lower aluminum, copper, and lithium values. Calcification, inflammation, and sclerotic changes in group 4, the group which was fed on a zinc-deficient diet, were greater in comparison to other groups (p < 0.05). Results of the study suggest that ovariectomy + zinc deficiency leads to calcification, inflammation, and sclerotic changes in renal tissue and significantly reduces element levels, whereas zinc supplementation after ovariectomy restores the lowered element levels to normal.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Fusun Sunar
- 2 KTO Karatay University, Medical School, Department of Physiology, Konya, Turkey
| | - Rasim Mogulkoc
- 1 Selcuk University, Medical School, Department of Physiology, Konya, Turkey
| | - Hatice Toy
- 3 Necmettin Erbakan University Meram Medical School Departmant of Pathology, Konya, Turkey
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de Almeida SA, Claudio ERG, Mengal V, Brasil GA, Merlo E, Podratz PL, Graceli JB, Gouvea SA, de Abreu GR. Estrogen Therapy Worsens Cardiac Function and Remodeling and Reverses the Effects of Exercise Training After Myocardial Infarction in Ovariectomized Female Rats. Front Physiol 2018; 9:1242. [PMID: 30233413 PMCID: PMC6134041 DOI: 10.3389/fphys.2018.01242] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/05/2018] [Accepted: 08/16/2018] [Indexed: 01/24/2023] Open
Abstract
There is an increase in the incidence of cardiovascular events such as myocardial infarction (MI) after menopause. However, the use of estrogen therapy (E2) remains controversial. The aim of this study was to evaluate the effects of E2, alone and combined with exercise training (ET), on cardiac function and remodeling in ovariectomized (OVX) rats after MI. Wistar female rats underwent ovariectomy, followed by MI induction were separated into five groups: S; MI; MI+ET; MI+E2; and MI+ET+E2. Fifteen days after MI or sham surgery, treadmill ET and/or estrogen therapy [17-β estradiol-3-benzoate (E2), s.c. three times/week] were initiated and maintained for 8 weeks. After the treatment and/or training period, the animals underwent cardiac hemodynamic evaluation through catheterization of the left ventricle (LV); the LV systolic and diastolic pressures (LVSP and LVEDP, respectively), maximum LV contraction and relaxation derivatives (dP/dt+ and dP/dt−), and isovolumic relaxation time (Tau) were assessed. Moreover, histological analyses of the heart (collagen and hypertrophy), cardiac oxidative stress [advanced oxidation protein products (AOPPs)], pro- and antioxidant protein expression by Western blotting and antioxidant enzyme activity in the heart were evaluated. The MI reduced the LVSP, dP/dt+ and dP/dt− but increased the LVEDP and Tau. E2 did not prevent the MI-induced changes in cardiac function, even when combined with ET. An increase in the dP/dt+ was observed in the E2 group compared with the MI group. There were no changes in collagen deposition and myocyte hypertrophy caused by the treatments. The increases in AOPP, gp91-phox, and angiotensin II type 1 receptor expression induced by MI were not reduced by E2. There were no changes in the expression of catalase caused by MI or by the treatments, although, a reduction in superoxide dismutase (SOD) expression occurred in the groups subjected to E2 treatment. Whereas there were post-MI reductions in activities of SOD and catalase enzymes, only that of SOD was prevented by ET. Therefore, we conclude that E2 therapy does not prevent the MI-induced changes in cardiac function and worsens parameters related to cardiac remodeling. Moreover, E2 reverses the positive effects of ET when used in combination, in OVX infarcted female rats.
