Breakthrough infections after COVID-19 vaccination: Insights, perspectives and challenges

Application and significance of SIRVB model in analyzing COVID-19 dynamics

In the summer of 2024, COVID-19 positive cases spiked in many countries, but it is no longer a deadly pandemic thanks to global herd immunity to the SARS-CoV-2 viruses. In our physical chemistry lab in spring 2024, students practice kinetic models, SIR (Susceptible, Infected, and Recovered) and SIRV (Susceptible, Infected, Recovered, Vaccinated) using COVID-19 positive cases and vaccination data from World Health Organization (WHO). In this report, we further introduce virus breakthrough to the existing model updating it the SIRVB (Susceptible, Infectious, Recovered, Vaccinated, Breakthrough) model. We believe this is the simplest model possible to explain the COVID-19 kinetics/dynamics in all countries in the past four years. Parameters obtained from such practice correlate with many indices of different countries. These models and parameters have significant value to researchers and policymakers in predicting the stages of future outbreaks of infectious diseases.

Cracking the code of a correlate of protection against SARS-CoV-2 breakthrough infection in cancer patients

The level of protection against SARS-CoV-2 breakthrough infections conferred by the presence of anti-S1 SARS-CoV-2 antibodies (IgGs) in cancer patients is still understudied. This work examines the existence of an anti-S1 immunoglobulin G (IgG) -based correlate of protection (CoP) established by prospectively collected observational data about breakthrough infections with different SARS-CoV-2 variants in a large cohort study with vaccinated cancer patients. 760 cancer patients were longitudinally followed-up, starting before first vaccination until six months after second booster. Anti-S1 SARS-CoV-2 IgGs were quantified in serum samples (N = 2958) and breakthrough infections were monitored using questionnaires, routine COVID-19 testing and medical chart review. A Generalized Estimating Equations approach was used to model the binary infection status as endpoint in relation to anti-S1 IgG titers. It is observed that higher anti-S1 IgG titers correspond to a lower probability of breakthrough infection. For the early pandemic phase, a protective anti-S1 IgG titer above 20.42 BAU/mL was observed. However, with the emergence of the Omicron variant, higher anti-S1 IgG titers are required to be protective, but no clear CoP could be identified.

Long-term assessment of anti-SARS-CoV-2 antibody levels post-pandemic: Tracking the dynamics after two, three, and four COVID-19 vaccine doses

BACKGROUND

Given the limited available data about to the number of vaccine doses administered over an extended time in Iran, the immune status of vaccinated individuals and any potential disparities in this regard among those who received different numbers of vaccine doses remain unknown. Therefore, this study aimed to assess humoral immunity of individuals who received different doses of the COVID-19 vaccines in Iran.

METHODS

This study was conducted from February, 2022 to December 2023 including 605 vaccinated subjects. The durability of anti-spike, anti-nucleocapsid (NCP), neutralizing antibody, and interferon-γ (IFN-γ) was evaluated at least 6 months after the last vaccination, as well as 60 and 120 days after it, in individuals who received two or three doses of the COVID-19 vaccine. Furthermore, the evaluation of humoral and cellular response was performed before the fourth dose (second booster) as well as 21 and 60 days thereafter.

RESULTS

The 3-dose group showed significantly higher levels of anti-spike, neutralizing antibodies, and IFN-γ compared to the 2-dose group. Both the 2-dose and 3-dose groups experienced a slight decrease in the dynamic of SARS-CoV-2 Abs, though the associated levels remained within a positive range. After receiving the fourth dose of PastoCovac, most participants had significantly high levels of anti-spike, neutralizing antibodies, and IFN-γ, regardless of the type of three-dose regimen they had previously received. The average antibody titer decreased after 60 days from the fourth dose, but remained relatively stable during the follow-up period.

CONCLUSION

This study found that the level of anti-SARS-CoV-2 antibodies and IFN-γ, as well as their durability, were still within a positive range in 2-dose and 3-dose vaccinated groups over the long-term follow-up. Furthermore, PastoCovac vaccine enhanced humoral and cellular immune responses and could be recommended as a booster dose for individuals previously vaccinated with any previously administered COVID-19 vaccine.

How well do different COVID-19 vaccines protect against different viral variants? A systematic review and meta-analysis

While the efficacy of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) vaccines has been evaluated in numerous trials, comprehensive evidence on how protection by different vaccines has varied over time remains limited. We aimed to compare protective effects of different vaccines against different viral variants. To achieve this, we searched Medline, Cochrane Library and Embase for randomized controlled trials assessing the efficacy of COVID-19 vaccines. Forest plots using Mantel-Haenszel and random-effects models were generated showing risk ratios (RRs) and 95% CIs by vaccines and variants. We included 36 studies with 90 variant-specific primary outcomes. We found a RR of 0.26 (95% CI 0.21 to 0.31) against all variants overall, with the highest protective effects against the wild-type (RR 0.13; 95% CI 0.10 to 0.18), followed by Alpha (RR 0.26; 95% CI 0.18 to 0.36), Gamma (RR 0.34; 95% CI 0.21 to 0.55), Delta (RR 0.39; 95% CI 0.28 to 0.56) and Beta (RR 0.49; 95% CI 0.40 to 0.62) variants. Nucleic acid vaccines showed the highest protection levels against all variants (RR 0.11; 95% CI 0.08 to 0.15), followed by protein subunit, inactivated virus and viral vector. In conclusion, we found high but heterogenous levels of protection for most COVID-19 vaccines, with decreasing protective effects for vaccines based on traditional technologies as SARS-CoV-2 variants emerged over time. Novel nucleic acid-based vaccines offered substantially higher and more consistent protection.

The Kidney in Obesity: Current Evidence, Perspectives and Controversies

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

As obesity and chronic kidney disease (CKD) remain a public health issue, we aim to elaborate on their complex relationship regarding pathogenetic mechanisms and therapeutic potential as well. The purpose of this review is to enhance our understanding of the interplay between obesity and CKD in order to timely diagnose and treat obesity-related CKD.

RECENT FINDINGS

Obesity and CKD pose significant intertwined challenges to global health, affecting a substantial portion of the population worldwide. Obesity is recognized as an independent risk factor, intricately contributing to CKD pathogenesis through mechanisms such as lipotoxicity, chronic inflammation, and insulin resistance. Recent evidence highlights additional factors including hemodynamic changes and intestinal dysbiosis that exacerbate kidney dysfunction in obese individuals, leading to histologic alterations known as obesity-related glomerulopathy (ORG). This narrative review synthesizes current knowledge on the prevalence, pathophysiology, clinical manifestations, and diagnostic strategies of obesity-related kidney disease. Furthermore, it explores mechanistic insights to delineate current therapeutic approaches, future directions for managing this condition and controversies. By elucidating the multifaceted interactions between obesity and kidney health, this review aims to inform clinical practice and stimulate further research to address this global health epidemic effectively.

First-in-Human Phase I Trial to Assess the Safety and Immunogenicity of an Orf Virus-Based COVID-19 Vaccine Booster

The emergence of SARS-CoV-2 has necessitated the development of versatile vaccines capable of addressing evolving variants. Prime-2-CoV_Beta, a novel Orf virus-based COVID-19 vaccine, was developed to express the SARS-CoV-2 spike and nucleocapsid antigens. This first-in-human, phase I, dose-finding clinical trial was conducted to assess the safety, reactogenicity, and immunogenicity of Prime-2-CoV_Beta as a booster in healthy adults. From June 2022 to June 2023, 60 participants in Germany received varying doses of Prime-2-CoV_Beta. The study demonstrated a favorable safety profile, with no serious adverse events (AEs) reported. All AEs were mild (107) or moderate (10), with the most common symptoms being pain at the injection site, fatigue, and headache. Immunogenicity assessments revealed robust vaccine-induced antigen-specific immune responses. High doses notably elicited significant increases in antibodies against the spike and nucleocapsid proteins as well as neutralizing antibodies against SARS-CoV-2 and its variants. Additionally, the vaccine did not induce ORFV-neutralizing antibodies, indicating the potential for repeated administration. In conclusion, Prime-2-CoV_Beta was safe, well tolerated, and immunogenic, demonstrating potential as a broadly protective vaccine against SARS-CoV-2 and its variants. These promising results support further evaluation of higher doses and additional studies to confirm efficacy and long-term protection. This trial was registered at ClinicalTrials, NCT05389319.

