The use of beached bird surveys for marine plastic litter monitoring in Ireland

Birds as bioindicators of plastic pollution in terrestrial and freshwater environments: A 30-year review

Plastic pollution is a global concern that has grown ever more acute in recent years. Most research has focused on the impact of plastic pollution in marine environments. However, plastic is increasingly being detected in terrestrial and freshwater environments with key inland sources including landfills, where it is accessible to a wide range of organisms. Birds are effective bioindicators of pollutants for many reasons, including their high mobility and high intra- and interspecific variation in trophic levels. Freshwater and terrestrial bird species are under-represented in plastic pollution research compared to marine species. We reviewed 106 studies (spanning from 1994 onwards) that have detected plastics in bird species dwelling in freshwater and/or terrestrial habitats, identifying knowledge gaps. Seventy-two studies focused solely on macroplastics (fragments >5 mm), compared to 22 microplastic (fragments <5 mm) studies. A further 12 studies identified plastics as both microplastics and macroplastics. No study investigated nanoplastic (particles <100 nm) exposure. Research to date has geographical and species' biases while ignoring nanoplastic sequestration in free-living freshwater, terrestrial and marine bird species. Building on the baseline search presented here, we urge researchers to develop and validate standardised field sampling techniques and laboratory analytical protocols such as Raman spectroscopy to allow for the quantification and identification of micro- and nanoplastics in terrestrial and freshwater environments and the species therein. Future studies should consistently report the internalised and background concentrations, types, sizes and forms of plastics. This will enable a better understanding of the sources of plastic pollution and their routes of exposure to birds of terrestrial and freshwater environments, providing a more comprehensive insight into the potential impacts on birds.

Beached seabirds as plastic biomonitors in Brazil from the Beach Monitoring Project of the Santos Basin (PMP-BS)

Bioindicator species are useful to monitor wildlife exposure to plastic pollution, and responses to plastic leakage and policy interventions. Here we explore the biomonitoring potential of different seabird and shorebirds species across six years of monitoring in Brazil. Using the necropsy stranding database of the Beach Monitoring Project of the Santos Basin (PMP-BS), we evaluated i) the frequency of birds-plastic interactions in Brazil; ii) whether plastic interactions have changed through time and in different coastal regions; and iii) potential bioindicators for monitoring the exposure of seabirds to plastic in the nearshore South Atlantic Ocean. We found 37 species that had ingested plastic, including ten new records, found that the rates of tube-nosed seabirds increased through time, and suggested two potential species. We discuss the potential for biomonitoring marine pollution in the South Atlantic Ocean using PMP-BS, providing a scheme for a better plastic pollution monitoring in Brazil.

The challenges of opportunistic sampling when comparing prevalence of plastics in diving seabirds: A multi-species example from Norway

There is a need for baseline information about how much plastics are ingested by wildlife and potential negative consequences thereof. We analysed the frequency of occurrence (FO) of plastics >1 mm in the stomachs of five pursuit-diving seabird species collected opportunistically. Atlantic puffins (Fratercula arctica) found emaciated on beaches in SW Norway had the highest FO of plastics (58.8 %), followed by emaciated common guillemots (Uria aalge; 9.1 %) also found beached in either SW or SE Norway. No plastics were detected in razorbills (Alca torda), great cormorants (Phalacrocorax carbo), and European shags (Gulosus aristotelis) taken as bycatch in northern Norway. This is the first study to report on plastic ingestion of these five species in northern Europe, and it highlights both the usefulness and limitations of opportunistic sampling. Small sample sizes, as well as an unbalanced sample design, complicated the interpretation of the results.

Analysis of micro- and nanoplastics in wastewater treatment plants: key steps and environmental risk considerations

The analysis of micro- and nanoplastics (MNPs) in the environment is a critical objective due to their ubiquitous presence in natural habitats, as well as their occurrence in various food, beverage, and organism matrices. MNPs pose significant concerns due to their direct toxicological effects and their potential to serve as carriers for hazardous organic/inorganic contaminants and pathogens, thereby posing risks to both human health and ecosystem integrity. Understanding the fate of MNPs within wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) holds paramount importance, as these facilities can be significant sources of MNP emissions. Additionally, during wastewater purification processes, MNPs can accumulate contaminants and pathogens, potentially transferring them into receiving water bodies. Hence, establishing a robust analytical framework encompassing sampling, extraction, and instrumental analysis is indispensable for monitoring MNP pollution and assessing associated risks. This comprehensive review critically evaluates the strengths and limitations of commonly employed methods for studying MNPs in wastewater, sludge, and analogous environmental samples. Furthermore, this paper proposes potential solutions to address identified methodological shortcomings. Lastly, a dedicated section investigates the association of plastic particles with chemicals and pathogens, alongside the analytical techniques employed to study such interactions. The insights generated from this work can be valuable reference material for both the scientific research community and environmental monitoring and management authorities.