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Affiliation(s)
- Simone Alves de Almeida
- Laboratório de Regulação Neurohumoral da Circulação, Departamento de Ciências Fisiológicas, Centro de Ciências da Saúde, Universidade Federal do Espírito Santo, Vitória, Brazil
| | - Erick R G Claudio
- Laboratório de Regulação Neurohumoral da Circulação, Departamento de Ciências Fisiológicas, Centro de Ciências da Saúde, Universidade Federal do Espírito Santo, Vitória, Brazil
| | - Vinicius Mengal
- Laboratório de Regulação Neurohumoral da Circulação, Departamento de Ciências Fisiológicas, Centro de Ciências da Saúde, Universidade Federal do Espírito Santo, Vitória, Brazil
| | - Girlandia A Brasil
- Núcleo de Pesquisas em Ciências Farmacêuticas - Nupecfarma, Programa de Pós-graduação em Ciências Farmacêuticas, Universidade Vila Velha, Vila Velha, Brazil
| | - Eduardo Merlo
- Departamento de Morfologia, Centro de Ciências da Saúde, Universidade Federal do Espírito Santo, Vitória, Brazil
| | - Priscila L Podratz
- Departamento de Morfologia, Centro de Ciências da Saúde, Universidade Federal do Espírito Santo, Vitória, Brazil
| | - Jones B Graceli
- Departamento de Morfologia, Centro de Ciências da Saúde, Universidade Federal do Espírito Santo, Vitória, Brazil
| | - Sonia A Gouvea
- Laboratório de Regulação Neurohumoral da Circulação, Departamento de Ciências Fisiológicas, Centro de Ciências da Saúde, Universidade Federal do Espírito Santo, Vitória, Brazil
| | - Gláucia Rodrigues de Abreu
- Laboratório de Regulação Neurohumoral da Circulação, Departamento de Ciências Fisiológicas, Centro de Ciências da Saúde, Universidade Federal do Espírito Santo, Vitória, Brazil
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Gérard C, Gallez A, Dubois C, Drion P, Delahaut P, Quertemont E, Noël A, Pequeux C. Accurate Control of 17β-Estradiol Long-Term Release Increases Reliability and Reproducibility of Preclinical Animal Studies. J Mammary Gland Biol Neoplasia 2017; 22:1-11. [PMID: 27889857 PMCID: PMC5310554 DOI: 10.1007/s10911-016-9368-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/28/2016] [Accepted: 11/21/2016] [Indexed: 01/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Estrogens are the subject of intensive researches aiming to elucidate their mechanism of action on the various tissues they target and especially on mammary gland and breast cancer. The use of ready-to-use slow releasing devices to administer steroids, especially estrogens, to small experimental animals remains the method of choice in terms of animal well-being and of safety for both the researcher and the animal. In this study, we evaluated and compared, in vitro and in vivo, the release kinetic of estradiol (E2) over sixty days from two different slow-releasing systems: the matrix pellet (MP) and the reservoir implant (RI). We compared the impact of these systems in three E2-sensitive mouse models : mammary gland development, human MCF7 adenocarcinoma xenograft and mouse melanoma progression. The real amount of E2 that is released from both types of devices could differ from manufacturer specifications due to inadequate release for MP and initial burst effect for RI. Compared to MP, the interindividual variability was reduced with RI thanks to a superior control of the E2 release. Depending on the dose-dependent sensitivity of the physiological or pathological readout studied, this could lead to an improvement of the statistical power of in vivo experiments and thus to a reduction of the required animal number. Altogether, our data draw attention on the importance to adequately select the slow-releasing device that is the most appropriated to a specific experiment to better fulfill the 3Rs rule (Replacement, Reduction, Refinement) related to animal welfare and protection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Céline Gérard
- Laboratory of Tumor and Development Biology, GIGA-Cancer, University of Liege, CHU-B23, Hippocrate avenue 13, B-4000, Liège, Belgium
| | - Anne Gallez
- Laboratory of Tumor and Development Biology, GIGA-Cancer, University of Liege, CHU-B23, Hippocrate avenue 13, B-4000, Liège, Belgium
| | - Charline Dubois
- Laboratory of Tumor and Development Biology, GIGA-Cancer, University of Liege, CHU-B23, Hippocrate avenue 13, B-4000, Liège, Belgium
| | - Pierre Drion
- Experimental Surgery unit, GIGA & Credec, University of Liege, 4000, Liège, Belgium
| | | | - Etienne Quertemont
- Department of Psychology, Cognition and Behavior, University of Liege, 4000, Liège, Belgium
| | - Agnès Noël
- Laboratory of Tumor and Development Biology, GIGA-Cancer, University of Liege, CHU-B23, Hippocrate avenue 13, B-4000, Liège, Belgium
| | - Christel Pequeux
- Laboratory of Tumor and Development Biology, GIGA-Cancer, University of Liege, CHU-B23, Hippocrate avenue 13, B-4000, Liège, Belgium.
