Kainate induces AKT, ERK and cdk5/GSK3beta pathway deregulation, phosphorylates tau protein in mouse hippocampus

Cellular and molecular mechanisms of pathological tau phosphorylation in traumatic brain injury: implications for chronic traumatic encephalopathy

Tau protein plays a critical role in the physiological functioning of the central nervous system by providing structural integrity to the cytoskeletal architecture of neurons and glia through microtubule assembly and stabilization. Under certain pathological conditions, tau is aberrantly phosphorylated and aggregates into neurotoxic fibrillary tangles. The aggregation and cell-to-cell propagation of pathological tau leads to the progressive deterioration of the nervous system. The clinical entity of traumatic brain injury (TBI) ranges from mild to severe and can promote tau aggregation by inducing cellular mechanisms and signalling pathways that increase tau phosphorylation and aggregation. Chronic traumatic encephalopathy (CTE), which is a consequence of repetitive TBI, is a unique tauopathy characterized by pathological tau aggregates located at the depths of the sulci and surrounding blood vessels. The mechanisms leading to increased tau phosphorylation and aggregation in CTE remain to be fully defined but are likely the result of the primary and secondary injury sequelae associated with TBI. The primary injury includes physical and mechanical damage resulting from the head impact and accompanying forces that cause blood-brain barrier disruption and axonal shearing, which primes the central nervous system to be more vulnerable to the subsequent secondary injury mechanisms. A complex interplay of neuroinflammation, oxidative stress, excitotoxicity, and mitochondrial dysfunction activate kinase and cell death pathways, increasing tau phosphorylation, aggregation and neurodegeneration. In this review, we explore the most recent insights into the mechanisms of tau phosphorylation associated with TBI and propose how multiple cellular pathways converge on tau phosphorylation, which may contribute to CTE progression.

Late-onset temporal lobe epilepsy: insights from brain atrophy and Alzheimer's disease biomarkers

Considering the growing age of the world population, the incidence of epilepsy in older adults is expected to increase significantly. It has been suggested that late-onset temporal lobe epilepsy (LO-TLE) may be neurodegenerative in origin and overlap with Alzheimer's disease (AD). Herein, we aimed to characterize the pattern of cortical atrophy and CSF biomarkers of AD (total and phosphorylated tau and amyloid-β) in a selected population of LO-TLE of unknown origin. We prospectively enrolled individuals with temporal lobe epilepsy onset after the age of 50 and no cognitive impairment. They underwent a structural MRI scan and CSF biomarkers measurement. Imaging and biomarkers data were compared to three retrospectively collected groups: (i) age-sex-matched healthy controls; (ii) patients with mild cognitive impairment (MCI) and abnormal CSF AD biomarkers (MCI-AD); and (iii) patients with MCI and normal CSF AD biomarkers (MCI-noAD). From a pool of 52 patients, 20 consecutive eligible LO-TLE patients with a mean disease duration of 1.8 years were recruited. As control populations, 25 patients with MCI-AD, 25 patients with MCI-noAD and 25 healthy controls were enrolled. CSF biomarkers returned normal values in LO-TLE, significantly different from patients with MCI due to AD. There were no differences in cortico-subcortical atrophy between epilepsy patients and healthy controls, while patients with MCI demonstrated widespread injuries of cortico-subcortical structures. Individuals with LO-TLE, characterized by short disease duration and normal CSF amyloid-β and tau protein levels, showed patterns of cortical thickness and subcortical volumes not significantly different from healthy controls, but highly different from patients with MCI, either due to AD or not.

Epileptic seizures induced by pentylenetetrazole kindling accelerate Alzheimer-like neuropathology in 5×FAD mice

Clinical studies have shown that epileptic seizures worsen Alzheimer's disease (AD) pathology and related cognitive deficits; however, the underlying mechanism is unclear. To assess the effects of seizures on the progression of AD, chronic temporal lobe epilepsy was induced in five familial AD mutation (5×FAD) mice by kindling with the chemoconvulsant pentylenetetrazole (PTZ) at 3-3.5 months of age. The amyloidogenic pathway, tauopathy, synaptic damage, neuronal death, neurological inflammatory response and associated kinase signaling pathway dysregulation were examined at 9 months of age. We found that APP, p-APP, BACE1, Aβ and kinase-associated p-tau levels were elevated after PTZ kindling in 5×FAD mice. In addition, PTZ kindling exacerbated hippocampal synaptic damage and neuronal cell death, as determined by scanning electron microscopy and terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase-mediated deoxyuridine triphosphate nick-end labeling (TUNEL) staining, respectively. Finally, the levels of the neuroinflammation markers GFAP and Iba1, as well as the inflammatory cytokine IL-1β, were increased after PTZ insult. PTZ kindling profoundly exacerbated extracellular regulated kinase (ERK)-death-associated protein kinase (DAPK) signaling pathway overactivation, and acute ERK inhibitor treatment downregulated Aβ production and p-APP and p-tau levels in epileptic 5×FAD mice. In addition, long-term use of the antiseizure drug carbamazepine (CBZ) alleviated seizure-induced accelerated amyloid and tau pathology and ERK-DAPK overactivation in 5×FAD mice. Collectively, these results demonstrate that seizure-induced increases in AD-like neuropathology in 5×FAD mice are partially regulated by the ERK-DAPK pathway, suggesting that the ERK-DAPK axis could be a new therapeutic target for the treatment of AD patients with comorbid seizures.

Enhanced Fyn-tau and NR2B-PSD95 interactions in epileptic foci in experimental models and human epilepsy