Microplastics in gastrointestinal tracts of gentoo penguin (Pygoscelis papua) chicks on King George Island, Antarctica

Microplastics (< 5 mm) have been found in marine ecosystems worldwide, even in Antarctic ecosystems. In this study, the stomach and upper intestines of 14 dead gentoo penguin (Pygoscelis papua) chicks were collected and screened for microplastics on King George Island, a gateway to Antarctic research and tourism. A total of 378 microplastics were identified by Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy, with 27.0 ± 25.3 microplastics per individual. The detected number of microplastics did not increase with the mass of penguin chicks, suggesting no permanent accumulation of microplastics. However, the concentration of microplastics was much higher (9.1 ± 10.8 microplastics per individual within the size range 100-5000 μm) than the previously reported concentration in the penguin feces, and a greater number of smaller microplastics were found. Marine debris surveys near the breeding colony found various plastic (79.3%) to be the most frequent type of beached debris, suggesting that local sources of marine plastic waste could have contributed to microplastic contamination of penguin chicks being fed by parents that forage in nearby seas. This finding confirms the presence of microplastics in an Antarctic ecosystem and suggests the need for stronger waste management in Antarctica and a standardized scheme of microplastic monitoring in this once-pristine ecosystem.

Gulls as potential sentinels for urban litter: combining nest and GPS-tracking information

The production of urban waste has increased in the past decades leading to its mishandling. The effects on public health, economy, and wildlife that waste mismanagement can have are forcing governments to increase their efforts in detecting and mitigating the presence of waste. Identifying and monitoring sentinel species to assess the presence of urban litter could be a cost-effective option. Thus, analyzing the nest composition of yellow-legged gulls from an urban population inhabiting a very high populated city (Barcelona, Spain), and combining this information with accurate GPS tracking data, provides a potential tool to monitor the presence of marine and terrestrial litter over time. The results revealed the highest presence of debris in the nests of a seabird ever recorded. All the nests examined contained anthropogenic waste, with plastic items present in all of them. Crossing the nest composition with GPS tracking movements confirmed that the waste to build the nests was collected in the urban area and not in other environments surrounding the city. Then, the nest waste composition may be a good indicator of waste mismanagement and advise the municipalities to improve waste management and recycling strategies for the different types of litter. Using gulls breeding in cities as sentinel species and, in particular, the study of their nest composition, may provide essential data to decision-making stakeholders to adopt a One Health approach and help improve not only the environment's health but also the health of those who live in it.

Magnetic resonance imaging for non-invasive measurement of plastic ingestion in marine wildlife

Monitoring plastic ingestion by marine wildlife is important for both characterizing the extent of plastic pollution in the environment and understanding its effect on species and ecosystems. Current methods to detect plastic in the digestive system of animals are slow and invasive, such that the number of animals that can be screened is limited. In this article, magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is investigated as a possible technology to perform rapid, non-invasive detection of plastic ingestion. Standard MRI methods were able to directly measure one type of plastic in a fulmar stomach and another type was able to be indirectly detected. In addition to MRI, other standard nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) measurements were made. Different types of plastic were tested, and distinctive NMR signal characteristics were found in common for each type, allowing them to be distinguished from one another. The NMR results indicate specialized MRI sequences could be used to directly image several types of plastic. Although current commercial MRI technology is not suitable for field use, existing single-sided MRI research systems could be adapted for use outside the laboratory and become an important tool for future monitoring of wild animals.

Plastics, prawns, and patterns: Microplastic loadings in Nephrops norvegicus and surrounding habitat in the North East Atlantic

The presence of microplastics (MPs), a contaminant of emerging concern, has attracted increasing attention in commercially important seafood species such as Nephrops norvegicus. This species lend themselves well as bioindicators of environmental contamination owing to their availability, spatial and depth distribution, interactions with seafloor sediment and position in the ecosystem and food chain. This study assesses the abundance of MPs in N. norvegicus and in benthic sediments across six functional units in the North East Atlantic. Assessment of the relationship between MP abundance in N. norvegicus, their biological parameters and their surrounding environment was examined. Despite the lack of statistical significance, MP abundances, size, shape, and polymer type recorded in N. norvegicus mirrored those found in the surrounding environment samples. The three main polymers identified in both organisms and sediment were polystyrene, polyamide (nylons), and polypropylene. The level of MP contamination in N. norvegicus could be related to local sources, with relatively low abundances recorded in this study for the North East Atlantic in comparison to other regional studies. Furthermore, larger organisms contained a lower abundance of MPs, demonstrating no accumulation of MPs in N. norvegicus. Based on the results of this study, data on MP ingestion could be used to study trends in the amount and composition of litter ingested by marine animals towards fulfilling requirements of descriptor 10 of the Marine Strategy Framework Directive.

Incidence of microplastic fiber ingestion by Common Terns (Sterna hirundo) and Roseate Terns (S. dougallii) breeding in the Northwestern Atlantic

Ingestion of microplastics has been documented across marine species, but exposure remains sparsely described in many seabird species. We assess microplastic (between 0.2 and 5.0 mm) ingestion in two Northwestern Atantic - breeding species for which exposure to microplastics is entirely or largely undescribed: Common Terns (Sterna hirundo) and Roseate Terns (S. dougallii). Common Tern microplastic load did not vary between life stages (p = 0.590); microplastic load did differ in Common Tern adults breeding at two of three colonies explored (p = 0.002), with no other regional differences observed. Roseate Terns ingested significantly more microplastics than Common Terns (p = 0.007). Our results show that microplastic ingestion by terns varies regionally and interspecifically, but not by life stage, trends potentially explained by dietary differences. We provide the first quantification of microplastic fiber ingestion by terns in the Northwestern Atlantic and identify trophic dynamics related to microplastic ingestion, representing an important step toward understanding the risk of the pollutant to terns across regions, as well as toward the use of terns as potential bioindicators of microplastics.

