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Huang T, Deng L, Wang S, Tan C, Hu J, Zhu B, Li M, Lu L, Yin Z, Fu B. Effects of Fe(III) on the formation and toxicity alteration of halonitromethanes, dichloroacetonitrile, and dichloroacetamide from polyethyleneimine during UV/chlorine disinfection. WATER RESEARCH 2024; 259:121844. [PMID: 38824795 DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2024.121844] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/31/2023] [Revised: 05/26/2024] [Accepted: 05/27/2024] [Indexed: 06/04/2024]
Abstract
Trace iron ions (Fe(III)) are commonly found in water and wastewater, where free chlorine is very likely to coexist with Fe(III) affecting the disinfectant's stability and N-DBPs' fate during UV/chlorine disinfection, and yet current understanding of these mechanisms is limited. This study investigates the effects of Fe(III) on the formation and toxicity alteration of halonitromethanes (HNMs), dichloroacetonitrile (DCAN), and dichloroacetamide (DCAcAm) from polyethyleneimine (PEI) during UV/chlorine disinfection. Results reveal that the maxima concentrations of HNMs, DCAN, and DCAcAm during UV/chlorine disinfection with additional Fe(III) were 1.39, 1.38, and 1.29 times higher than those without additional Fe(III), instead of being similar to those of Fe(III) inhibited the formation of HNMs, DCAN and DCAcAm during chlorination disinfection. Meanwhile, higher Fe(III) concentration, acidic pH, and higher chlorine dose were more favorable for forming HNMs, DCAN, and DCAcAm during UV/chlorine disinfection, which were highly dependent on the involvement of HO· and Cl·. Fe(III) in the aquatic environment partially hydrolyzed to the photoactive Fe(III)‑hydroxyl complexes Fe(OH)2+ and [Fe(H2O)6]3+, which undergone UV photoactivation and coupling reactions with HOCl to achieve effective Fe(III)/Fe(II) interconversion, a process that facilitated the sustainable production of HO·. Extensive product analysis and comparison verified that the HO· production enhanced by the Fe(III)/Fe(II) internal cycle played a primary role in increasing HNMs, DCAN, and DCAcAm productions during UV/chlorine disinfection. Note that the incorporation of Fe(III) increased the cytotoxicity and genotoxicity of HNMs, DCAN, and DCAcAm formed during UV/chlorine disinfection, and yet Fe(III) did not have a significant effect on the acute toxicity of water samples before, during, and after UV/chlorine disinfection. The new findings broaden the knowledge of Fe(III) affecting HNMs, DCAN, and DCAcAm formation and toxicity alteration during UV/chlorine disinfection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tingting Huang
- Department of Municipal Engineering, Southeast University, Nanjing 211189, China
| | - Lin Deng
- Department of Municipal Engineering, Southeast University, Nanjing 211189, China.
| | - Shui Wang
- Jiangsu Provincial Academy of Environmental Science, Jiangsu Provincial Key Laboratory of Environmental Engineering, Nanjing 210036, China
| | - Chaoqun Tan
- Department of Municipal Engineering, Southeast University, Nanjing 211189, China
| | - Jun Hu
- Department of Municipal Engineering, Southeast University, Nanjing 211189, China
| | - Bingqing Zhu
- Jiangsu Provincial Academy of Environmental Science, Jiangsu Provincial Key Laboratory of Environmental Engineering, Nanjing 210036, China; School of Energy and Environment, City University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China
| | - Mengya Li
- Jiangsu Provincial Academy of Environmental Science, Jiangsu Provincial Key Laboratory of Environmental Engineering, Nanjing 210036, China; School of the Environment, Nanjing University, Nanjing 210023, China
| | - Lianghua Lu
- Jiangsu Provincial Academy of Environmental Science, Jiangsu Provincial Key Laboratory of Environmental Engineering, Nanjing 210036, China
| | - Zhihua Yin
- Jiangsu Provincial Academy of Environmental Science, Jiangsu Provincial Key Laboratory of Environmental Engineering, Nanjing 210036, China
| | - Bowen Fu
- Jiangsu Provincial Academy of Environmental Science, Jiangsu Provincial Key Laboratory of Environmental Engineering, Nanjing 210036, China
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Kaufman JA, Wright JM, Evans A, Rivera-Núñez Z, Meyer A, Reckhow DA, Narotsky MG. Risks of obstructive genitourinary birth defects in relation to trihalomethane and haloacetic acid exposures: expanding disinfection byproduct mixtures analyses using relative potency factors. JOURNAL OF EXPOSURE SCIENCE & ENVIRONMENTAL EPIDEMIOLOGY 2024; 34:34-46. [PMID: 37700034 PMCID: PMC10961607 DOI: 10.1038/s41370-023-00595-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/07/2023] [Revised: 08/02/2023] [Accepted: 08/15/2023] [Indexed: 09/14/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Some disinfection byproducts (DBPs) are teratogens based on toxicological evidence. Conventional use of predominant DBPs as proxies for complex mixtures may result in decreased ability to detect associations in epidemiological studies. OBJECTIVE We assessed risks of obstructive genitourinary birth defects (OGDs) in relation to 12 DBP mixtures and 13 individual component DBPs. METHODS We designed a nested registry-based case-control study (210 OGD cases; 2100 controls) in Massachusetts towns with complete quarterly 1999-2004 data on four trihalomethanes (THMs) and five haloacetic acids (HAAs). We estimated temporally-weighted average DBP exposures for the first trimester of pregnancy. We estimated adjusted odds ratios (aORs) and 95% confidence intervals (CIs) for OGD in relation to individual DBPs, unweighted mixtures, and weighted mixtures based on THM/HAA relative potency factors (RPF) from animal toxicology data for full-litter resorption, eye defects, and neural tube defects. RESULTS We detected elevated aORs for OGDs for the highest of bromodichloromethane (aOR = 1.75; 95% CI: 1.15-2.65), dibromochloromethane (aOR = 1.71; 95% CI: 1.15-2.54), bromodichloroacetic acid (aOR = 1.56; 95%CI: 0.97-2.51), chlorodibromoacetic acid (aOR = 1.97, 95% CI: 1.23-3.15), and tribromoacetic acid (aOR = 1.90; 95%CI: 1.20-3.03). Across unweighted mixture sums, the highest aORs were for the sum of three brominated THMs (aOR = 1.74; 95% CI: 1.15-2.64), the sum of six brominated HAAs (aOR = 1.43; 95% CI: 0.89-2.31), and the sum of nine brominated DBPs (aOR = 1.80; 95% CI: 1.05-3.10). Comparing eight RPF-weighted to unweighted mixtures, the largest aOR differences were for two HAA metrics, which both were higher with RPF weighting; other metrics had reduced or minimally changed ORs in RPF-weighted models.
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Affiliation(s)
- John A Kaufman
- Department of Epidemiology, Rollins School of Public Health, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA.
| | - J Michael Wright
- Center for Public Health and Environmental Assessment, Office of Research and Development, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Cincinnati, OH, USA
| | - Amanda Evans
- St. Elizabeth Physicians, Bellevue Primary Care, Bellevue, KY, USA
| | - Zorimar Rivera-Núñez
- Rutgers School of Public Health, Department of Biostatistics and Epidemiology, Piscataway, NJ, USA
| | - Amy Meyer
- Oak Ridge Institute of Science and Education, hosted by Center for Public Health and Environmental Assessment, Office of Research and Development, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Cincinnati, OH, USA
| | | | - Michael G Narotsky
- Center for Public Health and Environmental Assessment, Office of Research and Development, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC, USA
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Gao M, Guo H, Han J, Liu J, Hou Y, Wang Z, Yang Z, Wang Q. Bromoform exposure is associated with non-melanoma skin cancer: evidence from NHANES 2011-2020. Front Public Health 2023; 11:1191881. [PMID: 37927885 PMCID: PMC10624123 DOI: 10.3389/fpubh.2023.1191881] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/22/2023] [Accepted: 10/02/2023] [Indexed: 11/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Non-melanoma skin cancer (NMSC) is a prevalent skin malignancy. It has been indicated in many studies that trihalomethanes (THMs) exposure has a strong association with tumors but has not been associated with NMSC. Our investigation aims to explore the association between THMs exposure and NMSC. Methods Cross-sectional data from the 2011 to 2020 National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) was collected. Poisson regression and subgroup analyses were performed to evaluate the association between individual THMs components and NMSC. Fitted smoothing curves and generalized additive models were also used. Results This study involved 5,715 individuals, 98 (1.7%) of whom self-reported NMSC. After adjusting for covariates, Poisson regression showed that higher blood TBM levels were associated with an increased likelihood of NMSC (OR = 1.03; 95% CI: 1.01-1.05, p = 0.002). However, the correlation between the blood levels of TCM, DBCM, and BDCM and the likelihood of NMSC was not statistically significant (all p > 0.05). Subgroup analysis and interaction tests showed no significant differences between blood TBM concentration and the likelihood of NMSC, indicating that age, gender, and race were significantly independent of this positive association (all p < 0.05). Conclusions Our results implied that among adults older than 65 years old in the U.S., elevated blood TBM concentrations were positively associated with NMSC. More prospective investigations are required to validate this relationship with the early prevention of NMSC.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | - Qiying Wang
- Department of Plastic Surgery, First Affiliated Hospital of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, China
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Yang H, Li X, Cao X, Lu S, Zheng X. The toxicity assessment of 14 biocides for industrial circulating cooling water system by damage/repair pathway profiling analysis. ENVIRONMENTAL TOXICOLOGY AND PHARMACOLOGY 2023:104156. [PMID: 37217027 DOI: 10.1016/j.etap.2023.104156] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/11/2023] [Revised: 05/17/2023] [Accepted: 05/18/2023] [Indexed: 05/24/2023]
Abstract
The toxicity of 14 biocides commonly used in circulating cooling water systems were evaluated. Results showed that biocide exposure can induce complex damage/repair pathways, including DNA, oxidative, protein, general, and membrane stress. All damages enhanced with increasing concentrations. Among them, MTC exhibited toxicity at concentrations as low as 1.00×10-17mg/L, and TELItotal reached 1.60. We derived molecular toxicity endpoints based on dose-response curves to compare the normalized toxicity of biocides. Total-TELI1.5 exhibited that THPS, MTC, and DBNPA have the lowest toxic exposure concentrations, which are 2.180×10-27, 1.015×10-14, and 3.523×10-6 mg/L. TBTC, MTC, and 2,4-DCP had the highest Total-TELImax values, which are 861.70, 526.30, and 248.30. Moreover, there was a high correlation (R2=0.43~0.97) between biocides' molecular structure and toxicity. And, biocide exposure combinations were found to increase toxicity pathways and enhance toxic effects, with a similar toxicity mechanism observed as in single-component exposure.