Navigating the Landscape of B Cell Mediated Immunity and Antibody Monitoring in SARS-CoV-2 Vaccine Efficacy: Tools, Strategies and Clinical Trial Insights

Correlates of Protection (CoP) are biomarkers above a defined threshold that can replace clinical outcomes as primary endpoints, predicting vaccine effectiveness to support the approval of new vaccines or follow up studies. In the context of COVID-19 vaccination, CoPs can help address challenges such as demonstrating vaccine effectiveness in special populations, against emerging SARS-CoV-2 variants or determining the durability of vaccine-elicited immunity. While anti-spike IgG titres and viral neutralising capacity have been characterised as CoPs for COVID-19 vaccination, the contribution of other components of the humoral immune response to immediate and long-term protective immunity is less well characterised. This review examines the evidence supporting the use of CoPs in COVID-19 clinical vaccine trials, and how they can be used to define a protective threshold of immunity. It also highlights alternative humoral immune biomarkers, including Fc effector function, mucosal immunity, and the generation of long-lived plasma and memory B cells and discuss how these can be applied to clinical studies and the tools available to study them.

Application and Significance of SIRVB Model in Analyzing COVID-19 Dynamics

In the summer of 2024, COVID-19 positive cases spiked in many countries, but it is no longer a deadly pandemic thanks to global herd immunity to the SARS-CoV-2 viruses. In our physical chemistry lab in spring 2024, students practice kinetic models, SIR (Susceptible, Infected, and Recovered) and SIRV (Susceptible, Infected, Recovered, Vaccinated) using COVID-19 positive cases and vaccination data from World Health Organization (WHO). In this report, we further introduce virus breakthrough to the existing model updating it the SIRVB (Susceptible, Infectious, Recovered, Vaccinated, Breakthrough) model. We believe this is the simplest model possible to explain the COVID-19 kinetics in all countries in the past four years. Parameters obtained from such practice correlate with many indices of different countries. These models and parameters have significant value to researchers and policymakers in predicting the stages of future outbreaks of infectious diseases.

Impact of Anti-SARS-CoV-2 Vaccination on Disease Severity and Clinical Outcomes of Individuals Hospitalized for COVID-19 Throughout Successive Pandemic Waves: Data from an Italian Reference Hospital

This is a retrospective observational study including all COVID-19 patients admitted at our Institute throughout three successive pandemic waves, from January 2021 to June 2023. The main in-hospital outcomes (clinical progression [CP], defined as admission to Intensive Care Unit [ICU]/death, and death within 28 days) were compared among participants unvaccinated (NV), fully vaccinated (FV), with one (FV&B1) and two (FV&B2) booster doses. Vaccinated participants were stratified into recently and waned FV/FV&B1/FV&B2, depending on the time elapsed from last dose (≤ and >120 days, respectively). There were 4488 participants: 2224 NV, 674 FV, 1207 FV&B1, and 383 FV&B2. Within 28 days, there were 604 ICU admissions, 396 deaths, and 737 CP. After adjusting for the main confounders, the risk of both in-hospital outcomes was reduced in vaccinated individuals, especially in those who received the booster dose (approximately by 36% for FV and >50% for FV&B1 and FV&B2 compared to NV). Similarly, after restricting the analysis to vaccinated participants only, we observed a risk reduction of approximately 40% for FV&B1 and 50% for FV&B2, compared to FV, regardless of the distance since the last dose. Our data confirm the vaccine's effectiveness in preventing severe COVID-19 and support the efforts to increase the uptake of booster doses, mainly among older and frailer individuals, still at a greater risk of clinical progression.

In vitro antibody-mediated SARS-CoV-2 infection suppression through human ACE2 receptor blockade

Vaccines and antibodies that specifically target or neutralize components of the SARS-CoV-2 virus are effective in prevention and treatment of human patients with SARS-CoV-2 infection. However, vaccines and SARS-CoV-2 neutralization antibodies target a subset of epitopes of viral proteins, and the fast evolution of the SARS-CoV-2 virus and the continuing emergence of SARS-CoV-2 variants confer SARS-CoV-2 immune escape from these therapies. ACE2 is the human cell receptor that serves as the entry point for SARS-CoV-2 into human cells and thus is the gatekeeper for SARS-CoV-2 infection of humans. We report here the development of 4G8C11, an anti-human ACE2 receptor monoclonal antibody that recognizes ACE2 on human cell surfaces. We determined that 4G8C11 blocks SARS-CoV-2 and variant infection of ACE2+ human cells. Furthermore, 4G8C11 has minimal effects on ACE2 receptor activity. 4G8C11 is therefore a monoclonal antibody for ACE2 receptor detection and potentially an effective immunotherapeutic agent for SARS-CoV-2 and variants.

Antiviral activity of the host defense peptide piscidin 1: investigating a membrane-mediated mode of action

Outbreaks of viral diseases are on the rise, fueling the search for antiviral therapeutics that act on a broad range of viruses while remaining safe to human host cells. In this research, we leverage the finding that the plasma membranes of host cells and the lipid bilayers surrounding enveloped viruses differ in lipid composition. We feature Piscidin 1 (P1), a cationic host defense peptide (HDP) that has antimicrobial effects and membrane activity associated with its N-terminal region where a cluster of aromatic residues and copper-binding motif reside. While few HDPs have demonstrated antiviral activity, P1 acts in the micromolar range against several enveloped viruses that vary in envelope lipid composition. Notably, it inhibits HIV-1, a virus that has an envelope enriched in cholesterol, a lipid associated with higher membrane order and stability. Here, we first document through plaque assays that P1 boasts strong activity against SARS-CoV-2, which has an envelope low in cholesterol. Second, we extend previous studies done with homogeneous bilayers and devise cholesterol-containing zwitterionic membranes that contain the liquid disordered (Ld; low in cholesterol) and ordered (Lo, rich in cholesterol) phases. Using dye leakage assays and cryo-electron microscopy on vesicles, we show that P1 has dramatic permeabilizing capability on the Lo/Ld, an effect matched by a strong ability to aggregate, fuse, and thin the membranes. Differential scanning calorimetry and NMR experiments demonstrate that P1 mixes the lipid content of vesicles and alters the stability of the Lo. Structural studies by NMR indicate that P1 interacts with the Lo/Ld by folding into an α-helix that lies parallel to the membrane surface. Altogether, these results show that P1 is more disruptive to phase-separated than homogenous cholesterol-containing bilayers, suggesting an ability to target domain boundaries. Overall, this multi-faceted research highlights how a peptide that interacts strongly with membranes through an aromatic-rich N-terminal motif disrupt viral envelope mimics. This represents an important step towards the development of novel peptides with broad-spectrum antiviral activity.