A new model for the terminal settling velocity of microplastics

Microplastic (MP) settling process is important for the transport of microplastic particles (MPs, <5 mm) in water bodies. However, for the control parameter of the drag coefficient (C_d), no generalized formula has been proposed for MPs of different shapes and materials. In this study, a total of 1343 MP settling data were collected from the literature. It was found that the drag law for perfect spheres cannot reasonably predict C_d for MPs with particle Reynolds number of 1-10³. A new formula for C_d was developed by introducing the dimensionless particle diameter (d_⁎) and two shape descriptors. The absolute error of the new formula is 15.2%, smaller than those (42.5-72.8%) of other existing formulas. Moreover, an explicit model was developed for MP settling velocity by correlating C_d, d_⁎, and shape descriptors, with lower absolute error (8.8%) than those (15.4-77.2%) of existing models.

Annual plastic ingestion and isotopic niche patterns of two sympatric gull species at Newfoundland, Canada

Ingestion of plastic pollution by pelagic seabirds is well-documented globally, but increasingly, researchers are investigating plastic ingestion in generalist predators and scavengers like gulls. We studied the gut contents of two sympatric gull species, American herring gulls (Larus smithsoniansus) and great black-backed gulls (L. marinus), collected year-round as part of "kill-to-scare" measures at the regional sanitary landfill in St. John's, Newfoundland and Labrador, Canada, to compare ingested anthropogenic debris, trophic position and diet breadth through the year. Although great black-backed gulls fed at a higher trophic level, frequency of occurrence of plastic ingestion was similar to American herring gulls, and varied little through the year. Diet breadth (isotopic niche size) was similar between species, but American herring gulls fed at a lower trophic level during winter, perhaps indicating a change in their reliance on anthropogenic food subsidies throughout their annual cycle.

The broader isotopic niche of Long-tailed Duck Clangula hyemalis implies a higher risk of ingesting plastic and non-plastic debris than for other diving seabirds

This study presents the first data relating to debris ingestion by diving seabirds wintering in the south-eastern Baltic Sea, sets baselines for further studies and presents the first global record of plastic ingestion in Long-tailed Duck (Clangula hyemalis). Three of the six studied seabird species, and 2.1% of all 524 examined individuals collected from fishery bycatch, had ingested marine debris. Frequency of ingestion of Long-tailed Duck, Common Murre (Uria aalge) and Red-throated Loon (Gavia stellata) were 5.0%, 4.5% and 3.0% debris respectively, dominated by plastic objects. Providing detailed information about the studied individuals and the debris, this initiates discussion about diving birds' sensitivity to marine debris - it may depend on the feeding preferences of the birds, expressed as isotopic niches in this paper.

Ingested plastics in northern fulmars (Fulmarus glacialis): A pathway for polybrominated diphenyl ether (PBDE) exposure?

Although it has been suggested that plastic may act as a vector for pollutants into the tissue of seabirds, the bioaccumulation of harmful contaminants, such as polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs), released from ingested plastics is poorly understood. Plastic ingestion by the procellariiform species northern fulmar (Fulmarus glacialis) is well documented. In this study, we measured PBDEs levels in liver tissue of northern fulmars without and with (0.13-0.43 g per individual) stomach plastics. PBDE concentrations in the plastic sampled from the same birds were also quantified. Birds were either found dead on beaches in southern Norway or incidentally caught in longline fisheries in northern Norway. PBDEs were detected in all birds but high concentrations were only found in liver samples from beached birds, peaking at 2900 ng/g lipid weight. We found that body condition was a significant factor explaining the elevated concentration levels in livers of beached birds. BDE209 was found in ingested plastic particles and liver tissue of birds with ingested plastics but was absent in the livers of birds without ingested plastics. This strongly suggests a plastic-derived transfer and accumulation of BDE209 to the tissue of fulmars, levels of which might prove useful as a general indicator of plastic ingestion in seabirds.

New tools to evaluate plastic ingestion by northern fulmars applied to North Sea monitoring data 2002-2018

Monitoring plastic in stomachs of beached northern fulmars for OSPAR's Ecological Quality Objectives (EcoQOs) has been incorporated into the European Marine Strategy Framework Directive (MSFD). This paper aims to provide the appropriate tools to interpret the monitoring results. MSFD requires a data-derived threshold value (Fulmar-TV) representing 'Good Environmental Status'. Such Fulmar-TV was calculated from near-pristine Canadian Arctic data where 10.06% of fulmars exceeded the level of 0.1 g ingested plastic. This Fulmar-TV is almost identical to the earlier OSPAR EcoQO, arbitrarily set at 10%. The MSFD approach was evaluated for 2661 North Sea fulmars in 2002-2018. Between 2014 and 2018, 51% of 393 fulmars exceeded 0.1 g plastic, significantly above the proposed Fulmar-TV. Linear regression of individual ingested plastic mass over the 2009-2018 period indicates a significant decrease. Over the longer term 2002-2018, logistic regression of annual EcoQ% shows a significant decline and predicts compliance with the Fulmar-TV by 2054.