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Affiliation(s)
- Heyun Yang
- State Key Laboratory of Eco-hydraulics in North west Arid Region, Xi'an University of Technology, Xi'an, 710048, China; School of Environmental and Natural Resources, Zhejiang University of Science & Technology, Hangzhou, 310023, China; Department of Municipal and Environmental Engineering, School of Water Resources and Hydro-Electric Engineering, Xi'an University of Technology, Xi'an, Shaanxi 710048, China
| | - Xiaoliang Li
- State Key Laboratory of Eco-hydraulics in North west Arid Region, Xi'an University of Technology, Xi'an, 710048, China; Department of Municipal and Environmental Engineering, School of Water Resources and Hydro-Electric Engineering, Xi'an University of Technology, Xi'an, Shaanxi 710048, China
| | - Xin Cao
- State Key Laboratory of Eco-hydraulics in North west Arid Region, Xi'an University of Technology, Xi'an, 710048, China; Department of Municipal and Environmental Engineering, School of Water Resources and Hydro-Electric Engineering, Xi'an University of Technology, Xi'an, Shaanxi 710048, China
| | - Sijia Lu
- State Key Laboratory of Eco-hydraulics in North west Arid Region, Xi'an University of Technology, Xi'an, 710048, China; Department of Municipal and Environmental Engineering, School of Water Resources and Hydro-Electric Engineering, Xi'an University of Technology, Xi'an, Shaanxi 710048, China
| | - Xing Zheng
- State Key Laboratory of Eco-hydraulics in North west Arid Region, Xi'an University of Technology, Xi'an, 710048, China; School of Environmental and Natural Resources, Zhejiang University of Science & Technology, Hangzhou, 310023, China; Department of Municipal and Environmental Engineering, School of Water Resources and Hydro-Electric Engineering, Xi'an University of Technology, Xi'an, Shaanxi 710048, China; National Supervision & Inspection Center of Environmental Protection Equipment Quality, Jiangsu, Yixing 214205, China.
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Liberatore HK, Daiber EJ, Ravuri SA, Schmid JE, Richardson SD, DeMarini DM. Disinfection byproducts in chlorinated or brominated swimming pools and spas: Role of brominated DBPs and association with mutagenicity. J Environ Sci (China) 2022; 117:253-263. [PMID: 35725077 PMCID: PMC9986846 DOI: 10.1016/j.jes.2022.04.049] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/08/2022] [Revised: 04/28/2022] [Accepted: 04/28/2022] [Indexed: 05/23/2023]
Abstract
Although the health benefits of swimming are well-documented, health effects such as asthma and bladder cancer are linked to disinfection by-products (DBPs) in pool water. DBPs are formed from the reaction of disinfectants such as chlorine (Cl) or bromine (Br) with organics in the water. Our previous study (Daiber et al., Environ. Sci. Technol. 50, 6652; 2016) found correlations between the concentrations of classes of DBPs and the mutagenic potencies of waters from chlorinated or brominated swimming pools and spas. We extended this study by identifying significantly different concentrations of 21 individual DBPs in brominated or chlorinated pool and spa waters as well as identifying which DBPs and additional DBP classes were most associated with the mutagenicity of these waters. Using data from our previous study, we found that among 21 DBPs analyzed in 21 pool and spa waters, the concentration of bromoacetic acid was significantly higher in Br-waters versus Cl-waters, whereas the concentration of trichloroacetic acid was significantly higher in Cl-waters. Five Br-DBPs (tribromomethane, dibromochloroacetic acid, dibromoacetonitrile, bromoacetic acid, and tribromoacetic acid) had significantly higher concentrations in Br-spa versus Cl-spa waters. Cl-pools had significantly higher concentrations of Cl-DBPs (trichloroacetaldehyde, trichloromethane, dichloroacetic acid, and chloroacetic acid), whereas Br-pools had significantly higher concentrations of Br-DBPs (tribromomethane, dibromoacetic acid, dibromoacetonitrile, and tribromoacetic acid). The concentrations of the sum of all 4 trihalomethanes, all 11 Br-DBPs, and all 5 nitrogen-containing DBPs were each significantly higher in brominated than in chlorinated pools and spas. The 8 Br-DBPs were the only DBPs whose individual concentrations were significantly correlated with the mutagenic potencies of the pool and spa waters. These results, along with those from our earlier study, highlight the importance of Br-DBPs in the mutagenicity of these recreational waters.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hannah K Liberatore
- Air Methods and Characterization Division, Center for Environmental Measurement and Modeling, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC 27711, USA.
| | - Eric J Daiber
- Student Services Authority, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, National Exposure Research Laboratory, Athens, GA 30605, USA
| | - Sridevi A Ravuri
- Student Services Authority, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, National Exposure Research Laboratory, Athens, GA 30605, USA
| | - Judith E Schmid
- National Health and Environmental Effects Research Laboratory, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC 27711, USA
| | - Susan D Richardson
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of South Carolina, Columbia, SC 29208, USA
| | - David M DeMarini
- Air Methods and Characterization Division, Center for Environmental Measurement and Modeling, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC 27711, USA
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DeMarini DM, Warren SH, Smith WJ, Richardson SD, Liberatore HK. Inability of GSTT1 to activate iodinated halomethanes to mutagens in Salmonella. ENVIRONMENTAL AND MOLECULAR MUTAGENESIS 2021; 62:168-176. [PMID: 33484035 PMCID: PMC8051615 DOI: 10.1002/em.22423] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/03/2020] [Revised: 01/11/2021] [Accepted: 01/19/2021] [Indexed: 05/30/2023]
Abstract
Drinking water disinfection by-products (DBPs), including the ubiquitous trihalomethanes (THMs), are formed during the treatment of water with disinfectants (e.g., chlorine, chloramines) to produce and distribute potable water. Brominated THMs (Br-THMs) are activated to mutagens via glutathione S-transferase theta 1 (GSTT1); however, iodinated THMs (I-THMs) have never been evaluated for activation by GSTT1. Among the I-THMs, only triiodomethane (iodoform) has been tested previously for mutagenicity in Salmonella and was positive (in the absence of GSTT1) in three strains (TA98, TA100, and BA13), all of which have error-prone DNA repair (pKM101). We evaluated five I-THMs (chlorodiiodomethane, dichloroiodomethane, dibromoiodomethane, bromochloroiodomethane, and triiodomethane) for mutagenicity in Salmonella strain RSJ100, which expresses GSTT1, and its homologue TPT100, which does not; neither strain has pKM101. We also evaluated chlorodiiodo-, dichloroiodo-, and dibromoiodo-methanes in strain TA100 +/- rat liver S9 mix; TA100 has pKM101. None was mutagenic in any of the strains. The I-THMs were generally more cytotoxic than their brominated and chlorinated analogues but less cytotoxic than analogous trihalonitromethanes tested previously. All five I-THMs showed similar thresholds for cytotoxicity at ~2.5 μmoles/plate, possibly due to release of iodine, a well-known antimicrobial. Although none of these I-THMs was activated by GSTT1, iodoform appears to be the only I-THM that is mutagenic in Salmonella, only in strains deficient in nucleotide excision repair (uvrB) and having pKM101. Given that only iodoform is mutagenic among the I-THMs and is generally present at low concentrations in drinking water, the I-THMs likely play little role in the mutagenicity of drinking water.