Clinical metabolomics: Useful insights, perspectives and challenges

Metabolomics, a cutting-edge omics technique, is a rapidly advancing field in biomedical research, concentrating on the elucidation of pathogenetic mechanisms and the discovery of novel metabolite signatures predictive of disease risk, aiding in earlier disease detection, prognosis and prediction of treatment response. The capacity of this omics approach to simultaneously quantify thousands of metabolites, i.e. small molecules less than 1500 Da in samples, positions it as a promising tool for research and clinical applications in personalized medicine. Clinical metabolomics studies have proven valuable in understanding cardiometabolic disorders, potentially uncovering diagnostic biomarkers predictive of disease risk. Liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry is the predominant analytical method used in metabolomics, particularly untargeted. Metabolomics combined with extensive genomic data, proteomics, clinical chemistry data, imaging, health records, and other pertinent health-related data may yield significant advances beneficial for both public health initiatives, clinical applications and precision medicine, particularly in rare disorders and multimorbidity. This special issue has gathered original research articles in topics related to clinical metabolomics as well as research articles, reviews, perspectives and highlights in the broader field of translational and clinical metabolic research. Additional research is necessary to identify which metabolites consistently enhance clinical risk prediction across various populations and are causally linked to disease progression.

Global COVID-19 Pandemic Outcomes: A Cross-Country Comparison Study of Policy Strategies

This paper explores global COVID-19 treatment and containment strategies in 108 countries worldwide, specifically the correlation between COVID-19 deaths and the countries' vaccination rates. Comparison of data across states, provinces, territories, and countries relied upon a common method to evaluate data regarding the impact of COVID-19 policies in the last three years. Data from nine different databases were analyzed to determine if there were correlations between the percentage of countrywide COVID-19 deaths/population and countries' percent vaccinated. Secondary outcome measures include the effect of other variables on COVID-19 death rates per country population, including health expenditures and annual income per capita, COVID-19 tests per 1000 people, stringency index (a measure of each country's containment strategies), hydroxychloroquine/ivermectin scores (measure country use), hypertension, obesity, diabetes, and geographic locations. COVID-19 vaccination rates ranged from 0-99% in 108 countries. Bivariate analysis demonstrates the following independent variables to correlate with COVID-19 deaths/population (Spearman correlation coefficient, p value): countrywide COVID-19 vaccination rates (moderate relationship, r=0.39, P < .001); healthcare expenditures per capita per annum (US dollars) (moderate relationship, r=0.46, P < .001), net annual income per capita (moderate relationship, r=0.50, P < .001), COVID-19 tests per 1000 country population (moderate relationship, r=0.36, P < .003); stringency index per country (moderate relationship, r=0.28, P < .003); hydroxychloroquine index (negative relationship, r= 0.15, P = .125); and ivermectin index (negative relationship, r=0.23 P = .018). The authors found that the higher the percentage of a country's vaccination rate, stringent containment strategies, mass testing, etc., moderately correlated with higher COVID-19 death rates/population. Future studies are required to explore the findings of this study fully.

The descriptive epidemiology of pre-omicron SARS-CoV-2 breakthrough infections and severe outcomes in Manitoba, Canada

Introduction

Vaccination plays a key role in curbing severe outcomes resulting from COVID-19 disease. With the Omicron variant and the relaxing of public health protections breakthrough infections are increasingly common, and certain groups remain at higher risk for severe outcomes from breakthrough infections. We analysed population-based public health data from Manitoba, Canada to understand characteristics of those experiencing breakthrough infections and severe outcomes from breakthrough infections. Data from previous pandemic stages can provide valuable information regarding severe outcomes associated with breakthrough infection in the Omicron and future phases.

Methods

Positive SARS-CoV-2 PCR tests from Cadham Provincial Laboratory were linked to case information from the population-based Public Health Information Management System. A retrospective design was used with time-to-event analyses to examine severe outcomes among those experiencing breakthrough infection.

Results

Breakthrough cases were more likely to have 2 + chronic conditions, compared to age-, sex-, and time-period matched unvaccinated cases (24% vs. 17%), with hypertension (30%), diabetes (17%), and asthma (14%) being the most prevalent chronic conditions amongst breakthrough cases. Severe outcomes resulting from breakthrough infection was associated with age and chronic conditions, with those with 2 + chronic conditions at higher risk of severe outcomes (adjusted hazard ratio: 3.6, 95% confidence intervals: 2.0-6.4). Risk of severe outcomes varied by age group, with those 70 + years at over 13 times the risk of severe outcomes (95% CI: 4.5-39.8), compared to those 18-29 years of age.

Discussion

Our results demonstrate the impact of chronic conditions on the likelihood of, and severity of outcomes from breakthrough infections. These findings underscore the importance of vaccination programs prioritizing vulnerable populations.

Update on Central Nervous System Effects of the Intersection of HIV-1 and SARS-CoV-2

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

Research has shown myriad neurologic and mental health manifestations during the acute and subsequent stages of COVID-19 in people with HIV (PWH). This review summarizes the updates on central nervous system (CNS) outcomes following SARS-CoV-2 infection in PWH and highlight the existing knowledge gaps in this area.

RECENT FINDINGS

Studies leveraging electronic record systems have highlighted the excess risk of developing acute and lingering neurological complications of COVID-19 in PWH compared to people without HIV (PWoH). However, there is a notable scarcity of neuroimaging as well as blood and cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) marker studies that can confirm the potential synergy between these two infections, particularly in PWH receiving suppressive antiretroviral therapy. Considering the unclear potential interaction between SARS-CoV-2 and HIV, clinicians should remain vigilant regarding new-onset or worsening neurological symptoms in PWH following COVID-19, as they could be linked to either infection.

Structural basis for broad neutralization of human antibody against Omicron sublineages and evasion by XBB variant

IMPORTANCE

The ongoing COVID-19 pandemic has been characterized by the emergence of new SARS-CoV-2 variants including the highly transmissible Omicron XBB sublineages, which have shown significant resistance to neutralizing antibodies (nAbs). This resistance has led to decreased vaccine effectiveness and therefore result in breakthrough infections and reinfections, which continuously threaten public health. To date, almost all available therapeutic nAbs, including those authorized under Emergency Use Authorization nAbs that were previously clinically useful against early strains, have recently been found to be ineffective against newly emerging variants. In this study, we provide a comprehensive structural basis about how the Class 3 nAbs, including 1G11 in this study and noted LY-CoV1404, are evaded by the newly emerged SARS-CoV-2 variants.

Association between levels of receptor binding domain antibodies of SARS-CoV-2, receipt of booster and risk of breakthrough infections: LA pandemic surveillance cohort study

Prevention of COVID-19 with vaccine requires multiple doses and updated boosters to maintain protection; however currently there are no tests that can measure immunity and guide clinical decisions about timing of booster doses. This study examined the association between the risk of COVID-19 breakthrough infections and receptor binding domain (RBD) antibody levels and receipt of booster of COVID-19 vaccines. A community sample of Los Angeles County adults were surveyed between 2021 and 2022 to determine if they had a self-reported breakthrough infection. Predictors included RBD antibody levels, measured by binding antibody responses to the ancestral strain at baseline and self-reported booster shot during the study period. Of the 859 participants, 182 (21%) reported a breakthrough infection. Irrespective of the level of antibodies, the risk of breakthrough infection was similar, ranging from 19 to 23% (P = 0.78). The risk of breakthrough infections was lower among participants who had a booster shot (P = 0.004). The protective effect of a booster shot did not vary by antibody levels prior to receiving the booster. This study found no association between RBD antibody levels and risk of breakthrough infections, while the receipt of booster was associated with lower risk of breakthrough infections, which was independent of pre-booster antibody levels. Therefore, antibody levels might not be a useful guide for clinical decisions about timing of booster doses.

BNT162b2-vaccine-induced neutralization responses are immune correlates of clinical protection against SARS-CoV-2 in heart transplant recipients

BACKGROUND

Defining immune correlates of protection against COVID-19 is pivotal for optimizing the use of COVID-19 vaccines, predicting the impact of novel variants on clinical outcomes, and advancing the development of immunotherapies and next-generation vaccines. We aimed to identify vaccine-induced immune correlates of protection against COVID-19-related hospitalizations in a highly vaccinated heart transplant (HT) cohort.