Plastic debris ingestion by seabirds on the Korean Peninsula

Plastic ingestion studies in seabirds that analyse the frequency of occurrence and the characteristics of the plastics ingested by each species provide valuable information for marine environmental assessments by quantifying the impacts of marine debris on seabirds. We investigated the frequency of plastic ingestion from a sample of 387 individuals of 11 seabird species on the Korean Peninsula. We found evidence of plastic ingestion in red-breasted mergansers (Mergus serrator) (33.3%), Pacific loons (Gavia pacifica) (10.0%), Swinhoe's storm petrels (Hydrobates monorhis) (93.7%), black-tailed gulls (Larus crassirostris) (12.9%) and ancient murrelets (Synthliboramphus antiquus) (0.9%). In particular, it was observed that Swinhoe's storm petrels had the highest frequency of plastic ingestion, both in terms of the number of affected individuals, and the accumulated mass of plastic debris ingested. The majority of seabirds examined in our study had ingested microplastics, comprised predominantly of user plastics. This is the first report quantifying plastic ingestion in seabirds on the Korean Peninsula and in the broader area of the East Asian Seas.

Ingestion of anthropogenic materials by yellow-legged gulls (Larus michahellis) in natural, urban, and landfill sites along Portugal in relation to diet composition

Pollution is a global concern, increasing rapidly throughout marine and terrestrial ecosystems, and affecting many species. Urbanization enhances waste production, leading to the opening of landfills that constitute a spatially and temporally predictable food source for opportunistic species. Several species of gulls are known to exploit and breed in urban areas, taking advantage of accessible and diverse food resources. The exploitation of anthropogenic food subsidies at sea (e.g. fishery discards), urban sites, and landfills leads to debris ingestion by gulls with potential negative effects. Here we characterize anthropogenic debris ingested by yellow-legged gulls (Larus michahellis) along Portugal, by analysing the content of pellets collected in (1) natural and urban breeding locations, and in (2) urban and landfill resting sites, to assess seasonal patterns in the ingestion of anthropogenic debris. We also relate diet with the presence of anthropogenic debris. Debris materials were found in 28.8% of pellets from breeding locations (natural and urban) and in 89.7% of pellets from resting sites (urban and landfill). Gulls from the most urbanized breeding location exhibited higher levels of ingested materials during the entire breeding cycle, however, gulls from a natural breeding site also ingested high levels of debris during the pre-breeding season. At resting sites, small seasonal differences were detected in the number and mass of debris items ingested, which were both higher during spring and summer. Gulls that typically fed on pelagic fish had significantly less sheet and fragment plastics in their pellets. The presence of certain debris categories in gull pellets was positively related to the presence of some prey items, suggesting that gulls may accidentally ingest debris while foraging at multiple habitats. The quantity of anthropogenic materials ingested by gulls from urban locations and landfills indicates a need for improved waste management.

Occurrence of microplastics in pellets from the common kingfisher (Alcedo atthis) along the Ticino River, North Italy

Previous research has reported avian plastic ingestion in marine bird species. Yet, while research attention on plastic pollution is shifting from marine to freshwater ecosystems, very few information on plastic ingestion is available for freshwater birds. Here, we examined the presence of microplastic in regurgitated pellets of the common kingfisher (Alcedo atthis) collected along the Ticino River (North Italy). In total, 133 kingfisher's pellets were examined between March and October 2019 from 54 transects along the river. Plastic elements were detected and identified by visual inspection followed by μ-FTIR and SEM-EDS. Overall, we found 12 (micro)plastics from at least three different polymers in 7.5% of the pellets. This study provides the first report of plastic uptake of this bird species. It highlights the importance of spectroscopic techniques in plastic monitoring studies in order to avoid misidentification of items found. Documenting the presence of plastic ingestion by top carnivores such as fish-eating birds is necessary to understand the pervasiveness and impact of (micro)plastic pollution in food webs of freshwater ecosystems.

Ingestion of anthropogenic debris by migratory barnacle geese Branta leucopsis on a remote north-eastern Atlantic island

Although seabirds are frequently used as sentinel species for anthropogenic pollution, the extent and impacts of synthetic debris ingestion remains poorly studied for many water bird species. Here, we assess ingestion of synthetic particles (≥0.5 mm) by barnacle geese, Branta leucopsis, wintering on a remote island. Faecal samples were collected over a period of four wintering seasons. In total, 71 individual samples were assessed, with 79% of samples displaying at least one debris particle (maximum lengths 0.5-5 mm) from anthropogenic sources. The recovered synthetic debris were identified as micro-fibres (n = 166) and micro-fragments (n = 165). The number of synthetic particles detected per sample was generally low at 4.7 ± 0.9, 43 (mean ± SE, maximum): micro-fibres 2.3 ± 0.3, 10; micro-fragments 2.3 ± 0.8, 40. Particle numbers detected per gram of faecal sample differed amongst wintering seasons. Our results suggest that non-marine water birds can frequently ingest low quantities of synthetic particles in remote coastal habitats.

Toward an Improved Understanding of the Ingestion and Trophic Transfer of Microplastic Particles: Critical Review and Implications for Future Research

Microplastic particles have been observed in the environment and routinely detected in the stomachs and intestines of aquatic organisms over the last 50 yr. In the present review, information on the ingestion of plastic debris of varying sizes is collated, including data for >800 species representing approximately 87 000 individual organisms, for which plastic debris and microplastic particles have been observed in approximately 17 500, or 20%. The average reported number of microplastic particles/individual across all studies is estimated to be 4, with studies typically reporting averages ranging from 0 to 10 particles/individual. A general observation is that although strong evidence exists for the biological ingestion of microplastic particles, they do not bioaccumulate and do not appear to be subject to biomagnification as a result of trophic transfer through food webs, with >99% of observations from field-based studies reporting that microplastic particles are located within the gastrointestinal tract. Overall, there is substantial heterogeneity in how samples are collected, processed, analyzed, and reported, causing significant challenges in attempting to assess temporal and spatial trends or helping to inform a mechanistic understanding. Nevertheless, several studies suggest that the characteristics of microplastic particles ingested by organisms are generally representative of plastic debris in the vicinity where individuals are collected. Monitoring of spatial and temporal trends of ingested microplastic particles could thus potentially be useful in assessing mitigation efforts aimed at reducing the emission of plastic and microplastic particles to the environment. The development and application of standardized analytical methods are urgently needed to better understand spatial and temporal trends. Environ Toxicol Chem 2020;39:1119-1137. © 2020 The Authors. Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry published by Wiley Periodicals LLC on behalf of SETAC.