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Eshraghi-Jazi F, Talebi A, Mirsaeedi FS, Ahmadian S, Moslemi F, Nematbakhsh M. Gentamicin Induced Nephrotoxicity: The Role of Sex Hormones in Gonadectomized Male and Female Rats. SCIENTIFICA 2016; 2016:5025097. [PMID: 27213082 PMCID: PMC4861810 DOI: 10.1155/2016/5025097] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/31/2015] [Accepted: 03/27/2016] [Indexed: 05/10/2023]
Abstract
Background. Gentamicin (GM) induced nephrotoxicity may be sex hormones related. The effects of sex hormones on GM induced nephrotoxicity in gonadectomized rats were investigated. Methods. Ovariectomized rats received 0.25, 0.5, or 1 mg/kg/week of estradiol (ES) alone or accompanied with 10 mg/kg/week of progesterone (Pro) for two weeks followed by GM (100 mg/kg/day) for 9 days. Castrated rats were also treated with 10, 50, or 100 mg/kg/week of testosterone (TS) for two weeks and then received GM. In addition, a single castrated group received 0.25 mg/kg/week of ES plus GM. Results. GM increased the serum levels of blood urea nitrogen (BUN) and creatinine (Cr) and kidney tissue damage score (KTDS) (P < 0.05). TS had no effect on the serum levels of BUN and Cr and KTDS, while low dose of ES intensified these parameters in male (P < 0.05). ES (0.5 mg/kg) without Pro ameliorated KTDS in female (P < 0.05) while ES (1 mg/kg) with or without Pro exacerbated the BUN values and Cr values, KTDS, and body weight loss (P < 0.05). Conclusion. ES (0.5 mg/kg) without Pro ameliorated kidney damage induced by GM in female while neither TS nor ES had beneficial effect on nephrotoxicity induced by GM in male, although ES aggravated it.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fatemeh Eshraghi-Jazi
- Water and Electrolytes Research Center, Isfahan University of Medical Sciences, Isfahan 81745, Iran
| | - Ardeshir Talebi
- Water and Electrolytes Research Center, Isfahan University of Medical Sciences, Isfahan 81745, Iran
- Department of Clinical Pathology, Isfahan University of Medical Sciences, Isfahan 81745, Iran
| | - Fatemeh Sadat Mirsaeedi
- Water and Electrolytes Research Center, Isfahan University of Medical Sciences, Isfahan 81745, Iran
| | - Sarina Ahmadian
- Water and Electrolytes Research Center, Isfahan University of Medical Sciences, Isfahan 81745, Iran
| | - Fatemeh Moslemi
- Water and Electrolytes Research Center, Isfahan University of Medical Sciences, Isfahan 81745, Iran
| | - Mehdi Nematbakhsh
- Water and Electrolytes Research Center, Isfahan University of Medical Sciences, Isfahan 81745, Iran
- Department of Physiology, Isfahan University of Medical Sciences, Isfahan 81745, Iran
- Isfahan-MN Institute of Basic and Applied Sciences Research, Isfahan 81546, Iran
- *Mehdi Nematbakhsh:
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13
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Hussein AM, Saleh HA, H N M. Effect of sodium selenite and vitamin E on the renal cortex in rats: an ultrastructure study. Tissue Cell 2014; 46:170-7. [PMID: 24799186 DOI: 10.1016/j.tice.2014.03.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/05/2013] [Revised: 03/13/2014] [Accepted: 03/13/2014] [Indexed: 01/26/2023]
Abstract
This study examined the use of vitamin E to alleviate toxic effects of sodium selenite. Adult male albino rats (n=50) was divided into five groups. Group 1 was control, Groups 2 and 4 were treated with sodium selenite (2 mg/kg) for 2 and 4 weeks, respectively, Groups 3 and 5 were treated with sodium selenite (2 mg/kg) and vitamin E (100 mg/kg) for 2 and 4 weeks, respectively. Renal tissues were studied using anti-BCL2 and examined ultrastructurally. Positive Bax immunoreactivity was detected after 2 and more positive after 4 weeks and nearly all groups improved with co-administration of vitamin E. Ultrastructural study revealed lesions in Bowman's capsule and proximal convoluted tubules. The submicroscopic study revealed damage and necrosis of cortical structures after 2 and 4 weeks, respectively. After 4 weeks, cellular changes were seen, such as vacuolation and moderate degeneration of cells, widening of the urinary space scattered through the cortex with loss of cellular details, formation of apical buds, degeneration, and cellular rupture. Present findings disclosed an ameliorative effect of adding vitamin E to sodium selenite-induced changes in cortical tissues. Clinically, it is advised to add vitamin E to avoid selenium overdose hazards.