Epilepsy and Alzheimer's disease share some common pathologies such as neurodegeneration, seizures and impaired cognition. However, the molecular mechanisms of these changes are still largely unknown. Fyn, a Src-family non-receptor tyrosine kinase (SFK), and its interaction with tau in mediating brain pathology in epilepsy and Alzheimer's disease can be a potential therapeutic target for disease modification. Although Fyn and tau pathology occurs in both Alzheimer's disease and epilepsy, the dynamics of Fyn-tau and PSD95-NR2B interactions affected by seizures and their impact on brain pathology in epilepsy have not been investigated. In this study, we demonstrate a significant increase of Fyn-tau interactions following seizure induction by kainate in both acute and chronic rodent models and in human epilepsy. In the early phase of epileptogenesis, we show increased Fyn/tau/NR2B/PSD95/neuronal nitric oxide synthase complexes after status epilepticus and a postsynaptic increase of phosphorylated tau (pY18 and AT8), Fyn (pSFK-Y416), NMDAR (pNR2B-Y1472) and neuronal nitric oxide synthase. Hippocampal proximity ligation assay and co-immunoprecipitation revealed a sustained increase of Fyn-tau and NR2B-PSD95 complexes/binding in rat chronic epilepsy at 3 months post-status epilepticus. Enhanced Fyn-tau complexes strongly correlated with the frequency of spontaneously recurring convulsive seizures and epileptiform spikes in the chronic epilepsy model. In human epileptic brains, we also identified increased Fyn-tau and NR2B-PSD95 complexes, tau phosphorylation (pY18 and AT8) and Fyn activation (pSFK-Y416), implying the translational and therapeutic potential of these molecular interactions. In tau knockout mice and in rats treated with a Fyn/SFK inhibitor saracatinib, we found a significant reduction of phosphorylated Fyn, tau (AT8 in saracatinib-treated), NR2B and neuronal nitric oxide synthase and their interactions (Fyn-tau and NR2B-PSD95 in saracatinib-treated group; NR2B-PSD95 in tau knockout group). The reduction of Fyn-tau and NR2B-PSD95 interactions in the saracatinib-treated group, in contrast to the vehicle-treated group, correlated with the modification in seizure progression in the rat chronic epilepsy model. These findings from animal models and human epilepsy provide evidence for the role of Fyn-tau and NR2B-PSD95 interactions in seizure-induced brain pathology and suggest that blocking such interactions could modify the progression of epilepsy.

High salt diet exacerbates cognitive deficits and neurovascular abnormalities in APP/PS1 mice and induces AD-like changes in wild-type mice

High salt diet (HSD) is a risk factor of hypertension and cardiovascular disease. Although clinical data do not clearly indicate the relationship between HSD and the prevalence of Alzheimer's disease (AD), animal experiments have shown that HSD can cause hyperphosphorylation of tau protein and cognition impairment. However, whether HSD can accelerate the progression of AD by damaging the function of neurovascular unit (NVU) in the brain is unclear. Here, we fed APP/PS1 mice (an AD model) or wild-type mice with HSD and found that the chronic HSD feeding increased the activity of enzymes related to tau phosphorylation, which led to tau hyperphosphorylation in the brain. HSD also aggravated the deposition of Aβ42 in hippocampus and cortex in the APP/PS1 mice but not in the wild-type mice. Simultaneously, HSD caused the microglia proliferation, low expression of Aqp-4, and high expression of CD31 in the wild-type mice, which were accompanied with the loss of pericytes (PCs) and increase in blood brain barrier (BBB) permeability. As a result, wild-type mice fed with HSD performed poorly in Morris Water Maze and object recognition test. In the APP/PS1 mice, HSD feeding for 8 months worsen the cognition and accompanied the loss of PCs, the activation of glia, the increase in BBB permeability, and the acceleration of calcification in the brain. Our data suggested that HSD feeding induced the AD-like pathology in wild-type mice and aggravated the development of AD-like pathology in APP/PS1 mice, which implicated the tau hyperphosphorylation and NVU dysfunction.

Repurposing of Tibolone in Alzheimer's Disease

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a debilitating neurodegenerative disease characterised by the accumulation of amyloid-beta and tau in the brain, leading to the progressive loss of memory and cognition. The causes of its pathogenesis are still not fully understood, but some risk factors, such as age, genetics, and hormones, may play a crucial role. Studies show that postmenopausal women have a higher risk of developing AD, possibly due to the decrease in hormone levels, especially oestrogen, which may be directly related to a reduction in the activity of oestrogen receptors, especially beta (ERβ), which favours a more hostile cellular environment, leading to mitochondrial dysfunction, mainly affecting key processes related to transport, metabolism, and oxidative phosphorylation. Given the influence of hormones on biological processes at the mitochondrial level, hormone therapies are of clinical interest to reduce the risk or delay the onset of symptoms associated with AD. One drug with such potential is tibolone, which is used in clinics to treat menopause-related symptoms. It can reduce amyloid burden and have benefits on mitochondrial integrity and dynamics. Many of its protective effects are mediated through steroid receptors and may also be related to neuroglobin, whose elevated levels have been shown to protect against neurological diseases. Its importance has increased exponentially due to its implication in the pathogenesis of AD. In this review, we discuss recent advances in tibolone, focusing on its mitochondrial-protective effects, and highlight how valuable this compound could be as a therapeutic alternative to mitigate the molecular pathways characteristic of AD.

Administration of Kainic Acid Differentially Alters Astrocyte Markers and Transiently Enhanced Phospho-tau Level in Adult Rat Hippocampus

Kainic acid (KA), an analogue of the excitatory neurotransmitter glutamate, when administered systemically can trigger seizures and neuronal loss in a manner that mirrors the neuropathology of human mesial temporal lobe epilepsy (mTLE), which affects ∼50 million people globally. Evidence suggests that changes in astrocytes which precede neuronal damage play an important role in the degeneration of neurons and/or development of seizures in TLE pathogenesis. Additionally, a role for microtubule associated tau protein, involved in various neurodegenerative diseases including Alzheimer's disease, has also been suggested in the development of seizure and/or neurodegeneration in TLE pathogenesis. At present, possible alterations of different subtypes of astrocytes and their association, if any, with tau protein in TLE remain unclear. In this study, we evaluated alterations of different subtypes of astrocytes and phospho-/cleaved-tau levels in KA-treated rat model of TLE. Our results reveal that levels/expression of various astrocyte markers such as GFAP, vimentin, S100B, Aldh1L1, but not GS, are increased in the hippocampus of KA-treated rats. The levels/expression of both A1(C3+) and A2(S100A10+)-like astrocytes are also increased in KA-treated rats. Concurrently, the total (Tau1 and Tau5) and phospho-tau (AT270 and PHF1) levels are transiently enhanced following KA administration. Furthermore, the level/expression of cleaved-tau, which is apparent in a subset of GFAP-, S100B- and A2-positive astrocytes, are increased in KA-treated rats. These results, taken together, suggest a differential role for various astrocytic subpopulations and tau protein in the development of seizure and/or loss of neurons in KA model of TLE and possibly in human mTLE pathogenesis.