A critical viewpoint on current issues, limitations, and future research needs on micro- and nanoplastic studies: From the detection to the toxicological assessment

Increasing scientific attention on the presence of micro- and nanoplastics (MNPs) in the environments and their potential toxic effects on humans and the ecosystems is evident. Accordingly, the number of publications on this topic has increased substantially from only 5 in 2010 to more than 850 in 2019. Thus, this critical review aimed at providing state-of-the-art information on the existing methods for characterization and detection of MNPs in various matrices, as well as the reported toxic effects of MNPs in both in vivo and in vitro systems, anticipating challenges and providing future needs to improve the current scientific knowledge. We performed a systematic search of recent literature on available methodologies for the characterization/detection of MNPs in different samples, and the summary of such protocols is provided. Also, the existing procedures for in vitro and in vivo toxicity evaluation of MNPs were critically described. The results of our search revealed that quite a great deal of effort had been made to detect, characterize, and quantify the fate and effect of MNPs. However, we are still far from a complete understanding of behaviors of MNPs in the environments and biological systems. Thus, there is a need to advance the existing protocols to improve data accuracy. Besides, more studies that focus on uptake kinetics, accumulation, and biodistribution of MNPs in biological systems are required.

Quantitative overview of marine debris ingested by marine megafauna

This review quantifies plastic interaction in marine biota. Firstly, entanglement and ingestion records for all marine birds, mammals, turtles, fish, and invertebrate species, are summarized from 747 studies. Marine debris affected 914 species through entanglement and/or ingestion. Ingestion was recorded for 701 species, entanglement was documented for 354 species. Secondly, the frequency of occurrence of ingestion per species (Sp-%FO) was extracted for marine birds, mammals and turtles. Thirdly, for seabird species, average numbers of plastics ingested per individual were determined. Highest Sp-%FO and average number of plastics were found in tubenosed seabirds with 41% of all birds analysed having plastics, on average 9.9 particles per bird. The Sp-%FO and average number of ingested particles is lower for most other species. However, for certain species, ingestion rates of litter are reason for serious concern. Standardized methods are crucial for future studies, to generate datasets that allow higher level ecosystem analyses.

Microplastics in special protected areas for migratory birds in the Bay of Biscay

Plastic pollution is a major ecological catastrophe that endangers vulnerable species. Small plastic fragments and filaments enter the food web in the ocean threatening marine species health. Here microplastics between 0.5 and 5 mm were quantified from eight beaches of southwest Bay of Biscay (Spain) within Natura-2000 Special Protection Areas for birds. Sand samples were taken using a randomized quadrat-based protocol. Between 145 and 382 particles per kg of dry sand were found, which is relatively high in comparison with other European beaches. Microfibers were more abundant than microplastics. PERMANOVA revealed a significant effect of the beach location (inside versus outside the estuary). Open beaches contained a higher microplastic density than sheltered ones suggesting that many beached microplastics come from the ocean. Birds are at risk in the studied protected spaces as revealed from high concentrations of fibres in depositions of European shag and gulls.

Incidence of plastic ingestion in seabirds from the Bay of Biscay (southwestern Europe)

Seabirds have been widely used to monitor marine debris by the analysis of plastic ingestion. With the aim of obtaining the first data on ingestion of plastics by different seabird species in the Bay of Biscay and evaluating their suitability as biomonitors of plastic pollution in this area, a total of 159 seabirds of fifteen species were analyzed. Plastics were found in 26 birds (16% of the individuals) of nine species (60% of the species). Frequency of occurrence of plastics varied between 0% (Razorbill) and 100% (species of the family Procellariidae). Considering several criteria to assess their suitability as biomonitors of plastic pollution (frequency of occurrence of plastic ingestion, species abundances and stranding occurrence in the Bay of Biscay), the Common Guillemot and the Atlantic Puffin seem the most promising candidates. This study provides the first data on plastic ingestion in seabirds of the Bay of Biscay.

Microplastics biomonitoring in Australian urban wetlands using a common noxious fish (Gambusia holbrooki)

Biomonitoring microplastics in freshwater ecosystems has been insufficient in comparison with its practice in marine environments. It is an important first step to understand microplastic uptake in organisms when assessing risk in natural freshwater habitats. We conducted microplastic biomonitoring within the Greater Melbourne Area; where the microplastic baseline pollution in freshwater organisms was largely unknown. A common noxious fish species, Gambusia holbrooki, was targeted. Individuals (n = 180) from nine wetlands were analyzed. Uptake pathway, size, weight and gender were examined in relation to microplastic uptake in the body (presumed uptake via gut) and head (presumed uptake via gills). On average, 19.4% of fish had microplastics present in their bodies with an abundance of 0.6 items per individual (items/ind) and 7.2% of fish had microplastics in their heads with an abundance of 0.1 items/ind. Polyester was the dominant plastic type and fibers were the most common shape. The amount of microplastics in Gambusia holbrooki in current study is relatively low in a global comparison. The bodies of fish contained more microplastics on average than heads, and the size of microplastics detected in heads were smaller than those found in bodies. Microplastic uptake was directly proportional to size and weight. Furthermore, female individuals showed a tendency to ingest more microplastics than males. Laboratory experiments under controlled conditions are suggested to further explore such relationships. Our findings are important to understanding the potential ecological risks posed by microplastics to organisms in freshwater environments and provide suitable methodologies to conduct biomonitoring in future investigations.