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Affiliation(s)
- David M. DeMarini
- Biomolecular and Computational Toxicology Division, Center for Computational Toxicology and Exposure, Office of Research and Development, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina
| | - Sarah H. Warren
- Biomolecular and Computational Toxicology Division, Center for Computational Toxicology and Exposure, Office of Research and Development, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina
| | | | - Susan D. Richardson
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of South Carolina, Columbia, South Carolina
| | - Hannah K. Liberatore
- Chemical Characterization and Exposure Division, Center for Computational Toxicology and Exposure, Office of Research and Development, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina
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Bulman DM, Remucal CK. Role of Reactive Halogen Species in Disinfection Byproduct Formation during Chlorine Photolysis. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2020; 54:9629-9639. [PMID: 32598837 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.0c02039] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
The multiple reactive oxidants produced during chlorine photolysis effectively degrade organic contaminants during water treatment, but their role in disinfection byproduct (DBP) formation is unclear. The impact of chlorine photolysis on dissolved organic matter (DOM) composition and DBP formation is investigated using lake water collected after coagulation, flocculation, and filtration at pH 6.5 and pH 8.5 with irradiation at three wavelengths (254, 311, and 365 nm). The steady-state concentrations of hydroxyl radical and chlorine radical decrease by 38-100% in drinking water compared to ultrapure water, which is primarily attributed to radical scavenging by natural water constituents. Chlorine photolysis transforms DOM through multiple mechanisms to produce DOM that is more aliphatic in nature and contains novel high molecular weight chlorinated DBPs that are detected via high-resolution mass spectrometry. Quenching experiments demonstrate that reactive chlorine species are partially responsible for the formation of halogenated DOM, haloacetic acids, and haloacetonitriles, whereas trihalomethane formation decreases during chlorine photolysis. Furthermore, DOM transformation primarily due to direct photolysis alters DOM such that it is more reactive with chlorine, which also contributes to enhanced formation of novel DBPs during chlorine photolysis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Devon Manley Bulman
- Environmental Chemistry and Technology Program, University of Wisconsin-Madison, 660 North Park Street, Madison, Wisconsin 53706, United States
| | - Christina K Remucal
- Environmental Chemistry and Technology Program, University of Wisconsin-Madison, 660 North Park Street, Madison, Wisconsin 53706, United States
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Wisconsin-Madison, 660 North Park Street, Madison, Wisconsin 53706, United States
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DeMarini DM. A review on the 40th anniversary of the first regulation of drinking water disinfection by-products. ENVIRONMENTAL AND MOLECULAR MUTAGENESIS 2020; 61:588-601. [PMID: 32374889 PMCID: PMC7640377 DOI: 10.1002/em.22378] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/23/2020] [Revised: 04/07/2020] [Accepted: 04/11/2020] [Indexed: 05/05/2023]
Abstract
Water disinfection, primarily by chlorination, is one of the greatest achievements of public health. However, more than half a century after its introduction, studies in the 1970s reported that (a) chlorine interacted with organic matter in the water to form disinfection by-products (DBPs); (b) two DBPs, chloroform and bromoform, both trihalomethanes (THMs), were rodent carcinogens; (c) three brominated THMs were mutagenic; in six studies chlorinated drinking waters in the United States and Canada were mutagenic; and (d) in one epidemiological study there was an association between bladder cancer mortality and THM exposure. This led the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency to issue its first DBP regulation in 1979. Forty years later, >600 DBPs have been characterized, 20/22 have been shown to be rodent carcinogens, >100 have been shown to be genotoxic, and 1000s of water samples have been found to be mutagenic. Data support a hypothesis that long-term dermal/inhalation exposure to certain levels of the three brominated THMs, as well as oral exposure to the haloacetic acids, combined with a specific genotype may increase the risk for bladder cancer for a small but significant population group. Improved water-treatment methods and stricter regulations have likely reduced such risks over the years, and further reductions in potential risk are anticipated with the application of advanced water-treatment methods and wider application of drinking water regulations. This 40-year research effort is a remarkable example of sustained cooperation between academic and government scientists, along with public/private water companies, to find answers to a pressing public health question.
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Affiliation(s)
- David M. DeMarini
- Biomolecular and Computational Toxicology Division, Center for Computational Toxicology and Exposure, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina
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Bibliometric review of research trends on disinfection by-products in drinking water during 1975–2018. Sep Purif Technol 2020. [DOI: 10.1016/j.seppur.2020.116741] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
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Chen YH, Qin LT, Mo LY, Zhao DN, Zeng HH, Liang YP. Synergetic effects of novel aromatic brominated and chlorinated disinfection byproducts on Vibrio qinghaiensis sp.-Q67. ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION (BARKING, ESSEX : 1987) 2019; 250:375-385. [PMID: 31022643 DOI: 10.1016/j.envpol.2019.04.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/10/2018] [Revised: 01/19/2019] [Accepted: 04/03/2019] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
Aromatic halogenated chemicals are an unregulated class of byproducts (DBPs) generated from disinfection processes in the water environment. Information on the toxicological interactions, such as antagonism and synergism, present in DBP mixtures remains limited. This study aimed to determine the toxicological effects of aromatic halogenated DBP mixtures on the freshwater bacterium Vibrio qinghaiensis sp.-Q67. The acute toxicities of seven DBPs and their binary mixtures toward V. qinghaiensis sp.-Q67 were determined through microplate toxicity analysis. The toxicities of single DBPs were ranked as follows: 2,5-dibromohydroquinone > 2,4-dibromophenol > 4-bromo-2-chlorophenol ≈ 2,6-dibromo-4-nitrophenol > 2,6-dichloro-4-nitrophenol > 2-bromo-4-chlorophenol > 4-bromophenol. The percentages of synergism (experimental values higher than the predicted concentration addition) on the levels of 50%, 20%, and 10% effective concentrations reached 61%, 41%, and 31%, respectively. These results indicated that the probability of synergism decreased as concentration levels decreased. The synergetic effects of the compounds were dependent on concentration levels and concentration ratios. The proposed quantitative structure-activity relationship model can be used to predict the interactive toxicities exerted by 105 binary DBP mixture rays of 21 DBP mixture systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yu-Han Chen
- College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Guilin University of Technology, Guilin, 541004, China
| | - Li-Tang Qin
- College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Guilin University of Technology, Guilin, 541004, China; Guangxi Key Laboratory of Environmental Pollution Control Theory and Technology, Guilin University of Technology, Guilin, 541004, China; Collaborative Innovation Center for Water Pollution Control and Water Safety in Karst Area, Guilin University of Technology, Guili, 541004, China.
| | - Ling-Yun Mo
- Guangxi Key Laboratory of Environmental Pollution Control Theory and Technology, Guilin University of Technology, Guilin, 541004, China; Collaborative Innovation Center for Water Pollution Control and Water Safety in Karst Area, Guilin University of Technology, Guili, 541004, China
| | - Dan-Na Zhao
- College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Guilin University of Technology, Guilin, 541004, China
| | - Hong-Hu Zeng
- College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Guilin University of Technology, Guilin, 541004, China; Guangxi Key Laboratory of Environmental Pollution Control Theory and Technology, Guilin University of Technology, Guilin, 541004, China; Collaborative Innovation Center for Water Pollution Control and Water Safety in Karst Area, Guilin University of Technology, Guili, 541004, China
| | - Yan-Peng Liang
- College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Guilin University of Technology, Guilin, 541004, China; Guangxi Key Laboratory of Environmental Pollution Control Theory and Technology, Guilin University of Technology, Guilin, 541004, China; Collaborative Innovation Center for Water Pollution Control and Water Safety in Karst Area, Guilin University of Technology, Guili, 541004, China
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de Castro Medeiros L, de Alencar FLS, Navoni JA, de Araujo ALC, do Amaral VS. Toxicological aspects of trihalomethanes: a systematic review. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND POLLUTION RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2019; 26:5316-5332. [PMID: 30607849 DOI: 10.1007/s11356-018-3949-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/10/2018] [Accepted: 12/07/2018] [Indexed: 05/28/2023]
Abstract
Chlorine is considered the most used chemical agent for water disinfection worldwide. However, water chlorination can lead to by-product generation which can be toxic to humans. The present study aimed to perform a systematic review on the toxicity of trihalomethanes (THMs) through bioindicators of cytotoxicity, genotoxicity, and mutagenicity. The results showed that studies on the effects of THMs on DNA are a current research concern for evaluating the toxicity of the pure compounds and real samples involving several types including water for recreational use, reused water, and drinking water. THMs deleterious effects have been assessed using several biosystems, where the Ames test along with experimental animal models were the most cited. A wide range of THM concentrations have been tested. Nevertheless, DNA damage was demonstrated, highlighting the potential human health risk. Among the studied THMs, chloroform presented a different action mechanism when compared with brominated THMs, with the former being cytotoxic while brominated THMs (bromodichloromethane, bromoform, and dibromochloromethane) were cytotoxic, genotoxic, and mutagenic. The described evidence in this research highlights the relevance of this topic as a human health issue. Nevertheless, research aimed to represent THMs current exposure conditions in a more accurate way would be needed to understand the real impact on human health.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luciana de Castro Medeiros
- Development and Environment, Bioscience Center, Federal University of Rio Grande do Norte (UFRN), University Campus, Lagoa Nova, Natal, RN, 59072-970, Brazil
| | - Feliphe Lacerda Souza de Alencar
- Development and Environment, Bioscience Center, Federal University of Rio Grande do Norte (UFRN), University Campus, Lagoa Nova, Natal, RN, 59072-970, Brazil
| | - Julio Alejandro Navoni
- Development and Environment, Bioscience Center, Federal University of Rio Grande do Norte (UFRN), University Campus, Lagoa Nova, Natal, RN, 59072-970, Brazil
- Department of Natural Resources, Federal Institute of Education, Science and Technology of Rio Grande do Norte, Natal, RN, Brazil
| | - André Luis Calado de Araujo
- Department of Natural Resources, Federal Institute of Education, Science and Technology of Rio Grande do Norte, Natal, RN, Brazil
| | - Viviane Souza do Amaral
- Development and Environment, Bioscience Center, Federal University of Rio Grande do Norte (UFRN), University Campus, Lagoa Nova, Natal, RN, 59072-970, Brazil.