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adel M Hussein
- Anatomy Department, Faculty of Medicine, King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia
| | - Hamid A Saleh
- Anatomy Department, Faculty of Medicine, King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia
| | - Mustafa H N
- Anatomy Department, Faculty of Medicine, King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia.
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14
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Sex hormones associated with subclinical kidney damage and atherosclerosis in South African men. J Hypertens 2012; 30:2387-94. [DOI: 10.1097/hjh.0b013e3283599bb5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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Atchison DK, Westrick E, Szandzik DL, Gordish KL, Beierwaltes WH. Parathyroid hormone-related protein stimulates plasma renin activity via its anorexic effects on sodium chloride intake. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab 2012; 303:E457-63. [PMID: 22649069 PMCID: PMC3423101 DOI: 10.1152/ajpendo.00020.2012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Parathyroid hormone-related protein (PTHrP) increases renin release from isolated perfused kidneys and may act as an autacoid regulator of renin secretion, but its effects on renin in vivo are unknown. In vivo, PTHrP causes hypercalcemia and anorexia, which may affect renin. We hypothesized that chronically elevated PTHrP would increase plasma renin activity (PRA) indirectly via its anorexic effects, reducing sodium chloride (NaCl) intake and causing NaCl restriction. We infused male Sprague-Dawley rats with the vehicle (control) or 125 μg PTHrP/day (PTHrP) via subcutaneous osmotic minipumps for 5 days. To replenish NaCl consumption, a third group of PTHrP-infused rats received 0.3% NaCl (PTHrP + NaCl) in their drinking water. PTHrP increased PRA from a median control value of 3.68 to 18.4 ng Ang I·ml(-1)·h(-1) (P < 0.05), whereas the median PTHrP + NaCl PRA value was normal (7.82 ng Ang I·ml(-1)·h(-1), P < 0.05 vs. PTHrP). Plasma Ca(2+) (median control: 10.2 mg/dl; PTHrP: 13.7 mg/dl; PTHrP + NaCl: 14.1 mg/dl; P < 0.05) and PTHrP (median control: 0.03 ng/ml; PTHrP: 0.12 ng/ml; PTHrP + NaCl: 0.15 ng/ml; P < 0.05) were elevated in PTHrP- and PTHrP + NaCl-treated rats. Body weights and caloric consumption were lower in PTHrP- and PTHrP + NaCl-treated rats. NaCl consumption was lower in PTHrP-treated rats (mean Na(+): 28.5 ± 4.1 mg/day; mean Cl(-): 47.8 mg/day) compared with controls (Na(+): 67.3 ± 2.7 mg/day; Cl(-): 112.8 ± 4.6 mg/day; P < 0.05). NaCl consumption was comparable with control in the PTHrP + NaCl group; 0.3% NaCl in the drinking water had no effect on PRA in normal rats. Thus, our data support the hypothesis that PTHrP increases PRA via its anorexic effects, reducing NaCl intake and causing NaCl restriction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Douglas K Atchison
- Hypertension and Vascular Research Division, Department of Internal Medicine, Henry Ford Hospital, Detroit, Michigan 48202, USA