Microplastics in the marine environment: Current trends in environmental pollution and mechanisms of toxicological profile

The global plastics production has increased from 1.5 million tons in the 1950s to 335 million tons in 2016, with plastics discharged into virtually all components of the environment. Plastics rarely biodegrade but through different processes they fragment into microplastics and nanoplastics, which have been reported as ubiquitous pollutants in all marine environments worldwide. This study is a review of trend in marine plastic pollution with focus on the current toxicological consequences. Microplastics are capable of absorbing organic contaminants, metals and pathogens from the environment into organisms. This exacerbates its toxicological profile as they interact to induced greater toxic effects. Early studies focused on the accumulation of plastics in the marine environment, entanglement of and ingestions by marine vertebrates, with seabirds used as bioindicators. Entanglement in plastic debris increases asphyxiation through drowning, restrict feeding but increases starvation, skin abrasions and skeletal injuries. Plastic ingestion causes blockage of the guts which may cause injury of the gut lining, morbidity and mortality. Small sizes of the microplastics enhance their translocation across the gastro-intestinal membranes via endocytosis-like mechanisms and distribution into tissues and organs. While in biological systems, microplastics increase dysregulation of gene expression required for the control of oxidative stress and activating the expression of nuclear factor E2-related factor (Nrf) signaling pathway in marine vertebrates and invertebrates. These alterations are responsible for microplastics induction of oxidative stress, immunological responses, genomic instability, disruption of endocrine system, neurotoxicity, reproductive abnormities, embryotoxicity and trans-generational toxicity. It is possible that the toxicological effects of microplastics will continue beyond 2020 the timeline for its ending by world environmental groups. Considering that most countries in African and Asia (major contributors of global plastic pollutions) are yet to come to terms with the enormity of microplastic pollution. Hence, majority of countries from these regions are yet to reduce, re-use or re-circle plastic materials to enhance its abatement.

Ecological drivers of marine debris ingestion in Procellariiform Seabirds

Procellariiform seabirds are both the most threatened bird group globally, and the group with the highest incidence of marine debris ingestion. We examined the incidence and ecological factors associated with marine debris ingestion in Procellariiformes by examining seabirds collected at a global seabird hotspot, the Australasian - Southern Ocean boundary. We examined marine debris ingestion trends in 1734 individuals of 51 Procellariform species, finding significant variation in the incidence of marine debris abundance among species. Variation in the incidence of marine debris ingestion between species was influenced by the taxonomy, foraging ecology, diet, and foraging range overlaps with oceanic regions polluted with marine debris. Among the ecological drivers of marine debris ingestion variability in Procellariiformes, we demonstrate that the combination of taxonomy, foraging method, diet, and exposure to marine debris are the most important determinants of incidence of ingestion. We use these results to develop a global forecast for Procellariiform taxa at the risk of highest incidence of marine debris ingestion. We find seabirds that forage at the surface; especially by surface seizing, diving and filtering, those with a crustacean dominant diet, and those that forage in or near marine debris hotspots are at highest risk of debris ingestion. We predict that family with the highest risk are the storm petrels (Hydrobatidae and Oceanitidae). We demonstrate that the greater the exposure of high-risk groups to marine debris while foraging, the greater the incidence and number of marine debris items will be ingested.

Interactions between anthropogenic litter and birds: A global review with a 'black-list' of species

The interaction of anthropogenic litter (by incorporation litter in nests, ingestion, and entanglement) with birds was systematically reviewed using Google Scholar database. A 'black-list' of 258 species was compiled. Among them 206 (79.8%) were seabirds. Four seabird orders (Gaviiformes, Phaetontiformes, Procellariformes, Sphenisciformes) showed the highest percentage of interacting species. At family level, >70% of species of Gaviidae, Diomedeidae, Sulidae, Stercoraridae and Alcidae were involved in interactions with litter. We observed (i) a significant correlation between Scholar recurrences and species citations about anthropogenic litter only when considering seabirds; (ii) a low number of references before 1981 with a bimodal pattern showing a first peak in 1986-90 and a progressively increasing trend in the 2000s. Regarding the type of interaction, there was a significantly higher percentage of species involved in ingestion when compared to the percentage involved in entanglement. We suggest the use of consolidated standardized litter nomenclature and characterization and the adoption of a logical causal chain helping researchers in defining suitable frameworks.