METHODS

In a case-control study of HT recipients vaccinated with the BNT162b2 vaccine, patients were prospectively assessed for vaccine-induced neutralization of the wild-type virus, and the Delta and Omicron BA.1, BA.2, BA.4, and BA.5 variants. Comparative analyses with controls were conducted to identify correlates of protection against COVID-19 hospitalization. ROC analyses were performed. Primary outcomes were COVID-19 hospitalizations and severity of SARS-CoV-2 breakthrough infection.

RESULTS

The study cohort comprised 59 HT recipients aged 58 (49,65) years with breakthrough infections after three or four monovalent BNT162b2 doses; 41 (69.5%) were men. Thirty-six (61%) patients with COVID-19 were hospitalized; most cases were non-severe (58, 98%). For hospitalized (vs. non-hospitalized) COVID-19 patients, vaccine-induced neutralization titers were significantly lower against all SARS-CoV-2 variants (p < .005). Vaccine-induced neutralization of the wild-type virus and delta and omicron BA.1, BA.2, BA.4, and BA.5 variants was associated with a reduced risk for COVID-19-related hospitalization. The optimal neutralization titer thresholds that were predictive of COVID-19 hospitalizations were 96 (wild-type), 48 (delta), 12 (BA.1), 96 (BA.2), 96 (BA.4), and 48 (BA.5).

CONCLUSIONS

BNT162b2-vaccine-induced neutralization responses are immune correlates of protection and confer clinical protection against COVID-19 hospitalizations.

Factors Affecting SARS-CoV-2 IgG Production after Vaccination and/or Disease: A Large-Scale Seroprevalence Study

This study aimed at identifying factors influencing SARS-CoV-2-specific IgG antibody levels after vaccination and/or infection. Between January 2022 and March 2023, 2000 adults (≥18 years, Salzburg, Austria) participated in this population-based seroprevalence study by providing 3 mL of blood to detect SARS-CoV-2-specific IgG antibodies using an anti-SARS-CoV-2 IgG quantitative assay and by completing a self-designed questionnaire including anthropometric factors, vaccination information, and medical history. For 77 of the participants, a time-course study up to 24 weeks post vaccination or quarantine end was performed. Convalescent-only subjects had the lowest median antibody titer (65.6 BAU/mL) compared to vaccinated and hybrid immunized subjects (p-value < 0.0001) The type of vaccine as well as vaccine combinations significantly influenced the levels of SARS-CoV-2 spike-protein-specific IgG, ranging from a median antibody level of 770.5 BAU/mL in subjects who were vaccinated only to 3020.0 BAU/mL in hybrid immunized subjects (p-value < 0.0001). Over time, a significant decline in the levels of neutralizing antibodies was found. Depending on the subpopulation analyzed, further significant influencing factors included sex assigned at birth, disease severity, chronic diseases, and medication. A hybrid immunization resulted in more robust immune responses. Nevertheless, there were multiple other factors impacting these responses. This knowledge should be included in future vaccination strategies and serve as a guide in the development of personalized medicine.

Infection- or AZD1222 vaccine-mediated immunity reduces SARS-CoV-2 transmission but increases Omicron competitiveness in hamsters

Limited data is available on the effect of vaccination and previous virus exposure on the nature of SARS-CoV-2 transmission and immune-pressure on variants. To understand the impact of pre-existing immunity on SARS-CoV-2 airborne transmission efficiency, we perform a transmission chain experiment using naïve, intranasally or intramuscularly AZD1222 vaccinated, and previously infected hamsters. A clear gradient in transmission efficacy is observed: Transmission in hamsters vaccinated via the intramuscular route was reduced over three airborne chains (approx. 60%) compared to naïve animals, whereas transmission in previously infected hamsters and those vaccinated via the intranasal route was reduced by 80%. We also find that the Delta B.1.617.2 variant outcompeted Omicron B.1.1.529 after dual infection within and between hosts in naïve, vaccinated, and previously infected transmission chains, yet an increase in Omicron B.1.1.529 competitiveness is observed in groups with pre-existing immunity against Delta B.1.617.2. This correlates with an increase in the strength of the humoral response against Delta B.1.617.2, with the strongest response seen in previously infected animals. These data highlight the continuous need to improve vaccination strategies and address the additional evolutionary pressure pre-existing immunity may exert on SARS-CoV-2.

Association between breakthrough infection with COVID-19 and Toxoplasma gondii: a cross-sectional study

The breakthrough infection following COVID-19 vaccination has been a subject of concern recently. Evidence suggests that COVID-19 vaccine efficacy diminishes over time due to multiple factors related to the host, and vaccine. Coinfection with other pathogens was claimed earlier as a contributing cause for this phenomenon. Hence, we aimed to stratify the association of post-COVID-19 vaccination breakthrough coinfection with Toxoplasma gondii (T. gondii) and its impact on disease severity. This cross-sectional study included 330 COVID-19-vaccinated patients confirmed by RT-PCR. They were also screened for anti- T. gondii antibodies using ELISA. Toxoplasma seropositive cases' whole blood was screened for DNA using PCR to correlate results with COVID-19 severity. Out of 330 COVID-19 vaccinated patients with breakthrough infection, 34.5% (114 patients) showed positivity for Toxoplasma IgG by ELISA, and none of the cases was IgM positive. Eleven patients (9.6%) of the IgG-positive cases were positive by PCR. Positive PCR cases correlated positively with the Toxoplasma IgG titer (P < 0.001), and the Cutoff point was 191.5. Molecular analysis of Toxoplasma and COVID-19 severity showed that 8 (72.7%), 1 (9.1%), and 2 cases (18.2%) had mild, moderate, and severe courses of the disease, respectively, with no significant correlation. Our study reported a heightened prevalence of latent toxoplasmosis among mild cases of COVID-19 breakthrough infection. Nevertheless, a discernible correlation between latent toxoplasmosis and COVID-19 severity is lacking. Hence, implementing studies on a larger scale could provide a more comprehensive comprehension of this association.

Vaccine Breakthrough Infections Among Healthcare Workers in a COVID-19-Designated Tertiary Care Government Hospital in Sikkim

Introduction Since the emergence of the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) virus at the beginning of 2020, the world has gone through various waves of pandemics. The health care workers (HCWs) or the COVID warriors as they were termed were the first line of defense against the virus. They were armed with personal protective equipment and prophylactic doses of the COVID-19 vaccine. Despite these precautions, some of the HCWs still contracted the disease and a few others succumbed to it. The objective of this study was to estimate the prevalence of COVID-19 infections and vaccine breakthrough infections (BTIs) in HCWs after receiving the COVID-19 vaccine during the second wave of the pandemic. Methods This was a cross-sectional, hospital-based study conducted over a period of four months from September 2021 to December 2021 on HCWs aged 18 years and above working at the COVID-19-designated tertiary care government hospital in Sikkim. A structured coded questionnaire with no patient identifiers was used to gather details on demographics, vaccination history, breakthrough infection, and other social details. HCWs who had received at least one dose of the COVID-19 vaccine at the time of initiation of the study and were >18 years of age were included in this study. Results A total of 678 HCWs were screened, out of which 229 (33%) participants tested positive for COVID-19 and the rest of the participants (455; 67%) tested negative. COVID-19 infections and vaccine BTIs (COVID-19 infection >14 days after the second vaccination) were recorded and 137 (20%) respondents had a post-vaccination COVID-19 infection out of which 115 (18.5%) were BTI. The majority of the participants were females and of the age group of 26-35 years. The correlation of COVID-19 infections with the dose gap between vaccination, gender, age, profession, department, area posted during COVID duty, cycles of duty performed, hospitalization due to infection, influenza vaccination, and comorbidity was analyzed. Conclusion COVID-19 vaccines are disease-modifying and they decrease the severity of BTIs in HCWs. Pandemics and outbreaks cannot be predicted; therefore, it becomes very important to have healthy frontline workers who are constantly exposed to infectious agents. Monitoring of health and surveillance of infectious diseases among the HCWs should be encouraged.