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Wei Q, Shi F, He J, Xie C, Xu K, Zhang W, Sun S, Fedail J, Watanabe G, Taya K. Effects of exogenous 17β-estradiol on follicular development in the neonatal and immature mouse in vivo. Reprod Med Biol 2012; 11:135-141. [PMID: 29699119 DOI: 10.1007/s12522-012-0122-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/20/2012] [Accepted: 02/24/2012] [Indexed: 10/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Purpose The study was aimed to examine the effects of exogenous 17β-estradiol (E2) on oocyte nest breakdown and follicular growth in the ovary of neonatal and immature mice. Methods The effect of E2 on primordial follicle formation and differentiation were examined by treating neonatal mice with E2 in mineral oil at a dose of 10 mg/kg by sc injection each day from postnatal days 1 (PND1) to 10 (PND10). This investigation was conducted by using histological observation and immunohistochemical staining of proliferating cell nuclear antigen (PCNA); the numbers of follicles at each stage were examined to assess the follicular development. Results The results indicated that such dose of E2 inhibited oocyte nest breakdown from PND1 to PND10 significantly and enhanced the oocyte staining intensity of PCNA in the ovary by PND3, 5 and 10. PCNA staining was mainly detected on growing follicles (stages later than primary follicle). Our results also revealed that E2 decreased the size of the reproductive tract at PD10. Conclusions This dose of E2 treatment inhibits oocyte nest breakdown and primordial follicle assembly, and causes follicle losses after PND5. Effects of exogenous E2 on follicular development in the neonatal and immature mouse may through a PCNA-dependent pathway.
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Affiliation(s)
- Quanwei Wei
- College of Animal Science and Technology Nanjing Agricultural University Nanjing People's Republic of China
| | - Fangxiong Shi
- College of Animal Science and Technology Nanjing Agricultural University Nanjing People's Republic of China
| | - Jianwen He
- College of Animal Science and Technology Nanjing Agricultural University Nanjing People's Republic of China
| | - Chong Xie
- College of Animal Science and Technology Nanjing Agricultural University Nanjing People's Republic of China
| | - Ke Xu
- College of Animal Science and Technology Nanjing Agricultural University Nanjing People's Republic of China
| | - Wei Zhang
- College of Animal Science and Technology Nanjing Agricultural University Nanjing People's Republic of China
| | - Siyu Sun
- College of Animal Science and Technology Nanjing Agricultural University Nanjing People's Republic of China
| | - Jaafar Fedail
- College of Animal Science and Technology Nanjing Agricultural University Nanjing People's Republic of China
| | - Gen Watanabe
- Laboratory of Veterinary Physiology, Department of Veterinary Medicine, Faculty of Agriculture Tokyo University of Agriculture and Technology Tokyo Japan.,Department of Basic Veterinary Science, The United Graduate School of Veterinary Sciences Gifu University Gifu Japan
| | - Kazuyoshi Taya
- Laboratory of Veterinary Physiology, Department of Veterinary Medicine, Faculty of Agriculture Tokyo University of Agriculture and Technology Tokyo Japan.,Department of Basic Veterinary Science, The United Graduate School of Veterinary Sciences Gifu University Gifu Japan
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Kummer S, Jeruschke S, Wegerich LV, Peters A, Lehmann P, Seibt A, Mueller F, Koleganova N, Halbenz E, Schmitt CP, Bettendorf M, Mayatepek E, Gross-Weissmann ML, Oh J. Estrogen receptor alpha expression in podocytes mediates protection against apoptosis in-vitro and in-vivo. PLoS One 2011; 6:e27457. [PMID: 22096576 PMCID: PMC3214053 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0027457] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/13/2011] [Accepted: 10/17/2011] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