Plastic ingestion in aquatic birds in Portugal

In modern society, plastic items have become indispensable. The rapid growth of plastic production has led to an increase in the concentration of plastic waste in the environment and, consequently, wildlife has been severely affected. As wide-ranging foragers and predators, aquatic birds are ideal sentinels for monitoring changes in their environment. Plastic found in stomach contents of stranded aquatic birds collected throughout Portugal was examined. Out of the 288 birds processed, 12.9% ingested plastics. Six of the 16 species assessed showed evidence of plastic ingestion. The Lesser Black-backed Gull (18.7%) had the highest incidence while, among those that did ingest plastics, the Northern Gannet (4.8%) had the lowest. User plastics were the most common type of plastic ingested, while microplastics and off/white-clear were the most common size and colour respectively of plastics found. This study sets a first multispecies baseline for incidence of plastic ingestion by aquatic birds in Portugal.

The use of European shag pellets as indicators of microplastic fibers in the marine environment

Microplastic particles are abundant marine pollutants that are ingested by many seabirds. Some seabirds regurgitate non-digestible materials in the form of pellets and their analysis may be useful to study the abundance of plastic debris at the local scale. Here, we aimed to provide baseline data for the presence of microplastics in pellets regurgitated by European shags (Phalacrocorax aristotelis) (n = 41) in the Iberia peninsula (NW Spain). We found microplastic fibers in 63% of pellets, suggesting that this type of plastic pollution is prevalent in the study area. According to Fourier Transform Infrared spectrometry, nylon fibers were the most abundant, followed by polyester. We also found that the presence of microplastics was higher in pellets containing remains of benthic fishes. Our results suggest that shag pellets may be useful to monitor microplastic pollution in coastal waters.

Seabird plastic ingestion differs among collection methods: Examples from the short-tailed shearwater

Despite the increase of literature on seabird plastic ingestion in recent years, few studies have assessed how plastic loads vary according to different sampling methods. Most studies use necropsies of seabirds with a natural cause of death, e.g. beached or predated, to determine plastic loads and monitor marine debris. Sampling naturally dead seabirds may be biased as they have perished because of their intrinsic factors, e.g. poor body condition, high parasite loads, sickness or predation, affecting estimates of plastic loads. However, seabirds killed accidentally may be more representative of the population. Here, we used the short-tailed shearwater Ardenna tenuirostris to test different sampling methods: naturally beached fledglings and accidentally road-killed fledglings after being attracted and grounded by artificial lights. We compared plastic load, body condition, and feeding strategies (through using feathers' δ¹³C and δ¹⁵N isotope niche) between beached and road-killed fledglings. Beached birds showed higher plastic loads, poorer body condition and reduced isotopic variability, suggesting that this group is not a representative subsample of the whole cohort of the fledgling population. Our results might have implications for long-term monitoring programs of seabird plastic ingestion. Monitoring plastic debris through beached birds could overestimate plastic ingestion by the entire population. We encourage the establishment of refined monitoring programs using fledglings grounded by light pollution if available. These samples focus on known cohorts from the same population. The fledgling plastic loads are transferred from parents during parental feeding, accumulating during the chick-rearing period. Thus, these fledglings provide a higher and valuable temporal resolution, which is more useful and informative than unknown life history of beached birds.

Perspectives on using marine species as bioindicators of plastic pollution

The ever-increasing level of marine pollution due to plastic debris is a globally recognized threat that needs effective actions of control and mitigation. Using marine organisms as bioindicators of plastic pollution can provide crucial information that would better integrate the spatial and temporal presence of plastic debris in the sea. Given their long and frequent migrations, numerous marine species that ingest plastics can provide information on the presence of plastic debris but only on large spatial and temporal scales, thus making it difficult to identify quantitative correlations of ingested plastics within well-defined spatio-temporal patterns. Given the complex dynamics of plastics in the sea, the biomonitoring of marine plastic debris should rely on the combination of several bioindicator species with different characteristics that complement each other. Other critical aspects include the standardization of sampling protocols, analytical detection methods and metrics to evaluate the effects of ingested plastics in marine species.

Initial Inventory of Plastics Imports in Nigeria as a Basis for More Sustainable Management Policies

BACKGROUND

Plastic is a waste stream with recycling and recovery potential. However, the recycling rates for plastic in African countries are low. Furthermore, use and production of virgin plastics are increasing. Therefore, a high proportion of plastic waste is being disposed of in landfills and dumpsites. Plastic serves as fuel for open burning at landfills/dumpsites with associated releases and constitutes a large fraction of marine litter, making it a major and growing global pollution concern.

OBJECTIVES

This study aims to develop an initial inventory of plastics in Nigeria towards the development of an effective plastics management frame.

METHODS

A search was conducted of the recent literature and the United Nations (UN) Comtrade database using harmonized system (HS) codes for import data of various polymer categories and major product categories containing plastic. Algebraic expressions were developed for calculation of the share of plastic in these products.

RESULTS

Approximately 14,200,000 tons of plastics in primary form were imported into Nigeria between 1996-2014. Approximately 3,420,000 tons total plastic were imported in the form of products and approximately 5,545,700 tons were imported as product components. Approximately 194,000 tons of plastic toys were imported over a six-year period.

DISCUSSION

The total amount of plastics imported in primary form and as products equals 17,620,000 tons. The total volume of imported plastic, newly produced plastic and plastic components going into the technosphere was 23,400,000 tons. The huge amount of plastic and other polymers entering the technosphere in Nigeria has important implications for marine litter, pollution, waste management and resource recovery.

CONCLUSIONS

A huge volume of plastics has entered the Nigerian technosphere, with less than 12% of the resulting waste entering the recycling stream. There is a need for sustainable management of this crucial waste and resource category. Potential mitigating strategies include waste plastic reuse, recycling, waste conversion to energy, and appropriate plastic control policy frameworks.