- Department of Cell Biology and Genetics, Center of Biosciences, Federal University of Rio Grande do Norte (UFRN), University Campus, Lagoa Nova, Natal, RN, 59072-970, Brazil.
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12
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Yin J, Wu B, Liu S, Hu S, Gong T, Cherr GN, Zhang XX, Ren H, Xian Q. Rapid and complete dehalogenation of halonitromethanes in simulated gastrointestinal tract and its influence on toxicity. CHEMOSPHERE 2018; 211:1147-1155. [PMID: 30223330 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2018.08.039] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/12/2018] [Revised: 08/07/2018] [Accepted: 08/08/2018] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
Halonitromethanes (HNMs) as one typical class of nitrogenous disinfection byproducts in drinking water and wastewater are receiving attentions due to their high toxicity. This study applied a simulator of the human gastrointestinal tract to determine the dehalogenation processes of trichloronitromethane, bromonitromethane and bromochloronitromethane for the first time. Influence of digestion process of HNMs on gut microbiota and hepatotoxicity was further analyzed. Results showed that the three HNMs were rapidly and completely dehalogenated in the gastrointestinal tract, especially in the stomach (2 h retention Time) and small intestine (4 h retention Time). Mucin, cysteine, pancreatin and bile salts in the digestive juice played major roles in the dehalogenation process. HNMs and their dehalogenation products in the resulting fluids of stomach induced the highest toxicity followed by those in intestine and colon, exhibiting dose-dependent effects. Although most HNMs were degraded in the stomach and small intestine, residual HNMs entered into colon changed the microbial community. Abundance of several genera, such as Bacteroides, Lachnospiraceae_unassigned and Lactobacillus had high correlation with exposure concentration of HNMs. This study sheds new light on dehalogenation and toxic processes of HNMs by oral exposure, which provides basic data for their human health risk assessment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jinbao Yin
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, School of the Environment, Nanjing University, Nanjing, 210023, PR China
| | - Bing Wu
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, School of the Environment, Nanjing University, Nanjing, 210023, PR China.
| | - Su Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, School of the Environment, Nanjing University, Nanjing, 210023, PR China
| | - Shaoyang Hu
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, School of the Environment, Nanjing University, Nanjing, 210023, PR China
| | - Tingting Gong
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, School of the Environment, Nanjing University, Nanjing, 210023, PR China
| | - Gary N Cherr
- Bodega Marine Laboratory, Departments of Environmental Toxicology and Nutrition, University of California, Davis, CA, USA
| | - Xu-Xiang Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, School of the Environment, Nanjing University, Nanjing, 210023, PR China
| | - Hongqiang Ren
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, School of the Environment, Nanjing University, Nanjing, 210023, PR China
| | - Qiming Xian
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, School of the Environment, Nanjing University, Nanjing, 210023, PR China.
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Lan J, Rahman SM, Gou N, Jiang T, Plewa MJ, Alshawabkeh A, Gu AZ. Genotoxicity Assessment of Drinking Water Disinfection Byproducts by DNA Damage and Repair Pathway Profiling Analysis. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2018; 52:6565-6575. [PMID: 29660283 PMCID: PMC6941474 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.7b06389] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/03/2023]
Abstract
Genotoxicity is considered a major concern for drinking water disinfection byproducts (DBPs). Of over 700 DBPs identified to date, only a small number has been assessed with limited information for DBP genotoxicity mechanism(s). In this study, we evaluated genotoxicity of 20 regulated and unregulated DBPs applying a quantitative toxicogenomics approach. We used GFP-fused yeast strains that examine protein expression profiling of 38 proteins indicative of all known DNA damage and repair pathways. The toxicogenomics assay detected genotoxicity potential of these DBPs that is consistent with conventional genotoxicity assays end points. Furthermore, the high-resolution, real-time pathway activation and protein expression profiling, in combination with clustering analysis, revealed molecular level details in the genotoxicity mechanisms among different DBPs and enabled classification of DBPs based on their distinct DNA damage effects and repair mechanisms. Oxidative DNA damage and base alkylation were confirmed to be the main molecular mechanisms of DBP genotoxicity. Initial exploration of QSAR modeling using moleular genotoxicity end points (PELI) suggested that genotoxicity of DBPs in this study was correlated with topological and quantum chemical descriptors. This study presents a toxicogenomics-based assay for fast and efficient mechanistic genotoxicity screening and assessment of a large number of DBPs. The results help to fill in the knowledge gap in the understanding of the molecular mechanisms of DBP genotoxicity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jiaqi Lan
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Northeastern University, 360 Huntington Avenue, Boston, Massachusetts 02115, United States
- Institute of Materia Medica, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College, Beijing, 100050, China
| | - Sheikh Mokhlesur Rahman
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Northeastern University, 360 Huntington Avenue, Boston, Massachusetts 02115, United States
| | - Na Gou
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Northeastern University, 360 Huntington Avenue, Boston, Massachusetts 02115, United States
| | - Tao Jiang
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Northeastern University, 360 Huntington Avenue, Boston, Massachusetts 02115, United States
| | - Micheal J. Plewa
- Safe Global Water Institute and Department of Crop Sciences, University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign, Urbana, Illinois 61801, United States
| | - Akram Alshawabkeh
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Northeastern University, 360 Huntington Avenue, Boston, Massachusetts 02115, United States
| | - April Z. Gu
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Northeastern University, 360 Huntington Avenue, Boston, Massachusetts 02115, United States
- School of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York 14850, United States
- Corresponding Author:
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14
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Vughs D, Baken KA, Kolkman A, Martijn AJ, de Voogt P. Application of effect-directed analysis to identify mutagenic nitrogenous disinfection by-products of advanced oxidation drinking water treatment. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND POLLUTION RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2018; 25:3951-3964. [PMID: 27447472 DOI: 10.1007/s11356-016-7252-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/31/2016] [Accepted: 07/14/2016] [Indexed: 05/09/2023]
Abstract
Advanced oxidation processes are important barriers for organic micropollutants in (drinking) water treatment. It is however known that medium pressure UV/H2O2 treatment may lead to mutagenicity in the Ames test, which is no longer present after granulated activated carbon (GAC) filtration. Many nitrogen-containing disinfection by-products (N-DBPs) result from the reaction of photolysis products of nitrate with (photolysis products of) natural organic material (NOM) during medium pressure UV treatment of water. Identification of the N-DBPs and the application of effect-directed analysis to combine chemical screening results with biological activity would provide more insight into the relation of specific N-DBPs with the observed mutagenicity and was the subject of this study. To this end, fractions of medium pressure UV-treated and untreated water extracts were prepared using preparative HPLC and tested using the Ames fluctuation test. In addition, high-resolution mass spectrometry was performed on all fractions to assess the presence of N-DBPs. Based on toxicity data and read across analysis, we could identify five N-DBPs that are potentially genotoxic and were present in relatively high concentrations in the fractions in which mutagenicity was observed. The results of this study offer opportunities to further evaluate the identity and potential health concern of N-DBPs formed during advanced oxidation UV drinking water treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- D Vughs
- KWR Watercycle Research Institute, P.O. Box 1072, 3430 BB, Nieuwegein, The Netherlands
| | - K A Baken
- KWR Watercycle Research Institute, P.O. Box 1072, 3430 BB, Nieuwegein, The Netherlands.