Efficacy, Immunogenicity, and Safety of COVID-19 Vaccines in Patients with Autoimmune Diseases: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

Patients with autoimmune diseases are among the susceptible groups to COVID-19 infection because of the complexity of their conditions and the side effects of the immunosuppressive drugs used to treat them. They might show impaired immunogenicity to COVID-19 vaccines and have a higher risk of developing COVID-19. Using a systematic review and meta-analysis, this research sought to summarize the evidence on COVID-19 vaccine efficacy, immunogenicity, and safety in patients with autoimmune diseases following predefined eligibility criteria. Research articles were obtained from an initial search up to 26 September 2022 from PubMed, Embase, EBSCOhost, ProQuest, MedRxiv, bioRxiv, SSRN, EuroPMC, and the Cochrane Center of Randomized Controlled Trials (CCRCT). Of 76 eligible studies obtained, 29, 54, and 38 studies were included in systematic reviews of efficacy, immunogenicity, and safety, respectively, and 6, 18, and 4 studies were included in meta-analyses for efficacy, immunogenicity, and safety, respectively. From the meta-analyses, patients with autoimmune diseases showed more frequent breakthrough COVID-19 infections and lower total antibody (TAb) titers, IgG seroconversion, and neutralizing antibodies after inactivated COVID-19 vaccination compared with healthy controls. They also had more local and systemic adverse events after the first dose of inactivated vaccination compared with healthy controls. After COVID-19 mRNA vaccination, patients with autoimmune diseases had lower TAb titers and IgG seroconversion compared with healthy controls.

Protection against Severe Illness versus Immunity-Redefining Vaccine Effectiveness in the Aftermath of COVID-19

Anti-SARS-CoV-2 vaccines have played a pivotal role in reducing the risk of developing severe illness from COVID-19, thus helping end the COVID-19 global public health emergency after more than three years. Intriguingly, as SARS-CoV-2 variants emerged, individuals who were fully vaccinated did get infected in high numbers, and viral loads in vaccinated individuals were as high as those in the unvaccinated. However, even with high viral loads, vaccinated individuals were significantly less likely to develop severe illness; this begs the question as to whether the main effect of anti-SARS-CoV-2 vaccines is to confer protection against severe illness or immunity against infection. The answer to this question is consequential, not only to the understanding of how anti-SARS-CoV-2 vaccines work, but also to public health efforts against existing and novel pathogens. In this review, we argue that immune system sensitization-desensitization rather than sterilizing immunity may explain vaccine-mediated protection against severe COVID-19 illness even when the SARS-CoV-2 viral load is high. Through the lessons learned from COVID-19, we make the case that in the disease's aftermath, public health agencies must revisit healthcare policies, including redefining the term "vaccine effectiveness."

A Pictorial Essay Describing the CT Imaging Features of COVID-19 Cases throughout the Pandemic with a Special Focus on Lung Manifestations and Extrapulmonary Vascular Abdominal Complications

With the Omicron wave, SARS-CoV-2 infections improved, with less lung involvement and few cases of severe manifestations. In this pictorial review, there is a summary of the pathogenesis with particular focus on the interaction of the immune system and gut and lung axis in both pulmonary and extrapulmonary manifestations of COVID-19 and the computed tomography (CT) imaging features of COVID-19 pneumonia from the beginning of the pandemic, describing the typical features of COVID-19 pneumonia following the Delta variant and the atypical features appearing during the Omicron wave. There is also an outline of the typical features of COVID-19 pneumonia in cases of breakthrough infection, including secondary lung complications such as acute respiratory distress disease (ARDS), pneumomediastinum, pneumothorax, and lung pulmonary thromboembolism, which were more frequent during the first waves of the pandemic. Finally, there is a description of vascular extrapulmonary complications, including both ischemic and hemorrhagic abdominal complications.

Comparison of the Disease Severity and Outcome of Vaccinated COVID-19 Patients with Unvaccinated Patients in a Specialized COVID-19 Facility: A Retrospective Cohort Study from Karachi, Pakistan

We compared the clinical characteristics and outcome of vaccinated hospitalized COVID-19 patients with unvaccinated hospitalized COVID-19 patients. A retrospective cohort study was conducted at the Sindh Infectious Diseases Hospital and Research Center, Karachi, Pakistan. A total of 1407 hospitalized COVID-19 positive patients were included from April 2021 to March 2022, of which 812 (57.71%) were males. Of the 1407, 378 (26.87%) patients were vaccinated while 1029 (73.13%) were unvaccinated. Of the vaccinated patients, 160 (42.32%) were partially vaccinated while 218 (57.68%) were fully vaccinated (vaccine breakthrough infection). Fewer unvaccinated COVID-19 patients survived compared to vaccinated patients (62.5% vs. 70%, RR 0.89, 95% CI: 0.82-0.96, p-value = 0.004). Despite there being more vaccinated patients above 60 years of age (60.05% vs. 47.13%), their risk of mortality was lower by 43% (OR = 0.578; CI = 0.4201 to 0.7980, p = 0.0009). On survival analysis, vaccinated patients had better 30-day survival compared to unvaccinated patients (p = 0.028). Moreover, comparing waves 3-5, unvaccinated patients of wave 4, which was driven by the delta variant, had the worst survival (51.8%, p ≤ 0.001) while vaccinated patients of wave 3 (driven by the alpha variant) had the best survival (71.6%).

Laboratory Findings and Biomarkers in Long COVID: What Do We Know So Far? Insights into Epidemiology, Pathogenesis, Therapeutic Perspectives and Challenges

Long COVID (LC) encompasses a constellation of long-term symptoms experienced by at least 10% of people after the initial SARS-CoV-2 infection, and so far it has affected about 65 million people. The etiology of LC remains unclear; however, many pathophysiological pathways may be involved, including viral persistence; a chronic, low-grade inflammatory response; immune dysregulation and a defective immune response; the reactivation of latent viruses; autoimmunity; persistent endothelial dysfunction and coagulopathy; gut dysbiosis; hormonal and metabolic dysregulation; mitochondrial dysfunction; and autonomic nervous system dysfunction. There are no specific tests for the diagnosis of LC, and clinical features including laboratory findings and biomarkers may not specifically relate to LC. Therefore, it is of paramount importance to develop and validate biomarkers that can be employed for the prediction, diagnosis and prognosis of LC and its therapeutic response, although this effort may be hampered by challenges pertaining to the non-specific nature of the majority of clinical manifestations in the LC spectrum, small sample sizes of relevant studies and other methodological issues. Promising candidate biomarkers that are found in some patients are markers of systemic inflammation, including acute phase proteins, cytokines and chemokines; biomarkers reflecting SARS-CoV-2 persistence, the reactivation of herpesviruses and immune dysregulation; biomarkers of endotheliopathy, coagulation and fibrinolysis; microbiota alterations; diverse proteins and metabolites; hormonal and metabolic biomarkers; and cerebrospinal fluid biomarkers. At present, there are only two reviews summarizing relevant biomarkers; however, they do not cover the entire umbrella of current biomarkers, their link to etiopathogenetic mechanisms or the diagnostic work-up in a comprehensive manner. Herein, we aim to appraise and synopsize the available evidence on the typical laboratory manifestations and candidate biomarkers of LC, their classification based on pathogenetic mechanisms and the main LC symptomatology in the frame of the epidemiological and clinical aspects of the syndrome and furthermore assess limitations and challenges as well as potential implications in candidate therapeutic interventions.