COMPETING INTERESTS

The authors declare no competing financial interests.

Collected marine litter - A growing waste challenge

Marine litter, in particular plastic debris, poses a serious threat to marine life, human health and the economy. In order to reduce its impact, marine litter collections such as beach clean-ups are frequently conducted. This paper presents a systematic review of temporal developments, geographical distribution, quantities and waste treatment pathways of collected marine litter. Results from over 130 studies and projects highlight the worldwide increase in collection efforts. Many of these are in wealthy countries that do not primarily contribute to the problem. Over 250 thousand tonnes, have already been removed, but there is little or no information available regarding how this waste is treated or used post collection. This paper highlights the need for a whole-system quantitative assessment for the collection and waste treatment of marine litter, and identifies the challenges associated with utilising this waste in the future.

Plastic ingestion in aquatic-associated bird species in southern Portugal

Excessive use of plastics in daily life and the inappropriate disposal of plastic products are severely affecting wildlife species in both coastal and aquatic environments. Birds are top-predators, exposed to all threats affecting their environments, making them ideal sentinel organisms for monitoring ecosystems change. We set a baseline assessment of the prevalence of marine plastic litter affecting multi-species populations of aquatic birds in southern Portugal. By examining 160 stomach contents from 8 species of aquatic birds, we show that 22.5% were affected by plastic debris. Plastic was found in Ciconia ciconia, Larus fuscus and L. michahellis. Ciconia ciconia ingested the highest amount (number of items and total mass) of plastic debris. Polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS, silicones) was the most abundant polymer and was recorded only in C. ciconia. Plastic ingestion baseline data are of crucial importance to evaluate changes through time and among regions and to define management and conservation strategies.

Seabirds and marine plastic debris in the northeastern Atlantic: A synthesis and recommendations for monitoring and research

Marine plastic pollution is an increasing, and global, environmental issue. Numerous marine species are affected by plastic debris through entanglement, nest incorporation, and ingestion, which can lead to lethal and sub-lethal impacts. However, in the northeastern Atlantic Ocean, an area of international importance for seabirds, there has been little effort to date to assess information from studies of wildlife and plastic to better understand the spatiotemporal variation of how marine plastic affects different seabird species. To improve our understanding of seabirds and marine plastic in this region, we completed a synthesis of the published and grey literature to obtain information on all known documented cases of plastic ingestion and nest incorporation by this group. We found that of 69 seabird species that commonly occur in the northeastern Atlantic, 25 had evidence of ingesting plastic. However, data on plastic ingestion was available for only 49% of all species, with 74% of investigated species recorded ingesting plastic. We found only three published studies on nest incorporation, for the Northern Gannet (Morus bassanus) and Black-legged Kittiwake (Rissa tridactyla). For many species, sample sizes were small or not reported, and only 39% of studies were from the 21st century, whilst information from multiple countries and years was only available for 11 species. This indicates that we actually know very little about the current prevalence of plastic ingestion and nest incorporation for many species, several of them globally threatened. Furthermore, in the majority of studies, the metrics reported were inadequate to carry out robust comparisons among locations and species or perform meta-analyses. We recommend multi-jurisdictional collaboration to obtain a more comprehensive and current understanding of how marine plastic is affecting seabirds in the northeastern Atlantic Ocean.

Opportunistic sampling to quantify plastics in the diet of unfledged Black Legged Kittiwakes (Rissa tridactyla), Northern Fulmars (Fulmarus glacialis) and Great Cormorants (Phalacrocorax carbo)

Seabirds can interact with marine litter, mainly by entanglement or ingestion. The ingestion of plastics can lead to starvation or physical damage to the digestive tract. For chicks, it could additionally lead to reduced growth, affecting survival and fledging. This study quantified the ingestion of plastics by seabird chicks via an opportunistic sampling strategy. When ringing is carried out at colonies, birds may spontaneously regurgitate their stomach contents due to the stress or as a defence mechanism. Regurgitates were collected from nestlings of three different species: Black-legged Kittiwake (Rissa tridactyla, n=38), Northern Fulmar (Fulmarus glacialis, n=14) and Great Cormorant (Phalacrocorax carbo, n=28). Plastic was present in all species, with the highest frequency of occurrence (FO) in Northern Fulmar chicks (28.6%), followed by Black-legged Kittiwakes (7.9%) and Great Cormorants (7.1%). The observed load of plastics on chicks, which have not yet left the nest, highlights the pervasive nature of plastic pollution.

Presence of plastic litter in pellets from Great Cormorant (Phalacrocorax carbo) in Ireland

Plastic pollution has been the subject of much research in the last decade. Seabirds can mistake plastic fragments for prey, which can perforate or block the digestive tract and cause ulcers. Most commonly, seabirds accumulate this indigestible matter in their stomachs, obtaining no nutrition and may die from starvation. Certain species of seabirds however, have the ability of regurgitating indigestible matter in the form of pellets. This study aimed to investigate the ingestion of plastics by live seabirds through the examination of regurgitated pellets (n=92) from a Great Cormorant (Phalacrocorax carbo) breeding colony and a winter roost in Ireland. Plastic prevalence was consistently 3.2% at both sites. The presence of plastic litter highlights the fact that all species of seabird are susceptible to interact with marine litter regardless of feeding habits, although at different rates. More research is needed to understand the driving factors involved in plastic ingestion among different species.