| | - A Kolkman
- KWR Watercycle Research Institute, P.O. Box 1072, 3430 BB, Nieuwegein, The Netherlands
| | - A J Martijn
- PWN Water Supply Company North Holland, P.O. Box 2100, 1990 AC, Velserbroek, The Netherlands
| | - P de Voogt
- KWR Watercycle Research Institute, P.O. Box 1072, 3430 BB, Nieuwegein, The Netherlands
- Institute for Biodiversity and Ecosystem Dynamics, University of Amsterdam, P.O. Box 94248, 1090 GE, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
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15
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Lv L, Yu X, Xu Q, Ye C. Induction of bacterial antibiotic resistance by mutagenic halogenated nitrogenous disinfection byproducts. ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION (BARKING, ESSEX : 1987) 2015; 205:291-298. [PMID: 26114900 DOI: 10.1016/j.envpol.2015.06.026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/05/2015] [Revised: 06/17/2015] [Accepted: 06/21/2015] [Indexed: 05/28/2023]
Abstract
Halogenated nitrogenous disinfection byproducts (N-DBPs) raise concerns regarding their mutagenicity and carcinogenicity threatening public health. However, environmental consequence of their mutagenicity has received less attention. In this study, the effect of halogenated N-DBPs on bacterial antibiotic resistance (BAR) was investigated. After exposure to bromoacetamide (BAcAm), trichloroacetonitrile (TCAN) or tribromonitromethane (TBNM), the resistance of Pseudomonas aeruginosa PAO1 to both individual and multiple antibiotics (ciprofloxacin, gentamicin, polymyxin B, rifampin, tetracycline, ciprofloxacin + gentamicin and ciprofloxacin + tetracycline) was increased, which was predominantly ascribed to the overexpression of efflux pumps. The mechanism of this effect was demonstrated to be mutagenesis through sequencing and analyzing antibiotic resistance genes. The same induction phenomena also appeared in Escherichia coli, suggesting this effect may be universal to waterborne pathogens. Therefore, more attention should be given to halogenated N-DBPs, as they could increase not only genotoxicological risks but also epidemiological risks of drinking water.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lu Lv
- Key Lab of Urban Environment and Health, Institute of Urban Environment, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Xiamen 361021, China
| | - Xin Yu
- Key Lab of Urban Environment and Health, Institute of Urban Environment, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Xiamen 361021, China.
| | - Qian Xu
- College of Chemical Engineering, Huaqiao University, Xiamen 361021, China
| | - Chengsong Ye
- Key Lab of Urban Environment and Health, Institute of Urban Environment, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Xiamen 361021, China
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16
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Kolkman A, Martijn BJ, Vughs D, Baken KA, van Wezel AP. Tracing nitrogenous disinfection byproducts after medium pressure UV water treatment by stable isotope labeling and high resolution mass spectrometry. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2015; 49:4458-4465. [PMID: 25760315 DOI: 10.1021/es506063h] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
Advanced oxidation processes are important barriers for organic micropollutants (e.g., pharmaceuticals, pesticides) in (drinking) water treatment. Studies indicate that medium pressure (MP) UV/H2O2 treatment leads to a positive response in Ames mutagenicity tests, which is then removed after granulated activated carbon (GAC) filtration. The formed potentially mutagenic substances were hitherto not identified and may result from the reaction of photolysis products of nitrate with (photolysis products of) natural organic material (NOM). In this study we present an innovative approach to trace the formation of disinfection byproducts (DBPs) of MP UV water treatment, based on stable isotope labeled nitrate combined with high resolution mass spectrometry. It was shown that after MP UV treatment of artificial water containing NOM and nitrate, multiple nitrogen containing substances were formed. In total 84 N-DBPs were detected at individual concentrations between 1 to 135 ng/L bentazon-d6 equivalents, with a summed concentration of 1.2 μg/L bentazon-d6 equivalents. The chemical structures of three byproducts were confirmed. Screening for the 84 N-DBPs in water samples from a full-scale drinking water treatment plant based on MP UV/H2O2 treatment showed that 22 of the N-DBPs found in artificial water were also detected in real water samples.
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Affiliation(s)
- Annemieke Kolkman
- †KWR Watercycle Research Institute, P.O. Box 1072, 3430 BB Nieuwegein, The Netherlands
| | - Bram J Martijn
- ‡PWN Water Supply Company North Holland, P.O. Box 2046, 1990 AA, Velserbroek, The Netherlands
| | - Dennis Vughs
- †KWR Watercycle Research Institute, P.O. Box 1072, 3430 BB Nieuwegein, The Netherlands
| | - Kirsten A Baken
- †KWR Watercycle Research Institute, P.O. Box 1072, 3430 BB Nieuwegein, The Netherlands
| | - Annemarie P van Wezel
- †KWR Watercycle Research Institute, P.O. Box 1072, 3430 BB Nieuwegein, The Netherlands
- §Copernicus Institute of Sustainable Development, Utrecht University, Heidelberglaan 2, 3584 CS, Utrecht, The Netherlands
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17
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Kawasaki Y, Tsuboi C, Yagi K, Morizane M, Masaoka Y, Esumi S, Kitamura Y, Sendo T. Photoinitiators enhanced 1,2-dichloropropane-induced cytotoxicity in human normal embryonic lung fibroblasts cells in vitro. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND POLLUTION RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2015; 22:4763-4770. [PMID: 25501643 DOI: 10.1007/s11356-014-3939-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/22/2014] [Accepted: 12/01/2014] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
Dichloromethane (DCM) and 1,2-dichloropsropane (DCP) have various uses, including being solvents for paint removers. Photoinitiators are also used in a wide range of commercial applications such as printing. These chemicals have been shown to induce cytotoxic effects. In the present study, we evaluated the combined effects of DCM or DCP from paint removers and photoinitiators used in printing on normal human embryonic lung fibroblasts with the aim of preventing occupational injuries. We showed that DCP, 2,2-dimethoxy-2-phenylacetophenone (2,2-DMPAP), 2-ethylhexyl-4-(dimethylamino) benzoate (2-EHDAB), 1-hydroxycyclohexyl phenyl ketone (1-HCHPK), and methyl 2-benzoylbenzoate (MBB) induced cytotoxicity, whereas DCM and 2-isopropylthioxanthone (2-ITX) did not. In addition, 2-methyl-4'-(methylthio)-2-morpholinopropiophenone (MTMP) caused a slight increase in cytotoxicity. The combination of DCP and the four photoinitiators (2,2-DMPAP, 2-EHDAB, MBB, and MTMP) significantly induced cytotoxicity and also led to apoptosis. In conclusion, the combination of DCP and photoinitiators may increase the risk of respiratory diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yoichi Kawasaki
- Department of Pharmacy, Okayama University Hospital, 2-5-1, Shikata-cho, Kita-ku, Okayama, 700-8558, Japan
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18
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Abda A, Benouareth DE, Tabet M, Liman R, Konuk M, Khallef M, Taher A. Mutagenicity and genotoxicity of drinking water in Guelma region, Algeria. ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING AND ASSESSMENT 2015; 187:21. [PMID: 25626560 DOI: 10.1007/s10661-014-4223-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/20/2014] [Accepted: 12/10/2014] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
In this study, a battery of genotoxicity assays for monitoring drinking water was performed to assess the quality of the water resulting from the treatment plants. Five different types of samples were collected: raw water (P1), treated after pre-chlorination (P2), treated after decantation (P3), treated post-chlorination (P4), and consumers' taps (P5-P12). This study aims to evaluate the formation/occurrence of mutagenic and/or genotoxic compounds in surface drinking waters treated with chlorine disinfectant, during four seasonal experiments: summer, autumn, winter, and spring between 2012 and 2013 by bacterial reverse mutation assay in both Salmonella typhimurium TA98 and TA100 strains with or without metabolic activation system (S9 mix) and Allium cepa root meristematic cells, respectively. All of water samples, except at P1, P2, and P5 in summer; P1 in autumn; and P1 and P3-P12 in spring without S9 mix, and at P1 and P2 in summer and P6 and P8-P12 in spring with S9 mix, were found to be mutagenic in S. typhimurium TA98. However, only P11 and P12 in winter were found to be mutagenic for TA100 without S9 mix. The tested preparations in Allium anaphase-telophase test revealed a significant decrease in mitotic index (MI) and a simultaneous increase in chromosome aberrations (CAs) compared to the control. The bridge, stickiness, vagrant chromosomes, and disturbed chromosome aberrations were observed in anaphase-telophase cells. Physicochemical analysis, trihalomethanes (THMs), romoform (CHBr3), chloroform (CHCl3), bromodichloromethane (CHBrCl2), and dibromochloromethane (CHBr2Cl) levels in water samples were also determined. The results show also that this short-term battery tests are applicable in the routine monitoring of drinking water quality before and after distribution.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ahlem Abda
- Biology Department, Faculty of Natural and Life Sciences, Earth and Universe Sciences, University 8 Mai 1945 Guelma, BP 401, 24000, Guelma, Algeria
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Affiliation(s)
- Susan D. Richardson
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of South Carolina, JM Palms Center, 631 Sumter Street, Columbia, South Carolina 29208
- Department of Environmental Chemistry, Institute for Environmental Assessment and Water Research, (IDAEA-CSIC), Carrer Jordi Girona 18-26, 08034 Barcelona, Spain
| | - Cristina Postigo
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of South Carolina, JM Palms Center, 631 Sumter Street, Columbia, South Carolina 29208
- Department of Environmental Chemistry, Institute for Environmental Assessment and Water Research, (IDAEA-CSIC), Carrer Jordi Girona 18-26, 08034 Barcelona, Spain
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20
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Yang F, Zhang J, Chu W, Yin D, Templeton MR. Haloactamides versus halomethanes formation and toxicity in chloraminated drinking water. JOURNAL OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS 2014; 274:156-163. [PMID: 24780857 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2014.04.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/12/2014] [Revised: 03/24/2014] [Accepted: 04/07/2014] [Indexed: 06/03/2023]
Abstract
In this study we quantified the concentrations of nine haloacetamides (HAcAms) and nine halomethanes (HMs) in the final waters of five drinking water treatment plants (DWTPs) that use either chlorination or chloramination for disinfection and evaluated the toxicity of dichloroacetamide (DCAcAm) and dichloromethane (DCM) in normal rat kidney (NRK) cells using four in vitro toxicity assays. All the DWTPs final waters contained primarily di-HAcAms, followed by tri- and mono-HAcAms, and DCAcAm was the most abundant species of the 9 HAcAms, regardless of chlorination or chloramination being applied. In the final waters of DWTPs using chlorination, tri-HMs (trihalomethanes, THMs) accounted for the majority of HMs, whereas chloramination resulted in more di-HMs (especially DCM) than THMs. All four in vitro toxicity assays indicated that the NRK cell chronic cytotoxicity and acute genotoxicity of DCAcAm were substantially higher than that of DCM. In view of observed occurrence concentrations and quantified toxicity levels, the findings of this study suggest that DCAcAm represents a higher toxicity risk than DCM in chloraminated drinking waters.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fan Yang
- College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Tongji University, Key Laboratory of Yangtze River Water Environment, Ministry of Education, Shanghai 200092, China
| | - Jing Zhang
- School of Life Science and Technology, Tongji University, Shanghai 200092, China
| | - Wenhai Chu
- College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Tongji University, Key Laboratory of Yangtze River Water Environment, Ministry of Education, Shanghai 200092, China.