Correlates of breakthrough Omicron (B.1.1.529) infections in a prospective cohort of vaccinated patients with rheumatic diseases

BACKGROUND

Data on the effectiveness of SARS-CoV-2 vaccines and the durability of protection against the prevalent Omicron variant are scarce, especially in patients with autoimmune rheumatic diseases (AIRDs). Hence, we prospectively studied Omicron breakthrough infections in patients with AIRDs and attempted to isolate associated risk factors.

METHODS

Patients with AIRDs who had completed primary vaccination with either AZD1222 or BBV152 vaccines were included and prospectively followed up from January 2022 onwards for the development of breakthrough Omicron infections. The time interval from the last event [2nd dose of vaccination (V) or past COVID-19 infection (I) whichever was later] to Omicron infection was recorded. Patients were divided based on the events and their order of occurrence into V + V, V + I, I + V, V + I + V, and V + V + I groups. The incidence of breakthrough infections and their predictors were studied with a focus on the vaccine type and hybrid (H) immunity (vaccinated individuals with a history of COVID-19 infection).

RESULTS

We included 907 patients with AIRDs (53.5 ± 11.7 years and a male-to-female ratio of 1:5.1), and the majority of patients had received AZD1222 (755, 83.2%). Breakthrough infections were observed in 158 of 907(17.4%) of which 97 (10.4%) were confirmed by RT-PCR. Breakthrough infections were significantly greater in the V versus the H group (15.7% and 3.5%, log-rank test, p =  < 0.01). Among the hybrid group, the order of infection and vaccination had no bearing on the risk of breakthrough infections. On multivariate analysis, breakthrough infections were significantly lesser in the H versus the V group [HR: 0.2(0.1-0.4); p = 0.01].

CONCLUSION

The risk of breakthrough Omicron infections in fully vaccinated patients with AIRDs was 17.4% with a significantly lower risk in patients with hybrid immunity.

Perspectives and Challenges of COVID-19 with Obesity-Related Cancers

The emergence of COVID-19 has created an unprecedented threat worldwide, involving overwhelmed health-care systems in the majority of countries [...]

Cellular and Molecular Mechanisms of Pathogenic and Protective Immune Responses to SARS-CoV-2 and Implications of COVID-19 Vaccines

Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) infection has devastated the world with coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), which has imparted a toll of at least 631 million reported cases with 6.57 million reported deaths. In order to handle this pandemic, vaccines against SARS-CoV-2 have been developed and billions of doses of various vaccines have been administered. In the meantime, several antiviral drugs and other treatment modalities have been developed to treat COVID-19 patients. At the end of the day, it seems that anti-SARS-CoV-2 vaccines and newly developed antiviral drugs may be improved based on various new developments. COVID-19 represents a virus-induced, immune-mediated pathological process. The severity of the disease is related to the nature and properties of the host immune responses. In addition, host immunity plays a dominant role in regulating the extent of COVID-19. The present reality regarding the role of anti-SARS-CoV-2 vaccines, persistence of SARS-CoV-2 infection even three years after the initiation of the pandemic, and divergent faces of COVID-19 have initiated several queries among huge populations, policy makers, general physicians, and scientific communities. The present review aims to provide some information regarding the molecular and cellular mechanisms underlying SARS-CoV-2 infection.

The Fourth Dose of mRNA COVID-19 Vaccine Following 12 Different Three-Dose Regimens: Safety and Immunogenicity to Omicron BA.4/BA.5

The aim of this study is to investigate the reactogenicity and immunogenicity of the fourth dose using monovalent mRNA vaccines after different three-dose regimens and to compare the 30 µg BNT162b2 and 50 µg mRNA-1273 vaccines. This prospective cohort study was conducted between June and October 2022. The self-recorded reactogenicity was evaluated on the subsequent 7 days after a fourth dose. The binding and neutralizing activity of antibodies against the Omicron BA.4/5 variants were determined. Overall, 292 healthy adults were enrolled and received BNT162b2 or mRNA-1273. Reactogenicity was mild to moderate and well tolerated after a few days. Sixty-five individuals were excluded. Thus, 227 eligible individuals received a fourth booster dose of BNT162b2 (n = 109) and mRNA-1273 (n = 118). Most participants, regardless of the type of previous three-dose regimens, elicited a significantly high level of binding antibodies and neutralizing activity against Omicron BA.4/5 28 days after a fourth dose. The neutralizing activity against Omicron BA.4/5 between the BNT162b2 (82.8%) and mRNA-1273 (84.2%) groups was comparable with a median ratio of 1.02. This study found that the BNT162b2 and mRNA-1273 vaccines can be used as a fourth booster dose for individuals who were previously immunized with any prior three-dose mix-and-match COVID-19 vaccine regimens.

The natural history of COVID-19 in vaccinated inflammatory bowel disease patients

AIM

Assess the characteristics of break through COVID-19 in Inflammatory Bowel Disease (IBD) patients, despite complete vaccination.

METHODS

Patients who reported a COVID-19 at least 3 weeks after complete vaccination were asked to answer an on-line anonymous questionnaire which included patient and disease characteristics, vaccination history, and the evolution of COVID-19.

RESULTS

Among 3240 IBD patients who reported complete vaccination between 1st May 2021 and 30thJune 2022, 402 (12.4%) were infected by SARS Cov-2 [223 male, 216 Crohn's disease (CD), 186 Ulcerative Colitis (UC), mean (SD) age 42.3 (14.9) years, mean (SD) IBD duration 10.1 (9.7) years]. Three hundred and sixty-nine patients (91.8%) were infected once and 33 (8.2%) twice. The mean (SD) time between last vaccination and infection was 4.1 (1.6) months. Overall, 351 (87.3%) patients reported mild constitutional and/or respiratory symptoms, 34 (8.4%) were asymptomatic and only 17 patients (4.2%) required hospitalization. Of hospitalized patients, 2 UC patients died of COVID-19 pneumonia. The remaining hospitalized patients did not need high flow oxygen supply or ICU admission.

CONCLUSIONS

A minority of completely vaccinated IBD patients developed COVID-19 which evolved with mild symptoms and a favorable outcome. These results reinforce the importance of vaccination especially in vulnerable populations.

Transcriptionally active nasopharyngeal commensals and opportunistic microbial dynamics define mild symptoms in the COVID 19 vaccination breakthroughs

The development of COVID 19 vaccines as an effort to mitigate the outbreak, has saved millions of lives globally. However, vaccination breakthroughs have continuously challenged the vaccines' effectiveness and provided incentives to explore facets holding potential to alter vaccination-induced immunity and protection from subsequent infection, especially VOCs (Variants Of Concern). We explored the functional dynamics of nasopharyngeal transcriptionally active microbes (TAMs) between vaccination breakthroughs and unvaccinated SARS-CoV-2 infected individuals. Microbial taxonomic communities were differentially altered with skewed enrichment of bacterial class/genera of Firmicutes and Gammaproteobacteria with grossly reduced phylum Bacteroidetes in vaccination breakthrough individuals. The Bacillus genus was abundant in Firmicutes in vaccination breakthrough whereas Prevotella among Bacteroides dominated the unvaccinated. Also, Pseudomonas and Salmonella of Gammaproteobacteria were overrepresented in vaccination breakthrough, whilst unvaccinated showed presence of several genera, Achromobacter, Bordetella, Burkholderia, Neisseria, Hemophilus, Salmonella and Pseudomonas, belonging to Proteobacteria. At species level, the microbiota of vaccination breakthrough exhibited relatively higher abundance of unique commensals, in comparison to potential opportunistic microbes enrichment in unvaccinated patients' microbiota. Functional metabolic pathways like amino acid biosynthesis, sulphate assimilation, fatty acid and beta oxidation, associated with generation of SCFAs (short chain fatty acids), were enriched in vaccination breakthroughs. Majorly, metabolic pathways of LCFAs biosynthesis (long chain fatty acids; oleate, dodecenoate, palmitoleate, gondoate) were found associated with the unvaccinated. Our research highlights that vaccination decreases the microbial diversity in terms of depleting opportunistic pathogens and increasing the preponderance of commensals with respect to unvaccinated patients. Metabolic pathway analysis substantiates the shift in diversity to functionally modulate immune response generation, which may be related to mild clinical manifestations and faster recovery times during vaccination breakthroughs.