A Genetic Model of Epilepsy with a Partial Alzheimer's Disease-Like Phenotype and Central Insulin Resistance

Studies have suggested an important connection between epilepsy and Alzheimer's disease (AD), mostly due to the high number of patients diagnosed with AD who develop epileptic seizures later on. However, this link is not well understood. Previous studies from our group have identified memory impairment and metabolic abnormalities in the Wistar audiogenic rat (WAR) strain, a genetic model of epilepsy. Our goal was to investigate AD behavioral and molecular alterations, including brain insulin resistance, in naïve (seizure-free) animals of the WAR strain. We used the Morris water maze (MWM) test to evaluate spatial learning and memory performance and hippocampal tissue to verify possible molecular and immunohistochemical alterations. WARs presented worse performance in the MWM test (p < 0.0001), higher levels of hyperphosphorylated tau (S396) (p < 0.0001) and phosphorylated glycogen synthase kinase 3 (S21/9) (p < 0.05), and lower insulin receptor levels (p < 0.05). Conversely, WARs and Wistar controls present progressive increase in amyloid fibrils (p < 0.0001) and low levels of soluble amyloid-β. Interestingly, the detected alterations were age-dependent, reaching larger differences in aged than in young adult animals. In summary, the present study provides evidence of a partial AD-like phenotype, including altered regulation of insulin signaling, in a genetic model of epilepsy. Together, these data contribute to the understanding of the connection between epilepsy and AD as comorbidities. Moreover, since both tau hyperphosphorylation and altered insulin signaling have already been reported in epilepsy and AD, these two events should be considered as important components in the interconnection between epilepsy and AD pathogenesis and, therefore, potential therapeutic targets in this field.

Programmed Cell Death Protein 1 Blockade Reduces Glycogen Synthase Kinase 3β Activity and Tau Hyperphosphorylation in Alzheimer's Disease Mouse Models

Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is a central nervous system degenerative disease, with no effective treatment to date. Administration of immune checkpoint inhibitors significantly reduces neuronal damage and tau hyperphosphorylation in AD, but the specific mechanism is unclear. Here, we found that programmed cell death-receptor 1 (PD1) and its ligand PDL1 were induced by an intracerebroventricular injection of amyloid-β; they were significantly upregulated in the brains of APP/PS1, 5×FAD mice and in SH-SY5Y-APP cell line compared with control. The PD1 and PDL1 levels positively correlated with the glycogen synthase kinase 3 beta (GSK3β) activity in various AD mouse models, and the PDL1-GSK3β immune complex was found in the brain. The application of PD1-blocking antibody reduced tau hyperphosphorylation and GSK3β activity and prevented memory impairments. Mechanistically, we identified PD1 as a critical regulator of GSK3β activity. These results suggest that the immune regulation of the PD1/PDL1 axis is closely involved in AD.

Bioinformatic analysis identifies potential key genes of epilepsy

Background

Epilepsy is one of the most common brain disorders worldwide. It is usually hard to be identified properly, and a third of patients are drug-resistant. Genes related to the progression and prognosis of epilepsy are particularly needed to be identified.

Methods

In our study, we downloaded the Gene Expression Omnibus (GEO) microarray expression profiling dataset GSE143272. Differentially expressed genes (DEGs) with a fold change (FC) >1.2 and a P-value <0.05 were identified by GEO2R and grouped in male, female and overlapping DEGs. Functional enrichment analysis and Protein-Protein Interaction (PPI) network analysis were performed.

Results

In total, 183 DEGs overlapped (77 ups and 106 downs), 302 DEGs (185 ups and 117 downs) in the male dataset, and 750 DEGs (464 ups and 286 downs) in the female dataset were obtained from the GSE143272 dataset. These DEGs were markedly enriched under various Gene Ontology (GO) terms and Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) terms. 16 following hub genes were identified based on PPI network analysis: ADCY7, C3AR1, DEGS1, CXCL1 in male-specific DEGs, TOLLIP, ORM1, ELANE, QPCT in female-specific DEGs and FCAR, CD3G, CLEC12A, MOSPD2, CD3D, ALDH3B1, GPR97, PLAUR in overlapping DEGs.

Conclusion

This discovery-driven study may be useful to provide a novel insight into the diagnosis and treatment of epilepsy. However, more experiments are needed in the future to study the functional roles of these genes in epilepsy.

Neuronal Network Excitability in Alzheimer's Disease: The Puzzle of Similar versus Divergent Roles of Amyloid β and Tau

Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is the most frequent neurodegenerative disorder that commonly causes dementia in the elderly. Recent evidence indicates that network abnormalities, including hypersynchrony, altered oscillatory rhythmic activity, interneuron dysfunction, and synaptic depression, may be key mediators of cognitive decline in AD. In this review, we discuss characteristics of neuronal network excitability in AD, and the role of Aβ and tau in the induction of network hyperexcitability. Many patients harboring genetic mutations that lead to increased Aβ production suffer from seizures and epilepsy before the development of plaques. Similarly, pathologic accumulation of hyperphosphorylated tau has been associated with hyperexcitability in the hippocampus. We present common and divergent roles of tau and Aβ on neuronal hyperexcitability in AD, and hypotheses that could serve as a template for future experiments.

Targeting Mitogen-Activated Protein Kinases by Natural Products: A Novel Therapeutic Approach for Inflammatory Bowel Diseases

An increase in the prevalence of Inflammatory Bowel Diseases (IBD) as a multifactorial intestinal chronic inflammation as well as the absence of a certain cure, has created an innovative era in the management of IBD by molecule/pathway-based anti-inflammatory approaches. There are credible documentations that demonstrate Mitogen-Activated Protein Kinases (MAPK) acts as IBD regulator. Upon the activation of MAPK signalling pathway, the transcription and expression of various encoding inflammatory molecules implicated in IBD are altered, thereby exacerbating the inflammation development. The current pharmacological management of IBD, including drug and biological therapies are expensive, possess temporary relief and some adverse effects. In this context, a variety of dietary fruits or medicinal herbs have received worldwide attention versus the development of IBD. Infact, natural ingredients, such as Flavaglines, Fisetin, Myricitrin, Cardamonin, Curcumin, Octacosanol and Mangiferin possess protective and therapeutic effects against IBD via modulation of different segments of MAPK signaling pathway. This review paper calls attention to the role of MAPK signaling triggered by natural products in the prevention and treatment of IBD.

Prion-Like Propagation Mechanisms in Tauopathies and Traumatic Brain Injury: Challenges and Prospects

The accumulation of tau protein in the form of filamentous aggregates is a hallmark of many neurodegenerative diseases such as Alzheimer's disease (AD) and chronic traumatic encephalopathy (CTE). These dementias share traumatic brain injury (TBI) as a prominent risk factor. Tau aggregates can transfer between cells and tissues in a "prion-like" manner, where they initiate the templated misfolding of normal tau molecules. This enables the spread of tau pathology to distinct parts of the brain. The evidence that tauopathies spread via prion-like mechanisms is considerable, but work detailing the mechanisms of spread has mostly used in vitro platforms that cannot fully reveal the tissue-level vectors or etiology of progression. We review these issues and then briefly use TBI and CTE as a case study to illustrate aspects of tauopathy that warrant further attention in vivo. These include seizures and sleep/wake disturbances, emphasizing the urgent need for improved animal models. Dissecting these mechanisms of tauopathy progression continues to provide fresh inspiration for the design of diagnostic and therapeutic approaches.