| | - Daqiang Yin
- College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Tongji University, Key Laboratory of Yangtze River Water Environment, Ministry of Education, Shanghai 200092, China.
| | - Michael R Templeton
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Imperial College London, London SW7 2AZ, UK
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Stalter D, Dutt M, Escher BI. Headspace-free setup of in vitro bioassays for the evaluation of volatile disinfection by-products. Chem Res Toxicol 2013; 26:1605-14. [PMID: 24117097 DOI: 10.1021/tx400263h] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
The conventional setup of in vitro bioassays in microplates does not prevent the loss of volatile compounds, which hampers the toxicological characterization of waterborne volatile disinfection by-products (DBPs). To minimize the loss of volatile test chemicals, we adapted four in vitro bioassays to a headspace-free setup using eight volatile organic compounds (four trihalomethanes, 1,1-dichloroethene, bromoethane, and two haloacetonitriles) that cover a wide range of air-water partition coefficients. The nominal effect concentrations of the test chemicals decreased by up to three orders of magnitude when the conventional setup was changed to a headspace-free setup for the bacterial cytotoxicity assay using bioluminescence inhibition of Vibrio fischeri. The increase of apparent sensitivity correlated significantly with the air-water partition coefficient. Purge and trap GC/MS analysis revealed a reduced loss of dosed volatile compounds in the headspace free setup (78-130% of nominal concentration) compared to a substantial loss in the conventional set up (2-13% of the nominal concentration). The experimental effect concentrations converged with the headspace-free setup to the effect concentrations predicted by a QSAR model, confirming the suitability of the headspace-free approach to minimize the loss of volatile test chemicals. The analogue headspace-free design of the bacterial bioassays for genotoxicity (umuC assay) and mutagenicity (Ames fluctuation assay) increased the number of compounds detected as genotoxic or mutagenic from one to four and zero to two, respectively. In a bioassay with a mammalian cell line applied for detecting the induction of the Nrf-2-mediated oxidative stress response (AREc32 assay), the headspace-free setup improved the apparent sensitivity by less than one order of magnitude, presumably due to the retaining effect of the serum components in the medium, which is also reflected in the reduced aqueous concentrations of compounds. This study highlights the importance of adapting bioanalytical test setups when volatile/semivolatile compounds are present in the sample to avoid the loss of chemicals and thus to avoid underestimating the toxicity of mixtures and complex environmental samples.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel Stalter
- National Research Centre for Environmental Toxicology (Entox), The University of Queensland , 39 Kessels Road, Brisbane Qld 4108, Australia
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Mezyk SP, Mincher BJ, Cooper WJ, Kirkham Cole S, Fox RV, Gardinali PR. Kinetic model for the radical degradation of tri-halonitromethane disinfection byproducts in water. Radiat Phys Chem Oxf Engl 1993 2012. [DOI: 10.1016/j.radphyschem.2012.05.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
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Physiologically Based Pharmacokinetic (PBPK) Modeling of Metabolic Pathways of Bromochloromethane in Rats. J Toxicol 2012; 2012:629781. [PMID: 22719758 PMCID: PMC3377357 DOI: 10.1155/2012/629781] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/18/2012] [Revised: 03/27/2012] [Accepted: 03/30/2012] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Bromochloromethane (BCM) is a volatile compound and a by-product of disinfection of water by chlorination. Physiologically based pharmacokinetic (PBPK) models are used in risk assessment applications. An updated PBPK model for BCM is generated and applied to hypotheses testing calibrated using vapor uptake data. The two different metabolic hypotheses examined are (1) a two-pathway model using both CYP2E1 and glutathione transferase enzymes and (2) a two-binding site model where metabolism can occur on one enzyme, CYP2E1. Our computer simulations show that both hypotheses describe the experimental data in a similar manner. The two pathway results were comparable to previously reported values (Vmax = 3.8 mg/hour, Km = 0.35 mg/liter, and kGST = 4.7 /hour). The two binding site results were Vmax1 = 3.7 mg/hour, Km1 = 0.3 mg/hour, CL2 = 0.047 liter/hour. In addition, we explore the sensitivity of different parameters for each model using our obtained optimized values.
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Chowdhury S, Rodriguez MJ, Sadiq R. Disinfection byproducts in Canadian provinces: associated cancer risks and medical expenses. JOURNAL OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS 2011; 187:574-584. [PMID: 21292392 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2011.01.085] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/14/2010] [Revised: 01/18/2011] [Accepted: 01/19/2011] [Indexed: 05/30/2023]
Abstract
Chlorination for drinking water forms various disinfection byproducts (DBPs). Some DBPs are probably linked to human cancer (e.g., bladder, colorectal cancers) and other chronic and sub-chronic effects. This emphasizes the need to understand and characterize DBPs in drinking water and possible risks to human health. In this study, occurrences of DBPs throughout Canada were investigated. Trihalomethanes (THMs) were observed to be highest in Manitoba followed by Nova Scotia and Saskatchewan, while haloacetic acids were highest in Nova Scotia followed by Newfoundland and Labrador. Based on the characterization of DBPs, risk of cancer from exposure to THMs was predicted using ingestion, inhalation and dermal contact pathways of exposure. In Canada, approximately 700 cancer cases may be caused by exposure to THMs in drinking water. Medical expenses associated with these cancer incidents are estimated at some $140 million/year. Expense may be highest in Ontario (∼$47 million/year) followed by Quebec (∼$25 million/year) due to a greater population base. This paper suggests improvements in water treatment, source protection and disinfection processes, and caution in the use of alternative disinfectants to reduce DBPs. Finally, elements are provided to mitigate risks and reduce cost estimates in future studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shakhawat Chowdhury
- Department of Civil Engineering, King Fahd University of Petroleum and Minerals, Dhahran 31261, Saudi Arabia.
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Lui YS, Qiu JW, Zhang YL, Wong MH, Liang Y. Algal-derived organic matter as precursors of disinfection by-products and mutagens upon chlorination. WATER RESEARCH 2011; 45:1454-1462. [PMID: 21115185 DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2010.11.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/09/2010] [Revised: 11/03/2010] [Accepted: 11/04/2010] [Indexed: 05/30/2023]
Abstract
Algal-derived organic materials (including algal cells, hydrophilic and hydrophobic proteins) from Chlamydomonas sp. (a common green alga in local reservoirs), were chlorinated in the laboratory (20 °C, pH 7, Cl(2)/DOC ratio of 20 mg Cl(2) mg(-1)). Levels of disinfection by-products and mutagenicity (via Salmonella T100 mutation assay, -S9) over 2 h of chlorination time were determined. The hydrophilic proteins were more effective precursors of chloroform (35.9 μmol L(-1) at 120 min), 35 times greater than that from the hydrophobic proteins; whereas the hydrophobic proteins were more potent precursors of direct-acting mutagens (maximum level of 50.1 rev μL(-1) at 30 s) than the hydrophilic proteins (maximum level of 3.38 rev μL(-1) at 60 min). The mutagenicity of the chlorinated solutions generally reached a peak level shortly after chlorination and then declined afterwards, a pattern different from that of chloroform generation. The results indicate that algal hydrophilic proteins, containing low aromaticity and difficult to be removed via coagulation/flocculation, are important chloroform precursors. It is also suggested that hydrophobic organic intermediates with low molecular weight formed during chlorination may serve as the direct-acting mutagens.