Genomic surveillance of SARS-CoV-2 in COVID-19 vaccinated healthcare workers in Lebanon

BACKGROUND

The emergence of SARS-CoV-2 variants including the Delta and Omicron along with waning of vaccine-induced immunity over time contributed to increased rates of breakthrough infection specifically among healthcare workers (HCWs). SARS-CoV-2 genomic surveillance is an important tool for timely detection and characterization of circulating variants as well as monitoring the emergence of new strains. Our study is the first national SARS-CoV-2 genomic surveillance among HCWs in Lebanon.

METHODS

We collected 250 nasopharyngeal swabs from HCWs across Lebanon between December 2021 and January 2022. Data on the date of positive PCR, vaccination status, specific occupation, and hospitalization status of participants were collected. Extracted viral RNA from nasopharyngeal swabs was converted to cDNA, library prepped using the coronaHIT method, followed by whole genome sequencing on the Illumina NextSeq 500 platform.

RESULTS

A total of 133 (57.1%) samples belonging to the Omicron (BA.1.1) sub-lineage were identified, as well as 44 (18.9%) samples belonging to the BA.1 sub-lineage, 28 (12%) belonging to the BA.2 sub-lineage, and only 15 (6.6%) samples belonging to the Delta variant sub-lineage B.1.617.2. These results show that Lebanon followed the global trend in terms of circulating SARS-CoV-2 variants with Delta rapidly replaced by the Omicron variant.

CONCLUSION

This study underscores the importance of continuous genomic surveillance programs in Lebanon for the timely detection and characterization of circulating variants. The latter is critical to guide public health policy making and to timely implement public health interventions.

Preclinical evaluation of safety and immunogenicity of a primary series intranasal COVID-19 vaccine candidate (BBV154) and humoral immunogenicity evaluation of a heterologous prime-boost strategy with COVAXIN (BBV152)

Most if not all vaccine candidates developed to combat COVID-19 due to SARS-CoV-2 infection are administered parenterally. As SARS-CoV-2 is transmitted through infectious respiratory fluids, vaccine-induced mucosal immunity could provide an important contribution to control this pandemic. ChAd-SARS-CoV-2-S (BBV154), a replication-defective chimpanzee adenovirus (ChAd)-vectored intranasal (IN) COVID-19 vaccine candidate, encodes a prefusion-stabilized version of the SARS-CoV-2 spike protein containing two proline substitutions in the S2 subunit. We performed preclinical evaluations of BBV154 in mice, rats, hamsters and rabbits. Repeated dose toxicity studies presented excellent safety profiles in terms of pathology and biochemical analysis. IN administration of BBV154 elicited robust mucosal and systemic humoral immune responses coupled with Th1 cell-mediated immune responses. BBV154 IN vaccination also elicited potent variant (omicron) cross neutralization antibodies. Assessment of anti-vector (ChAd36) neutralizing antibodies following repeated doses of BBV154 IN administration showed insignificant titers of ChAd36 neutralizing antibodies. However, the immune sera derived from the same animals displayed significantly higher levels of SARS-CoV-2 virus neutralization (p<0.003). We also evaluated the safety and immunogenicity of heterologous prime-boost vaccination with intramuscular (IM) COVAXIN-prime followed by BBV154 IN administration. COVAXIN priming followed by BBV154 IN-booster showed an acceptable reactogenicity profile comparable to the homologous COVAXIN/COVAXIN or BBV154/BBV154 vaccination model. Heterologous vaccination of COVAXIN-prime and BBV154 booster also elicited superior (p<0.005) and cross variant (omicron) protective immune responses (p<0.013) compared with the homologous COVAXIN/COVAXIN schedule. BBV154 has successfully completed both homologous and heterologous combination schedules of human phase 3 clinical trials and received the restricted emergency use approval (in those aged above 18 years) from the Drugs Controller General of India (DCGI).

Emergence of SARS-CoV-2 Omicron variant and strategies for tackling the infection

INTRODUCTION

Nowadays, emerging SARS-CoV-2 Omicron, the novel highly mutated VOC, has quickly spread as the dominant variant in over 190 countries worldwide through the first part of 2022, which is influencing the infectivity, transmissibility, pathogenicity, and severity of COVID-19 pandemic. Additionally, clinical cases and experimental studies have reported that Omicron variant likely leads to weakened immune protection elicited by infection, antibody therapies, and vaccines. The new wave, from late February, 2022, was escalated abruptly by higher levels of transmission of Omicron BA.2 sublineage in China.

METHODS AND RESULTS

Following a systematic database search, this review summarizes the salient features of Omicron sublineages, and their impact on transmissibility, disease severity as well as the efficacy of the available vaccines and treatment against the Omicron.

CONCLUSION

We hope this study will provide a scientific reference for alleviating the burden of COVID-19.

Economic evaluation of COVID-19 rapid antigen screening programs in the workplace

BACKGROUND

Diagnostic testing has been pivotal in detecting SARS-CoV-2 infections and reducing transmission through the isolation of positive cases. We quantified the value of implementing frequent, rapid antigen (RA) testing in the workplace to identify screening programs that are cost-effective.

METHODS

To project the number of cases, hospitalizations, and deaths under alternative screening programs, we adapted an agent-based model of COVID-19 transmission and parameterized it with the demographics of Ontario, Canada, incorporating vaccination and waning of immunity. Taking into account healthcare costs and productivity losses associated with each program, we calculated the incremental cost-effectiveness ratio (ICER) with quality-adjusted life year (QALY) as the measure of effect. Considering RT-PCR testing of only severe cases as the baseline scenario, we estimated the incremental net monetary benefits (iNMB) of the screening programs with varying durations and initiation times, as well as different booster coverages of working adults.

RESULTS

Assuming a willingness-to-pay threshold of CDN$30,000 per QALY loss averted, twice weekly workplace screening was cost-effective only if the program started early during a surge. In most scenarios, the iNMB of RA screening without a confirmatory RT-PCR or RA test was comparable or higher than the iNMB for programs with a confirmatory test for RA-positive cases. When the program started early with a duration of at least 16 weeks and no confirmatory testing, the iNMB exceeded CDN$1.1 million per 100,000 population. Increasing booster coverage of working adults improved the iNMB of RA screening.

CONCLUSIONS

Our findings indicate that frequent RA testing starting very early in a surge, without a confirmatory test, is a preferred screening program for the detection of asymptomatic infections in workplaces.

Drivers of the Intention to Receive a COVID-19 Booster Vaccine: Insights from the UK and Australia

As the global pandemic perpetuates, keeping the population vaccinated will be imperative to maintain societal protection from the SARS-CoV-2 (COVID-19) virus. However, while empirical evidence regarding predictors of the intention to receive a first COVID-19 vaccine has amassed, our understanding regarding the psychological and behavioral drivers of continued COVID-19 vaccination remains limited. In this pre-registered study (UK: AsPredicted#78370|Australia: AsPredicted#81667), factors predicting the intention to receive a COVID-19 booster vaccine were investigated in two adult samples from the UK (N = 1222) and Australia (N = 1197) that were nationally representative on factors of age, gender, and geographic location. High levels of booster intent were found (73% and 67%, respectively). Exploratory Structural Equation Modelling (ESEM) revealed three key predictors of the intention to receive a booster vaccine that emerged across both UK and Australian samples: concern regarding the COVID-19 virus, positive perceptions of the COVID-19 vaccines, and the perceived severity of side effects experienced to the last COVID-19 vaccine dose. Several additional factors (age, months since the last COVID-19 vaccine, familiarity with side effects, and regularly receiving the influenza vaccine) were present in the Australian dataset. These findings provide important evidence that targeting psychological perceptions of the COVID-19 vaccine and virus may serve to maintain participation in the COVID-19 vaccination programme, paving the way for future behavioural research in this area.