Anti-Amnesic Effect of Walnut via the Regulation of BBB Function and Neuro-Inflammation in Aβ1-42-Induced Mice

This study was conducted to assess the protective effect of walnut (Juglans regia L.) extract on amyloid beta (Aβ)_1-42-induced institute of cancer research (ICR) mice. By conducting a Y-maze, passive avoidance, and Morris water maze tests with amyloidogenic mice, it was found that walnut extract ameliorated behavioral dysfunction and memory deficit. The walnut extract showed a protective effect on the antioxidant system and cholinergic system by regulating malondialdehyde (MDA) levels, superoxide dismutase (SOD) contents, reduced glutathione (GSH) contents, acetylcholine (ACh) levels, acetylcholinesterase (AChE) activity, and protein expression of AChE and choline acetyltransferase (ChAT). Furthermore, the walnut extract suppressed Aβ-induced abnormality of mitochondrial function by ameliorating reactive oxygen species (ROS), mitochondrial membrane potential (MMP), and ATP contents. Finally, the walnut extract regulated the expression of zonula occludens-1 (ZO-1) and occludin concerned with blood–brain barrier (BBB) function, expression of tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α), tumor necrosis factor receptor 1 (TNFR1), phosphorylated c-Jun N-terminal kinase (p-JNK), phosphorylated nuclear factor of kappa light polypeptide gene enhancer in B-cells inhibitor (p-IκB), cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2), and interleukin 1 beta (IL-1β), related to neuroinflammation and the expression of phosphorylated protein kinase B (p-Akt), caspase-3, hyperphosphorylation of tau (p-tau), and heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1), associated with the Aβ-related Akt pathway.

FoxO1 overexpression reduces Aβ production and tau phosphorylation in vitro

Forkhead box O1 (FoxO1), a key molecule in the regulation of cell growth, differentiation and metabolism, is an important transcription factor. However, the effect of FoxO1 on Alzheimer's disease (AD) needs further investigation. In this study, we aimed to explore the function and mechanism of FoxO1 in amyloid-β (Aβ) production and tau phosphorylation in AD. First, compared with the age matched wild-type (WT) mice, we showed that FoxO1 protein levels were reduced in the cortices but nearly unchanged in the hippocampi of 6-month-old APPswe/PSEN1dE9 transgenic mice expressing Swedish APP and Presenilin1 delta exon 9 mutations (APP/PS1 mice). Then, we found that overexpression of FoxO1 significantly attenuated Aβ production through inhibiting the amyloidogenic processing of β-amyloid precursor protein (APP), mediated by the key enzymes BACE1 and PS1, in N2a/APPsw cells. Furthermore, in FoxO1-overexpressing HEK293/Tau cells, the decreased levels of tau phosphorylation at selective sites (S262 and T231) were accompanied by increasing the expression of p-GSK-3β (S9), and reducing p-ERK. In contrast, the total tau (Tau-5), non-phosphorylated tau (Tau-1), p-Tau (S404), CDK5 and PP2A levels remained unchanged. These findings indicate that FoxO1 is related to AD and suggest FoxO1 as a therapeutic target for AD that reduces the levels of both Aβ expression and tau phosphorylation.

Alzheimer-like amyloid and tau alterations associated with cognitive deficit in temporal lobe epilepsy

Temporal lobe epilepsy represents a major cause of drug-resistant epilepsy. Cognitive impairment is a frequent comorbidity, but the mechanisms are not fully elucidated. We hypothesized that the cognitive impairment in drug-resistant temporal lobe epilepsy could be due to perturbations of amyloid and tau signalling pathways related to activation of stress kinases, similar to those observed in Alzheimer's disease. We examined these pathways, as well as amyloid-β and tau pathologies in the hippocampus and temporal lobe cortex of drug-resistant temporal lobe epilepsy patients who underwent temporal lobe resection (n = 19), in comparison with age- and region-matched samples from neurologically normal autopsy cases (n = 22). Post-mortem temporal cortex samples from Alzheimer's disease patients (n = 9) were used as positive controls to validate many of the neurodegeneration-related antibodies. Western blot and immunohistochemical analysis of tissue from temporal lobe epilepsy cases revealed increased phosphorylation of full-length amyloid precursor protein and its associated neurotoxic cleavage product amyloid-β*56. Pathological phosphorylation of two distinct tau species was also increased in both regions, but increases in amyloid-β1-42 peptide, the main component of amyloid plaques, were restricted to the hippocampus. Furthermore, several major stress kinases involved in the development of Alzheimer's disease pathology were significantly activated in temporal lobe epilepsy brain samples, including the c-Jun N-terminal kinase and the protein kinase R-like endoplasmic reticulum kinase. In temporal lobe epilepsy cases, hippocampal levels of phosphorylated amyloid precursor protein, its pro-amyloidogenic processing enzyme beta-site amyloid precursor protein cleaving enzyme 1, and both total and hyperphosphorylated tau expression, correlated with impaired preoperative executive function. Our study suggests that neurodegenerative and stress-related processes common to those observed in Alzheimer's disease may contribute to cognitive impairment in drug-resistant temporal lobe epilepsy. In particular, we identified several stress pathways that may represent potential novel therapeutic targets.

Revisiting the Impact of Neurodegenerative Proteins in Epilepsy: Focus on Alpha-Synuclein, Beta-Amyloid, and Tau

Lack of disease-modifying therapy against epileptogenesis reflects the complexity of the disease pathogenesis as well as the high demand to explore novel treatment strategies. In the pursuit of developing new therapeutic strategies against epileptogenesis, neurodegenerative proteins have recently gained increased attention. Owing to the fact that neurodegenerative disease and epileptogenesis possibly share a common underlying mechanism, targeting neurodegenerative proteins against epileptogenesis might represent a promising therapeutic approach. Herein, we review the association of neurodegenerative proteins, such as α-synuclein, amyloid-beta (Aβ), and tau protein, with epilepsy. Providing insight into the α-synuclein, Aβ and tau protein-mediated neurodegeneration mechanisms, and their implication in epileptogenesis will pave the way towards the development of new agents and treatment strategies.