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Affiliation(s)
- Y S Lui
- Croucher Institute for Environmental Sciences and Department of Biology, Hong Kong Baptist University, Kowloon Tong, Hong Kong, PR China
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Richardson SD, Postigo C. Drinking Water Disinfection By-products. THE HANDBOOK OF ENVIRONMENTAL CHEMISTRY 2011. [DOI: 10.1007/698_2011_125] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
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Hu J, Song H, Karanfil T. Comparative analysis of halonitromethane and trihalomethane formation and speciation in drinking water: the effects of disinfectants, pH, bromide, and nitrite. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2010; 44:794-799. [PMID: 20000680 DOI: 10.1021/es902630u] [Citation(s) in RCA: 77] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/28/2023]
Abstract
A bench-scale study was performed to investigate formation and speciation of halonitromethanes (HNMs) in raw and treated waters obtained from a drinking water treatment plant. HNM species were measured after chlorination, ozonation-chlorination, chloramination, and ozonation-chloramination, and compared with trihalomethanes (THMs). Pre-ozonation before chlorination resulted in enhanced HNM formation, producing trihalogenated HNMs as major species. Formation of THMs showed very a different formation pattern from HNM formation such that it was much higher in the raw than the treated water, and decreased after pre-ozonation. These findings indicated that precursors and formation pathways for HNMs and THMs are not the same. Increases in pH and bromide concentrations increased HNM and THM formation during ozonation-chlorination and THM formation during chlorination. The bromide effect shifted the formation of HNMs and THMs toward brominated species, with its impact being greater in the treated than raw water. On the other hand, there was no pH or bromide effect on HNM formation during chlorination. The presence of nitrite increased HNM formation under both chlorination and ozonation-chlorination conditions, but it had no influence on THM formation. HNM formation during ozonation-chloramination remained about 1 microg/L level even at the highest bromide and nitrite concentrations. Monochloramination alone did not form any measurable HNMs. The results indicated that the use of chloramine can be an effective way to minimize HNM formation at typical drinking water treatment conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jia Hu
- Department of Environmental Engineering and Earth Sciences, Clemson University, Anderson, South Carolina 29625, USA
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García-Quispes WA, Carmona ER, Creus A, Marcos R. Genotoxic evaluation of two halonitromethane disinfection by-products in the Drosophila wing-spot test. CHEMOSPHERE 2009; 75:906-909. [PMID: 19215959 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2009.01.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/21/2008] [Revised: 12/19/2008] [Accepted: 01/05/2009] [Indexed: 05/27/2023]
Abstract
Few studies on the genotoxicity of halonitromethanes (HNMs) have been done. This limited information on their potential genotoxic risk gives special relevance to the collection of new data on their potential genotoxic activity. In the present study we have analyzed the genotoxicity of two HNMs namely bromonitromethane (BNM) and trichloronitromethane (TCNM) in the in vivo wing somatic mutation and recombination test in Drosophila, also known as the wing-spot assay. This test is based on the principle that loss of heterozygosis and the corresponding expression of the suitable recessive markers, multiple wing hairs (mwh) and flare-3 (flr(3)), can lead to the formation of mutant clones in larval cells, which are then expressed as spots on the wings of adult flies. BNM and TCNM were supplied to third instar larvae (72+/-4 h-old) at concentrations ranging from 0.1 to 2 mM. The results showed that none of the three categories of mutant spots recorded (small, large, and twin) increased significantly by the treatments, independently of the dose supplied, indicating that the selected HNMs exhibit a lack of genotoxic activity in the wing-spot assay of Drosophila melanogaster. These results contribute to increase the genotoxicity database on the HNMs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wilser A García-Quispes
- Departament de Genètica i de Microbiologia, Facultat de Biociències, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Campus de Bellaterra, 08193 Cerdanyola del Vallès, Spain
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Liviac D, Creus A, Marcos R. Genotoxicity analysis of two halonitromethanes, a novel group of disinfection by-products (DBPs), in human cells treated in vitro. ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH 2009; 109:232-238. [PMID: 19200951 DOI: 10.1016/j.envres.2008.12.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/24/2008] [Revised: 12/12/2008] [Accepted: 12/19/2008] [Indexed: 05/27/2023]
Abstract
Halonitromethanes (HNMs) constitute an emerging class of disinfection by-products (DBPs) produced when chlorine and/or ozone are used for water treatment. The HNMs are structurally similar to halomethanes, but have a nitro-group in place of hydrogen bonded to the central carbon atom. Since little information exists on the genotoxic potential of HNMs, a study has been carried out with two HNM compounds, namely trichloronitromethane (TCNM) and bromonitromethane (BNM) by using human cells. Primary damage induction has been measured with the Comet assay, which is used to determine both the repair kinetics of the induced damage and the proportion of induced oxidative damage. In addition, the fixed DNA damage has been evaluated by using the micronucleus (MN) assay. The results obtained indicate that both compounds are genotoxic, inducing high levels of DNA breaks in the Comet assay, and that this DNA damage repairs well over time. In addition, oxidized bases constitute a high proportion of DNA-induced damage (50-75%). Contrarily, no positive effects were observed in the frequency of micronucleus, which measures both clastogenic and aneugenic effects, neither using TK6 cells nor peripheral blood lymphocytes. This lack of fixed genetic damage would minimize the potential mutagenic risk associated with HNMs exposure.
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Affiliation(s)
- Danae Liviac
- Grup de Mutagènesi, Departament de Genètica i de Microbiologia, Edifici Cn, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, 08193 Bellaterra, Cerdanyola del Vallès, Spain
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Joyce SJ, Cook A, Newnham J, Brenters M, Ferguson C, Weinstein P. Water disinfection by-products and pre-labor rupture of membranes. Am J Epidemiol 2008; 168:514-21. [PMID: 18635574 DOI: 10.1093/aje/kwn188] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The causes of term pre labor rupture of membranes (term PROM) remain poorly defined. The authors conducted a record-based prevalence study to explore a possible relation between disinfection by-products in drinking water and term PROM in an Australian community with spatially variable trihalomethane and nitrate levels. A multilevel statistical model was used to examine the relation between factors operating at the levels of the individual, district, and water distribution zone and the prevalence of PROM at term among 16,229 women in Perth, Western Australia (2002-2004). Adjusted odds ratios for term PROM increased with increasing tertiles of nitrate exposure (moderate exposure: odds ratio = 1.23, 95% confidence interval: 1.03, 1.52; high exposure: odds ratio = 1.47, 95% confidence interval: 1.20, 1.79), but there was no significant relation with exposure to trihalomethanes. This study raises the possibility that water contaminants may promote the development of PROM at term.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarah J Joyce
- School of Population Health, University of Western Australia, Crawley, Western Australia, Australia
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Alwis KU, Blount BC, Silva LK, Smith MM, Loose KH. Method for quantifying nitromethane in blood as a potential biomarker of halonitromethane exposure. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2008; 42:2522-2527. [PMID: 18504991 DOI: 10.1021/es702733k] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/26/2023]
Abstract
The cytotoxicity and genotoxicity of nitromethane and its halogenated analogues in mammals raise concerns about potential toxicity to humans. This study shows that halonitromethanes are not stable in human blood and undergo dehalogenation to form nitromethane. We quantified nitromethane in human blood using solid-phase microextraction (SPME) headspace sampling coupled with gas chromatography (GC) and high resolution mass spectrometry (HRMS). The limit of detection was 0.01 microg/L with a linear calibration curve spanning 3 orders of magnitude. This method employs isotope dilution to precisely quantify trace amounts of nitromethane (coefficient of variation <6%). At three spiked concentrations of nitromethane, method accuracy ranged from 88 to 99%. We applied this method to blood samples collected from 632 people with no known occupational exposure to nitromethane or halonitromethanes. Nitromethane was detected in all blood samples tested (range: 0.28-3.79 microg/L, median: 0.66 microg/L). Time-course experiments with trichloronitromethane- and tribromonitromethane-spiked blood showed that nitromethane was the major product formed (1 nmole tribromonitromethane formed 0.59 nmole of nitromethane, whereas 1 nmole trichloronitromethane formed 0.77 nmole nitromethane). Nitromethane may form endogenously from peroxynitrite: nitromethane concentrations increased proportionately in blood samples spiked with peroxynitrite. Blood nitromethane can be a biomarker of exposure to both nitromethane and halonitromethanes. This sensitive, accurate, and precise analytical method can be used to determine baseline blood nitromethane level in the general population. It can also be used to study the health impact from exposure to nitromethane and halonitromethanes in occupational environments and to assess trichloronitromethane (chloropicrin) exposure in chemical terrorism investigations.
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Affiliation(s)
- K Udeni Alwis
- Division of Laboratory Sciences, National Center for Environmental Health, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia 30341, USA.