Longitudinal Comparison of Neutralizing Antibody Responses to COVID-19 mRNA Vaccines after Second and Third Doses

COVID-19 mRNA vaccines protect against severe disease and hospitalization. Neutralizing antibodies (NAbs) are a first-line defense mechanism, but protective NAb responses are variable. Currently, NAb testing is not widely available. This study employed a lateral flow assay for monitoring NAb levels postvaccination and natural infection, using a finger-stick drop of blood. We report longitudinal NAb data from BNT162b2 (Pfizer) and mRNA-1273 (Moderna) recipients after second and third doses. Results demonstrate a third dose of mRNA vaccine elicits higher and more durable NAb titers than the second dose, independent of manufacturer, sex, and age. Our analyses also revealed that vaccinated individuals could be categorized as strong, moderate, and poorly neutralizing responders. After the second dose, 34% of subjects were classified as strong responders, compared to 79% after the third dose. The final months of this study coincided with the emergence of the SARS-CoV-2 Omicron variant and symptomatic breakthrough infections within our study population. Lastly, we show that NAb levels sufficient for protection from symptomatic infection with early SARS-CoV-2 variants were not protective against Omicron infection and disease. This work highlights the need for accessible vaccine response monitoring for use in healthcare, such that individuals, particularly those in vulnerable populations, can make informed vaccination decisions.

Prolonged COVID-19 symptom duration in people with systemic autoimmune rheumatic diseases: results from the COVID-19 Global Rheumatology Alliance Vaccine Survey

OBJECTIVE

We investigated prolonged COVID-19 symptom duration, defined as lasting 28 days or longer, among people with systemic autoimmune rheumatic diseases (SARDs).

METHODS

We analysed data from the COVID-19 Global Rheumatology Alliance Vaccine Survey (2 April 2021-15 October 2021) to identify people with SARDs reporting test-confirmed COVID-19. Participants reported COVID-19 severity and symptom duration, sociodemographics and clinical characteristics. We reported the proportion experiencing prolonged symptom duration and investigated associations with baseline characteristics using logistic regression.

RESULTS

We identified 441 respondents with SARDs and COVID-19 (mean age 48.2 years, 83.7% female, 39.5% rheumatoid arthritis). The median COVID-19 symptom duration was 15 days (IQR 7, 25). Overall, 107 (24.2%) respondents had prolonged symptom duration (≥28 days); 42/429 (9.8%) reported symptoms lasting ≥90 days. Factors associated with higher odds of prolonged symptom duration included: hospitalisation for COVID-19 vs not hospitalised and mild acute symptoms (age-adjusted OR (aOR) 6.49, 95% CI 3.03 to 14.1), comorbidity count (aOR 1.11 per comorbidity, 95% CI 1.02 to 1.21) and osteoarthritis (aOR 2.11, 95% CI 1.01 to 4.27). COVID-19 onset in 2021 vs June 2020 or earlier was associated with lower odds of prolonged symptom duration (aOR 0.42, 95% CI 0.21 to 0.81).

CONCLUSION

Most people with SARDs had complete symptom resolution by day 15 after COVID-19 onset. However, about 1 in 4 experienced COVID-19 symptom duration 28 days or longer; 1 in 10 experienced symptoms 90 days or longer. Future studies are needed to investigate the possible relationships between immunomodulating medications, SARD type/flare, vaccine doses and novel viral variants with prolonged COVID-19 symptoms and other postacute sequelae of COVID-19 among people with SARDs.

A Mixed-Methods Study of COVID-19 Vaccine Acceptance and Its Determinants Among Pregnant Women in Northeast Ethiopia

Background

The World Health Organization recommends that pregnant women should receive a vaccine against COVID-19. However, COVID-19 vaccine hesitance was one of the barriers to delivering the vaccine, and this issue was not well addressed in Ethiopia. Therefore, we aimed to determine the prevalence of COVID-19 vaccination acceptability and the factors that influence it among pregnant women in Northeast Ethiopia.

Methods

A mixed-methods approach comprising both qualitative interviews and a quantitative survey was conducted from January 1-30, 2022. For the quantitative part, a multi-stage sampling technique was used to recruit the study participants (n=702). Data was collected through face-to-face interviews using pretested and structured questionnaires. Bivariate and multivariable logistic regression analyses were employed. The statistical difference was considered at P-0.05, and the strength of association was assessed by the odds ratio and respective 95% confidence intervals. For the qualitative part, 18 participants were selected purposively for in-depth interviews, an interviewer guide was used for data collection and thematic content analysis was performed.

Results

In this study, a total of 702 pregnant women were included with the response rate of 100%. The rate of COVID-19 vaccine acceptance was 22.6% (95% CI: 19.6%, 25.9%). The husbands' educational level (AOR = 1.99, 95% CI: 1.09, 3.64), chronic medical illness (AOR = 2.41, 95% CI: 1.28, 4.54), positive attitude (AOR = 1.59, 95% CI: 1.09, 2.31), and good practice of COVID-19 preventive measures (AOR = 1.59, 95% CI: 1.09, 2.31) were determinant factors of COVID-19 vaccine acceptance. According to the qualitative findings, the most common reasons for COVID-19 vaccine hesitancy were fear of fetal side effects, misconceptions about the vaccine, and religious beliefs.

Conclusion

In this study, the acceptability of the COVID-19 vaccine was low. Therefore, health professionals should disseminate accurate vaccination information and address misinformation to boost vaccine acceptance among pregnant women.

Infection- or vaccine mediated immunity reduces SARS-CoV-2 transmission, but increases competitiveness of Omicron in hamsters

Omicron has demonstrated a competitive advantage over Delta in vaccinated people. To understand this, we designed a transmission chain experiment using naïve, intranasally (IN) or intramuscularly (IM) vaccinated, and previously infected (PI) hamsters. Vaccination and previous infection protected animals from disease and virus replication after Delta and Omicron dual challenge. A gradient in transmission blockage was observed: IM vaccination displayed moderate transmission blockage potential over three airborne chains (approx. 70%), whereas, IN vaccination and PI blocked airborne transmission in >90%. In naïve hamsters, Delta completely outcompeted Omicron within and between hosts after dual infection in onward transmission. Although Delta also outcompeted Omicron in the vaccinated and PI transmission chains, an increase in Omicron competitiveness was observed in these groups. This correlated with the increase in the strength of the humoral response against Delta, with the strongest response seen in PI animals. These data highlight the continuous need to assess the emergence and spread of novel variants in populations with pre-existing immunity and address the additional evolutionary pressure this may exert on the virus.

Active viral shedding in a vaccinated hospitalized patient infected with the delta variant (B.1.617.2) of SARS-CoV-2 and challenges of de-isolation

In the era of SARS-CoV-2 variants and COVID-19 vaccination, the duration of infectious viral shedding and isolation in post vaccine breakthrough infections is challenging and depends on disease severity. The current study described a case of SARS-CoV-2 Delta variant pneumonia requiring hospitalization. The patient received two doses of BNT162b2 COVID-19 vaccines, and he had positive SARS-CoV-2 viral cultures 12 days post symptom onset. The time between the second dose of vaccine and the breakthrough infection was 6 months. While immunosuppression is a known risk factor for prolonged infectious viral shedding, age and time between vaccination and breakthrough infection are important risk factors that warrant further studies.