Increased epileptogenicity in a mouse model of neurofibromatosis type 1

RATIONALE

Neurofibromatosis type 1 (NF1) is associated with higher rates of epilepsy compared to the general population. Some NF1 patients with epilepsy do not have intracranial lesions, suggesting the genetic mutation itself may contribute to higher rates of epilepsy in these patients. We have recently demonstrated increased seizure susceptibility in the Nf1^+/- mouse, but it is unknown whether this model displays altered epileptogenicity, as has been reported in patients with NF1. The aim of this study was to determine whether the Nf1^+/- mouse is more susceptible to electrical kindling-induced epileptogenesis.

METHODS

Young male or female adult Nf1^+/- or Nf1^+/+ (wild-type; WT) mice were implanted with electrodes for neocortical or hippocampal kindling paradigms. Neocortical kindling was performed for 40 stimulation sessions followed by baseline EEG monitoring to detect possible SRSs. Hippocampal kindling was performed with a modified extended kindling paradigm, completed to a maximum of 80 sessions to try to induce spontaneous repetitive seizures (SRSs). Western blot assays were performed in naïve and kindled mice to compare levels of Akt and MAPK (ERK1/2), proteins downstream of the NF1 mutation.

RESULTS

The average initial neocortical after-discharge threshold (ADT) was significantly lower in the Nf1^+/- group, which also required fewer stimulations to reach stage 5 seizure, had greater average seizure severity across all kindling sessions, had a greater number of convulsive seizures, and had a faster progression of after-discharge duration and Racine score during kindling. No WT mice exhibited SRS after neocortical kindling, versus 33% of Nf1^+/- mice. The average initial hippocampal ADT was not significantly different between the WT and Nf1^+/- groups, nor was there a difference in the number of stimulations required to reach the kindled state. The WT group had a significantly higher average seizure severity across all kindling sessions as compared with the Nf1^+/- mice. The WT group also had faster progression of the Racine seizure score over the kindling sessions, mainly due to a faster increase in seizures severity early during the kindling process. However, SRSs were seen in 50% of Nf1^+/- mice after modified extended kindling and in no WT mice. Western blots showed hippocampal kindling increased the ratio of phosphorylated/total Akt in both the WT and Nf1^+/- mice, while neocortical kindling led to increased ratios of phosphorylated/total Akt and MAPK in Nf1^+/- mice only.

CONCLUSIONS

We have demonstrated for the first time an increased rate of epileptogenesis in an animal model of NF1 with no known macroscopic/neoplastic brain lesions. This work provides evidence for the genetic mutation itself playing a role in seizures and epilepsy in patients with NF1, and supports the use of the Nf1^+/- mouse model in future mechanistic studies.

Unravelling the Role of Glycogen Synthase Kinase-3 in Alzheimer's Disease-Related Epileptic Seizures

Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is the most common form of dementia. An increasing body of evidence describes an elevated incidence of epilepsy in patients with AD, and many transgenic animal models of AD also exhibit seizures and susceptibility to epilepsy. However, the biological mechanisms that underlie the occurrence of seizure or increased susceptibility to seizures in AD is unknown. Glycogen synthase kinase-3 (GSK-3) is a serine/threonine kinase that regulates various cellular signaling pathways, and plays a crucial role in the pathogenesis of AD. It has been suggested that GSK-3 might be a key factor that drives epileptogenesis in AD by interacting with the pathological hallmarks of AD, amyloid precursor protein (APP) and tau. Furthermore, seizures may also contribute to the progression of AD through GSK-3. In this way, GSK-3 might be involved in initiating a vicious cycle between AD and seizures. This review aims to summarise the possible role of GSK-3 in the link between AD and seizures. Understanding the role of GSK-3 in AD-associated seizures and epilepsy may help researchers develop new therapeutic approach that can manage seizure and epilepsy in AD patients as well as decelerate the progression of AD.

Control of neuronal excitability by GSK-3beta: Epilepsy and beyond

Glycogen synthase kinase 3beta (GSK-3β) is an enzyme with a variety of cellular functions in addition to the regulation of glycogen metabolism. In the central nervous system, different intracellular signaling pathways converge on GSK-3β through a cascade of phosphorylation events that ultimately control a broad range of neuronal functions in the development and adulthood. In mice, genetically removing or increasing GSK-3β cause distinct functional and structural neuronal phenotypes and consequently affect cognition. Precise control of GSK-3β activity is important for such processes as neuronal migration, development of neuronal morphology, synaptic plasticity, excitability, and gene expression. Altered GSK-3β activity contributes to aberrant plasticity within neuronal circuits leading to neurological, psychiatric disorders, and neurodegenerative diseases. Therapeutically targeting GSK-3β can restore the aberrant plasticity of neuronal networks at least in animal models of these diseases. Although the complete repertoire of GSK-3β neuronal substrates has not been defined, emerging evidence shows that different ion channels and their accessory proteins controlling excitability, neurotransmitter release, and synaptic transmission are regulated by GSK-3β, thereby supporting mechanisms of synaptic plasticity in cognition. Dysregulation of ion channel function by defective GSK-3β activity sustains abnormal excitability in the development of epilepsy and other GSK-3β-linked human diseases.

Prenatal bisphenol A exposure contributes to Tau pathology: Potential roles of CDK5/GSK3β/PP2A axis in BPA-induced neurotoxicity

Bisphenol A (BPA) is a well-known endocrine disruptor used to manufacture polycarbonate plastics and epoxy resins. BPA exposure especially occupational perinatal exposure to has been linked to numerous adverse effects for the offspring. Available data have shown that perinatal exposure to BPA contributes to neurodegenerative pathological changes; however, the potential mechanisms remain unclear. This study attempted to investigate the long-term consequences of perinatal exposure to BPA on the offspring mouse brain. The pregnant mice were given either a vehicle control or BPA (2, 10, 100 μg/kg/d) from day 6 of gestation until weaning (P6-PND21, foetal and neonatal exposure). At 3, 6 and 9 months of age, the neurotoxic effects in the offspring in each group were investigated. We found that the spine density but not the dendritic branches in the hippocampus were noticeably reduced at 6 and 9 months of age. Meanwhile, p-Tau, the characteristic protein for tauopathy, was dramatically increased in both the hippocampus and cortex at 3-9 months of age. Mechanically, the balance of kinase and protein phosphatase, which plays critical roles in p-Tau regulation, was disturbed. It indicated that GSK3β and CDK5, two critical kinases, were activated in most of the BPA perinatal exposure group, while protein phosphatase 2A (PP2A), one of the important phosphatases, regulated p-Tau expression through its demethylation, methylation and phosphorylation. Taken together, the present study may be translatable to the human occupational BPA exposure due to a similar exposure level. BPA perinatal exposure causes long-term adverse effects on the mouse brain and may be a risk factor for tauopathies, and the CDK5/GSK3β/PP2A axis might be a promising therapeutic target for BPA-induced neurodegenerative pathological changes.