CONTEXT/OBJECTIVE Epidemiological studies have demonstrated that women have a significantly better prognosis in chronic renal diseases compared to men. This suggests critical influences of gender hormones on glomerular structure and function. We examined potential direct protective effects of estradiol on podocytes. METHODS Expression of estrogen receptor alpha (ERα) was examined in podocytes in vitro and in vivo. Receptor localization was shown using Western blot of separated nuclear and cytoplasmatic protein fractions. Podocytes were treated with Puromycin aminonucleoside (PAN, apoptosis induction), estradiol, or both in combination. Apoptotic cells were detected with Hoechst nuclear staining and Annexin-FITC flow cytometry. To visualize mitochondrial membrane potential depolarization as an indicator for apoptosis, cells were stained with tetramethyl rhodamine methylester (TMRM). Estradiol-induced phosphorylation of ERK1/2 and p38 MAPK was examined by Western blot. Glomeruli of ERα knock-out mice and wild-type controls were analysed by histomorphometry and immunohistochemistry. RESULTS ERα was consistently expressed in human and murine podocytes. Estradiol stimulated ERα protein expression, reduced PAN-induced apoptosis in vitro by 26.5±24.6% or 56.6±5.9% (flow cytometry or Hoechst-staining, respectively; both p<0.05), and restored PAN-induced mitochondrial membrane potential depolarization. Estradiol enhanced ERK1/2 phosphorylation. In ERα knockout mice, podocyte number was reduced compared to controls (female/male: 80/86 vs. 132/135 podocytes per glomerulus, p<0.05). Podocyte volume was enhanced in ERα knockout mice (female/male: 429/371 µm(3) vs. 264/223 µm(3) in controls, p<0.05). Tgfβ1 and collagen type IV expression were increased in knockout mice, indicating glomerular damage. CONCLUSIONS Podocytes express ERα, whose activation leads to a significant protection against experimentally induced apoptosis. Possible underlying mechanisms include stabilization of mitochondrial membrane potential and activation of MAPK signalling. Characteristic morphological changes indicating glomerulopathy in ERα knock-out mice support the in vivo relevance of the ERα for podocyte viability and function. Thus, our findings provide a novel model for the protective influence of female gender on chronic glomerular diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sebastian Kummer
- Department of General Pediatrics and Neonatology, University Children's Hospital Duesseldorf, Duesseldorf, Germany.
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Abstract
PURPOSE OF REVIEW Premenopausal women have a lower risk and incidence of hypertension and cardiovascular disease (CVD) compared to age-matched men and this sex advantage for women gradually disappears after menopause, suggesting that sexual hormones play a cardioprotective role in women. However, randomized prospective primary or secondary prevention trials failed to confirm that hormone replacement therapy (HRT) affords cardioprotection. This review highlights the factors that may contribute to this divergent outcome and could reveal why young or premenopausal women are protected from CVD and yet postmenopausal women do not benefit from HRT. RECENT FINDINGS In addition to the two classical estrogen receptors, ERα and ERβ, a third, G-protein-coupled estrogen receptor GPR30, has been identified. New intracellular signaling pathways and actions for the cardiovascular protective properties of estrogen have been proposed. In addition, recent Women's Health Initiative (WHI) studies restricted to younger postmenopausal women showed that initiation of HRT closer to menopause reduced the risk of CVD. Moreover, dosage, duration, the type of estrogen and route of administration all merit consideration when determining the outcome of HRT. SUMMARY HRT has become one of the most controversial topics related to women's health. Future studies are necessary if we are to understand the divergent published findings regarding HRT and develop new therapeutic strategies to improve the quality of life for women.
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