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Zwiener C, Richardson SD, DeMarini DM, De Marini DM, Grummt T, Glauner T, Frimmel FH. Drowning in disinfection byproducts? Assessing swimming pool water. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2007; 41:363-72. [PMID: 17310693 DOI: 10.1021/es062367v] [Citation(s) in RCA: 217] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/14/2023]
Abstract
Disinfection is mandatory for swimming pools: public pools are usually disinfected by gaseous chlorine or sodium hypochlorite and cartridge filters; home pools typically use stabilized chlorine. These methods produce a variety of disinfection byproducts (DBPs), such as trihalomethanes (THMs), which are regulated carcinogenic DBPs in drinking water that have been detected in the blood and breath of swimmers and of nonswimmers at indoor pools. Also produced are halogenated acetic acids (HAAs) and haloketones, which irritate the eyes, skin, and mucous membranes; trichloramine, which is linked with swimming-pool-associated asthma; and halogenated derivatives of UV sun screens, some of which show endocrine effects. Precursors of DBPs include human body substances, chemicals used in cosmetics and sun screens, and natural organic matter. Analytical research has focused also on the identification of an additional portion of unknown DBPs using gas chromatography (GC)/mass spectrometry (MS) and liquid chromatography (LC)/MS/MS with derivatization. Children swimmers have an increased risk of developing asthma and infections of the respiratory tract and ear. A 1.6-2.0-fold increased risk for bladder cancer has been associated with swimming or showering/bathing with chlorinated water. Bladder cancer risk from THM exposure (all routes combined) was greatest among those with the GSTT1-1 gene. This suggests a mechanism involving distribution of THMs to the bladder by dermal/inhalation exposure and activation there by GSTT1-1 to mutagens. DBPs may be reduced by engineering and behavioral means, such as applying new oxidation and filtration methods, reducing bromide and iodide in the source water, increasing air circulation in indoor pools, and assuring the cleanliness of swimmers. The positive health effects gained by swimming can be increased by reducing the potential adverse health risks.
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Krasner SW, Weinberg HS, Richardson SD, Pastor SJ, Chinn R, Sclimenti MJ, Onstad GD, Thruston AD. Occurrence of a new generation of disinfection byproducts. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2006; 40:7175-85. [PMID: 17180964 DOI: 10.1021/es060353j] [Citation(s) in RCA: 910] [Impact Index Per Article: 50.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/13/2023]
Abstract
A survey of disinfection byproduct (DBP) occurrence in the United States was conducted at 12 drinking water treatment plants. In addition to currently regulated DBPs, more than 50 DBPs that rated a high priority for potential toxicity were studied. These priority DBPs included iodinated trihalomethanes (THMs), other halomethanes, a nonregulated haloacid, haloacetonitriles, haloketones, halonitromethanes, haloaldehydes, halogenated furanones, haloamides, and nonhalogenated carbonyls. The purpose of this study was to obtain quantitative occurrence information for new DBPs (beyond those currently regulated and/or studied) for prioritizing future health effects studies. An effort was made to select plants treating water that was high in total organic carbon and/or bromide to enable the detection of priority DBPs that contained bromine and/or iodine. THMs and haloacetic acids (HAAs) represented the two major classes of halogenated DBPs formed on a weight basis. Haloacetaldehydes represented the third major class formed in many of the waters. In addition to obtaining quantitative occurrence data, important new information was discovered or confirmed at full-scale plants on the formation and control of DBPs with alternative disinfectants to chlorine. Although the use of alternative disinfectants (ozone, chlorine dioxide, and chloramines) minimized the formation of the four regulated THMs, trihalogenated HAAs, and total organic halogen (TOX), several priority DBPs were formed at higher levels with the alternative disinfectants as compared with chlorine. For example, the highest levels of iodinated THMs-which are not part of the four regulated THMs-were found at a plant that used chloramination with no prechlorination. The highest concentration of dichloroacetaldehyde was at a plant that used chloramines and ozone; however, this disinfection scheme reduced the formation of trichloroacetaldehyde. Preozonation was found to increase the formation of trihalonitromethanes. In addition to the chlorinated furanones that have been measured previously, brominated furanones-which have seldom been analyzed-were detected, especially in high-bromide waters. The presence of bromide resulted in a shift to the formation of other bromine-containing DBPs not normally measured (e.g., brominated ketones, acetaldehydes, nitromethanes, acetamides). Collectively, -30 and 39% of the TOX and total organic bromine, respectively, were accounted for (on a median basis) bythe sum of the measured halogenated DBPs. In addition, 28 new, previously unidentified DBPs were detected. These included brominated and iodinated haloacids, a brominated ketone, and chlorinated and iodinated aldehydes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stuart W Krasner
- Metropolitan Water District of Southern California, 700 Moreno Avenue, La Verne, California 91750-3399, USA.
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Hunter ES, Rogers E, Blanton M, Richard A, Chernoff N. Bromochloro-haloacetic acids: Effects on mouse embryos in vitro and QSAR considerations. Reprod Toxicol 2006; 21:260-6. [PMID: 16293395 DOI: 10.1016/j.reprotox.2005.09.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/05/2005] [Revised: 08/30/2005] [Accepted: 09/13/2005] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
The haloacetic acids (HAA) are a family of chemicals that are drinking water disinfection by-products. We previously reported that haloacetic acids, including several bromo- and chloro-HAAs, alter embryonic development when mouse conceptuses are directly exposed to these xenobiotics in whole embryo culture. Craniofacial dysmorphogenesis was observed in exposed embryos and a quantitative structure activity relationship (QSAR) for induction of cranial neural tube dysmorphogenesis was established for a series of 10 HAAs, which also included fluoro- and iodo-HAA representatives. In the current study, we evaluate the effects of exposing neurulation staged (3-6 somite pairs) CD-1 mouse conceptuses to bromochloro- (BCA), dibromochloro- (DBCA) and bromodichloro-acetic (BDCA) acids in whole embryo culture at concentrations ranging from 50 to 2500 microM. Morphological development was assessed after a 26 h exposure period. Exposure of conceptuses to these HAAs produced dysmorphogenesis, including prosencephalic and pharyngeal arch hypoplasia as well as eye and heart tube abnormalities. Benchmark concentrations for induction of neural tube dysmorphogenesis were 63, 500 and 536 microM for BCA, DBCA and BDCA, respectively. Our previously developed HAA QSAR accurately predicted placement of these three chemicals in the larger context of the previously tested di- and tri-HAAs, also correctly predicting that BCA would be more potent than DBCA and BDCA, and that the latter two HAAs would be near equi-potent. This study describes the concentration-dependent induction of dysmorphogenesis in whole embryo culture by three mixed chloro/bromo-HAAs and demonstrates the ability of the HAA QSAR to predict relative potencies within this family of xenobiotics.
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Affiliation(s)
- E Sidney Hunter
- Reproductive Toxicology Division, National Health and Environmental Effects Research Lab, US EPA, RTP, NC 27711, USA.
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Kundu B, Richardson SD, Swartz PD, Matthews PP, Richard AM, DeMarini DM. Mutagenicity in Salmonella of halonitromethanes: a recently recognized class of disinfection by-products in drinking water. Mutat Res 2004; 562:39-65. [PMID: 15279829 DOI: 10.1016/j.mrgentox.2004.05.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/29/2004] [Revised: 05/12/2004] [Accepted: 05/13/2004] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
Halonitromethanes (HNMs) are a recently identified class of disinfection by-products (DBPs) in drinking water. They include chloronitromethane (CHN), dichloronitromethane (DCNM), trichloronitromethane (TCNM), bromonitromethane (BNM), dibromonitromethane (DBNM), tribromonitromethane (TBNM), bromochloronitromethane (BCNM),dibromochloronitromethane (DBCNM), and bromodichloronitromethane (BDCNM). Previous studies of TCNM, DCNM, CNM, and TBNM found that all four were mutagenic in bacteria, and a recent study showed that all nine induced DNA damage in CHO cells. Here, all nine HNMs were evaluated in the Salmonella plate-incorporation assay +/- S9 using strains TA98, TA100, TA104, TPT100, and the glutathione transferase theta (GSTT1-1)-expressing strain RSJ100. All were mutagenic, most with and without S9. In the absence of S9, six were mutagenic in TA98, six in TA100, and three in TA104; in the presence of S9, these numbers were five, seven, and three, respectively. Thus, the HNMs-induced base substitutions primarily at GC sites as well as frameshifts. Although five HNMs were activated to mutagens in RSJ100 -S9, they produced < or =2-fold increases in revertants and potencies <506 rev/micromol. The rank order of the HNMs by mutagenic potency in TA100 +S9 was (BCNM DBNM) > (TBNM CNM > BNM DCNM BDCNM) > (TCNM = DBCNM). The mean rev/micromol for the three groupings, respectively, were 1423, 498, and 0, which classifies the HNMs as weak mutagens in Salmonella. Reaction of the dihalo and monohalo HNMs with GSH, possibly GSTT1-1, is a possible mechanism for formation of ultimate mutagenic products. Because the HNMs are mutagenic in Salmonella (present study) and potent clastogens in mammalian cells [Environ. Sci. Technol. 38 (2004) 62], their presence in drinking water warrants further research on their potential health effects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bijit Kundu
- Department of Environmental Science and Engineering, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC 27599, USA
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