GSK3β and Tau Protein in Alzheimer's Disease and Epilepsy

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is the most common form of dementia present in older adults; its etiology involves genetic and environmental factors. In recent years, epidemiological studies have shown a correlation between AD and chronic epilepsy since a considerable number of patients with AD may present seizures later on. Although the pathophysiology of seizures in AD is not completely understood, it could represent the result of several molecular mechanisms linked to amyloid beta-peptide (Aβ) accumulation and the hyperphosphorylation of tau protein, which may induce an imbalance in the release and recapture of excitatory and inhibitory neurotransmitters, structural alterations of the neuronal cytoskeleton, synaptic loss, and neuroinflammation. These changes could favor the recurrent development of hypersynchronous discharges and epileptogenesis, which, in a chronic state, favor the neurodegenerative process and influence the cognitive decline observed in AD. Supporting this correlation, histopathological studies in the brain tissue of temporal lobe epilepsy (TLE) patients have revealed the presence of Aβ deposits and the accumulation of tau protein in the neurofibrillary tangles (NFTs), accompanied by an increase of glycogen synthase kinase-3 beta (GSK3β) activity that may lead to an imminent alteration in posttranslational modifications of some microtubule-associated proteins (MAPs), mainly tau. The present review is focused on understanding the pathological aspects of GSK3β and tau in the development of TLE and AD.

Tau Phosphorylation in a Mouse Model of Temporal Lobe Epilepsy

Hyperphosphorylation of the microtubule-associated protein tau and its resultant aggregation into neurofibrillary tangles (NFT) is a pathological characteristic of neurodegenerative disorders known as tauopathies. Tau is a neuronal protein involved in the stabilization of microtubule structures of the axon and the aberrant phosphorylation of tau is associated with several neurotoxic effects. The discovery of tau pathology and aggregates in the cortex of Temporal lobe epilepsy (TLE) patients has focused interest on hyperphosphorylation of tau as a potential mechanism contributing to increased states of hyperexcitability and cognitive decline. Previous studies using animal models of status epilepticus and tissue from patients with TLE have shown increased tau phosphorylation in the brain following acute seizures and during epilepsy, with tau phosphorylation correlating with cognitive deficits in patients. Suggesting a functional role of tau during epilepsy, studies in tau-deficient and tau-overexpressing mice have demonstrated a causal role of tau during seizure generation. Previous studies, analyzing the impact of seizures on tau hyperphosphorylation, have mainly used animal models of acute seizures. These models, however, do not replicate all aspects of chronic epilepsy. In this study, we investigated the effects of acute seizures (status epilepticus) and chronic epilepsy upon the expression and phosphorylation of tau using the intra-amygdala kainic acid (KA)-induced status epilepticus mouse model. Status epilepticus resulted in an immediate increase in total tau levels in the hippocampus, in particular, the dentate gyrus, and phosphorylation of the AT8 epitope (Ser202, Thr205), with phosphorylated tau mainly localizing to the mossy fibers of the dentate gyrus. During epilepsy, abnormal phosphorylation of tau was detected again at the AT8 epitope with lower total tau levels in the CA3 and CA1 subfields of the hippocampus. Chronic epilepsy in mice also resulted in a strong localization of AT8 phospho-tau to microglia, indicating a distinct pattern of tau hyperphosphorylation during chronic epilepsy compared to status epilepticus. Our results reaffirm previous observations of tau phosphorylation post-status epilepticus, but also elaborate on tau alterations in epileptic mice which more faithfully mimic TLE. Our results confirm seizures affect tau hyperphosphorylation, however, suggest epitope-specific phosphorylation of tau and differences in cell-specific localization according to disease progression.

Crosstalk between Cdk5/p35 and ERK1/2 signalling mediates spinal astrocyte activity via the PPARγ pathway in a rat model of chronic constriction injury

The specific mechanisms underlying cyclin-dependent kinase 5 (Cdk5)-mediated neuropathic pain at the spinal cord level remain elusive. The aim of the present study was to explore the role of crosstalk between Cdk5/p35 and extracellular signal-regulated kinase 1/2 (ERK1/2) signalling in mediating spinal astrocyte activity via the PPARγ pathway in a rat model of chronic constriction injury (CCI). Here, we quantified pain behaviour after CCI; detected the localization of p35, Cdk5, phosphorylated ERK1/2 (pERK1/2), phosphorylated peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor γ (pPPARγ), neuronal nuclei (a neuronal marker), glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP, an activated astrocyte marker) and ionized calcium binding adaptor molecule 1 (a microglial marker) in the dorsal horn using immunofluorescence; measured the protein levels of Cdk5, p35, pERK1/2, pPPARγ and GFAP using western blot analysis; and gauged the enzyme activity of Cdk5/p35 kinase using a Cdk5/p35 kinase activity assay kit. Tumour necrosis factor-α, interleukin (IL)-1β and IL-6 levels were measured using enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). Ligation of the right sciatic nerve induced mechanical allodynia; thermal hyperalgesia; and the time-dependent upregulation of p35, pERK1/2 and GFAP and downregulation of pPPARγ. p35 colocalized with Cdk5, pERK1/2, pPPARγ, neurons and astrocytes but not microglia. Meanwhile, intrathecal injection of the Cdk5 inhibitor roscovitine, the mitogen-activated ERK kinase (MEK) inhibitor U0126 and the PPARγ agonist pioglitazone prevented or reversed behavioural allodynia, increased pPPARγ expression, inhibited astrocyte activation and alleviated proinflammatory cytokine (tumour necrosis factor-α, IL-1β, and IL-6) release from activated astrocytes. Furthermore, crosstalk between the Cdk5/p35 and ERK1/2 pathways was observed with CCI. Blockade of either Cdk5/p35 or ERK1/2 inhibited Cdk5 activity. These findings indicate that spinal crosstalk between the Cdk5/p35 and ERK1/2 pathways mediates astrocyte activity via the PPARγ pathway in CCI rats and that targeting this crosstalk could be an effective strategy to attenuate CCI and astrocyte-derived neuroinflammation.

The effect of NR4A1 on APP metabolism and tau phosphorylation

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is characterized by senile plaques (SP) composed of β-amyloid protein (Aβ) and neurofibrillary tangles (NFTs) composed of intracellular hyperphosphorylated tau. Recently, nuclear receptor subfamily 4 group A member 1 (NR4A1) was implicated in synaptic plasticity, long-term memory formation, suggesting that it may play a role in the pathophysiology of AD. Here, we showed that the expression of NR4A1 was significantly increased in the hippocampus of APP/PS1 transgenic mice. In addition, NR4A1 overexpression in HT22 cells up-regulated APP and BACE1 levels, down-regulated ADAM10 expression, and promoted amyloidogenesis as indicated by decreased α-CTF levels and elevated β-CTF levels. Furthermore, a raised level of phospho-tau (p-tau, S396) was accompanied by p-GSK3β (S9) expression reducing, but total tau, p-tau (S262 and T231), CDK5 and ERK remained unchanged in NR4A1-overexpressing cells. Collectively, our results suggest that NR4A1 promotes the amyloidogenic processing of APP by regulating ADAM10 and BACE1 expression in HT22 cells; as well as NR4A1 accelerates tau hyperphosphorylation by GSK3β signal. Therefore, NR4A1 may play an important role in the pathogenesis of AD.

Tau-Induced Pathology in Epilepsy and Dementia: Notions from Patients and Animal Models

Patients with dementia present epilepsy more frequently than the general population. Seizures are more common in patients with Alzheimer’s disease (AD), dementia with Lewy bodies (LBD), frontotemporal dementia (FTD) and progressive supranuclear palsy (PSP) than in other dementias. Missense mutations in the microtubule associated protein tau (MAPT) gene have been found to cause familial FTD and PSP, while the P301S mutation in MAPT has been associated with early-onset fast progressive dementia and the presence of seizures. Brains of patients with AD, LBD, FTD and PSP show hyperphosphorylated tau aggregates, amyloid-β plaques and neuropil threads. Increasing evidence suggests the existence of overlapping mechanisms related to the generation of network hyperexcitability and cognitive decline. Neuronal overexpression of tau with various mutations found in FTD with parkinsonism-linked to chromosome 17 (FTDP-17) in mice produces epileptic activity. On the other hand, the use of certain antiepileptic drugs in animal models with AD prevents cognitive impairment. Further efforts should be made to search for plausible common targets for both conditions. Moreover, attempts should also be made to evaluate the use of drugs targeting tau and amyloid-β as suitable pharmacological interventions in epileptic disorders. The diagnosis of dementia and epilepsy in early stages of those diseases may be helpful for the initiation of treatments that could prevent the generation of epileptic activity and cognitive deterioration.

Astaxanthin protects against kainic acid-induced seizures and pathological consequences

Excitotoxic damage caused by increased glutamate levels is involved in the pathogenesis of neurodegenerative diseases. Astaxanthin, a natural carotenoid with multiple health benefits, inhibits glutamate release from the brain tissue; however, whether it possesses the ability to affect glutamate-induced brain injury is unknown. The present study investigated the neuroprotective effects of astaxanthin on kainic acid (KA)-induced excitotoxicity in rats and the possible underlying intracellular signaling pathway. The rats were orally administrated with astaxanthin (50 or 100 mg/kg) for 7 days (once a day), and KA (15 mg/kg) was administered intraperitoneally at 1 h after the final administration. The results revealed that KA induced seizures, increased the hippocampal glutamate levels, caused considerable neuronal death and microglial activation in the hippocampal CA3 regions, and increased the production of proinflammatory cytokines. Astaxanthin pretreatment prevented these changes. Furthermore, astaxanthin pretreatment increased the expression of neuronal cell survival-related factors, including phosphorylated Akt, phosphorylated glycogen synthase kinase-3β, and Bcl-2 in the hippocampus of KA-injected rats. These results suggested that astaxanthin can attenuate seizures, mitigate inflammation, augment survival signals, and prevent hippocampal neuronal damage in the animal model of KA-induced excitotoxicity.

Mechanistic target of rapamycin complex 1 and 2 in human temporal lobe epilepsy

OBJECTIVE

Temporal lobe epilepsy (TLE) is a chronic epilepsy syndrome defined by seizures and progressive neurological disabilities, including cognitive impairments, anxiety, and depression. Here, human TLE specimens were investigated focusing on the mechanistic target of rapamycin (mTOR) complex 1 (mTORC1) and complex 2 (mTORC2) activities in the brain, given that both pathways may represent unique targets for treatment.

METHODS

Surgically resected hippocampal and temporal lobe samples from therapy-resistant TLE patients were analyzed by western blotting to quantify the expression of established mTORC1 and mTORC2 activity markers and upstream or downstream signaling pathways involving the two complexes. Histological and immunohistochemical techniques were used to assess hippocampal and neocortical structural abnormalities and cell-specific expression of individual biomarkers. Samples from patients with focal cortical dysplasia (FCD) type II served as positive controls.

RESULTS

We found significantly increased expression of phospho-mTOR (Ser2448), phospho-S6 (Ser235/236), phospho-S6 (Ser240/244), and phospho-Akt (Ser473) in TLE samples compared to controls, consistent with activation of both mTORC1 and mTORC2. Our work identified the phosphoinositide 3-kinase and Ras/extracellular signal-regulated kinase signaling pathways as potential mTORC1 and mTORC2 upstream activators. In addition, we found that overactive mTORC2 signaling was accompanied by induction of two protein kinase B-dependent prosurvival pathways, as evidenced by increased inhibitory phosphorylation of forkhead box class O3a (Ser253) and glycogen synthase kinase 3 beta (Ser9).

INTERPRETATION

Our data demonstrate that mTOR signaling is significantly dysregulated in human TLE, offering new targets for pharmacological interventions. Specifically, clinically available drugs that suppress mTORC1 without compromising mTOR2 signaling, such as rapamycin and its analogs, may represent a new group of antiepileptogenic agents in TLE patients. Ann Neurol 2018;83:311-327.

Huprine X Attenuates The Neurotoxicity Induced by Kainic Acid, Especially Brain Inflammation

Huprine X (HX) is a synthetic anticholinesterasic compound that exerts a potent inhibitory action on acetylcholinesterase (AChE) activity, an agonist effect on cholinergic receptors, neuroprotective activity in different neurotoxicity models in vivo and in vitro and cognition enhancing effects in non-transgenic (C57BL/6) and transgenic (3xTg-AD, APPswe) mice. In this study, we assessed the ability of HX (0.8 mg/kg, 21 days) to prevent the damage induced by kainic acid (KA; 28 mg/kg) regarding apoptosis, glia reactivity and neurogenesis in mouse brain. KA administration significantly modified the levels of pAkt1, Bcl2, pGSK3β, p25/p35, increased the glial cell markers and reduced the neurogenesis process. We also observed that pre-treatment with HX significantly reduced the p25/p35 ratio and increased synaptophysin levels, which suggests a protective effect against apoptosis and an improvement of neuroplasticity. The increase in GFAP (88%) and Iba-1 (72%) induced by KA was totally prevented by HX pre-treatment, underlying a relevant anti-inflammatory action of the anticholinesterasic drug. Our findings highlight the potential of HX, in particular, and of AChEIs, in general, to treat a number of diseases that course with both cognitive deficits and chronic inflammatory processes.

Melatonin Mediates Protective Effects against Kainic Acid-Induced Neuronal Death through Safeguarding ER Stress and Mitochondrial Disturbance

Kainic acid (KA)-induced neuronal death is linked to mitochondrial dysfunction and ER stress. Melatonin is known to protect hippocampal neurons from KA-induced apoptosis, but the exact mechanisms underlying melatonin protective effects against neuronal mitochondria disorder and ER stress remain uncertain. In this study, we investigated the sheltering roles of melatonin during KA-induced apoptosis by focusing on mitochondrial dysfunction and ER stress mediated signal pathways. KA causes mitochondrial dynamic disorder and dysfunction through calpain activation, leading to neuronal apoptosis. Ca²⁺ chelator BAPTA-AM and calpain inhibitor calpeptin can significantly restore mitochondrial morphology and function. ER stress can also be induced by KA treatment. ER stress inhibitor 4-phenylbutyric acid (PBA) attenuates ER stress-mediated apoptosis and mitochondrial disorder. It is worth noting that calpain activation was also inhibited under PBA administration. Thus, we concluded that melatonin effectively inhibits KA-induced calpain upregulation/activation and mitochondrial deterioration by alleviating Ca²⁺ overload and ER stress.

Tibolone modulates neuronal plasticity through regulating Tau, GSK3β/Akt/PI3K pathway and CDK5 p35/p25 complexes in the hippocampus of aged male mice

Aging is a key risk factor for cognitive decline and age-related neurodegenerative disorders. Also, an age-related decrease in sex steroid hormones may have a negative impact on the formation of neurofibrillary tangles (NFTs); these hormones can regulate Tau phosphorylation and the principal kinase GSK3β involved in this process. Hormone replacement therapy decreases NFTs, but it increases the risk of some types of cancer. However, other synthetic hormones such as tibolone (TIB) have been used for hormone replacement therapy. The aim of this work was to evaluate the long-term effects of TIB (0.01 mg/kg and 1 mg/kg, intragastrically for 12 weeks) on the content of total and hyperphosphorylated Tau (PHF-1) proteins and the regulation of GSK3β/Akt/PI3K pathway and CDK5/p35/p25 complexes in the hippocampus of aged male mice. We observed that the content of PHF-1 decreased with TIB administration. In contrast, no changes were observed in the active form of GSK3β or PI3K. TIB decreased the expression of the total and phosphorylated form of Akt while increased that of p110 and p85. The content of CDK5 was differentially modified with TIB: it was increased at low doses and decreased at high doses. When we analyzed the content of CDK5 activators, an increase was found on p35; however, the content of p25 decreased with administration of low dose of TIB. Our results suggest a possible mechanism of action of TIB in the hippocampus of aged male mice. Through the regulation of Tau and GSK3β/Akt/PI3K pathway, and CDK5/p35/p25 complexes, TIB may modulate neuronal plasticity and regulate learning and memory processes.

Progressive Seizure Aggravation in the Repeated 6-Hz Corneal Stimulation Model Is Accompanied by Marked Increase in Hippocampal p-ERK1/2 Immunoreactivity in Neurons

The 6-Hz corneal stimulation test is used to screen novel antiepileptic molecules to overcome the problem of drug refractoriness. Although recognized as a standard test, it has been evaluated only recently in the attempt to characterize the putative neuronal networks involved in seizures caused by corneal stimulation. In particular, by recording from the CA1 region we previously established that the hippocampus participates to propagation of seizure activity. However, these findings were not corroborated by using markers of neuronal activation such as FosB/ΔFosB antigens. In view of this discrepancy, we performed new experiments to characterize the changes in levels of phosphorylated extracellular signal-regulated kinases1/2 (p-ERK1/2), which are also used as markers of neuronal activation. To this aim, mice underwent corneal stimulation up to three different times, in three sessions separated by an interval of 3 days. To characterize a group in which seizures could be prevented by pharmacological treatment, we also considered pretreatment with the ghrelin receptor antagonist EP-80317 (330 μg/kg). Control mice were sham-treated. Video electrocorticographic (ECoG) recordings were obtained from mice belonging to each group of treatment. Animals were finally used to characterize the immunoreactivity for FosB/ΔFosB and p-ERK1/2 in the hippocampus. As previously shown, FosB/ΔFosB levels were highly increased throughout the hippocampus by the first induced seizure but, in spite of the progressively increased seizure severity, they were restored to control levels after the third stimulation. At variance, corneal stimulation caused a progressive increase in p-ERK1/2 immunoreactivity all over the hippocampus, especially in CA1, peaking in the third session. Predictably, EP-80317 administration reduced both duration and severity of seizures, prevented the increase in FosB/ΔFosB levels in the first session, and partially counteracted the increase in p-ERK1/2 levels in the third session. The vast majority of p-ERK1/2 immunopositive cells were co-labeled with FosB/ΔFosB antibodies, suggesting the existence of a relationship between the investigated markers in a subpopulation of neurons activated by seizures. These findings suggest that p-ERK1/2 are useful markers to define the aggravation of seizures and the response to anticonvulsant treatments. In particular, p-ERK1/2 expression clearly identified the involvement of hippocampal regions during seizure aggravation in the 6-Hz model.

mTOR and MAPK: from localized translation control to epilepsy

Background

Epilepsy is one of the most common neurological diseases characterized by excessive hyperexcitability of neurons. Molecular mechanisms of epilepsy are diverse and not really understood. All in common is the misregulation of proteins that determine excitability such as potassium and sodium channels as well as GABA receptors; which are all known as biomarkers for epilepsy. Two recently identified key pathways involve the kinases mechanistic target of rapamycin (mTOR) and mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPK). Interestingly, mRNAs coding for those biomarkers are found to be localized at or near synapses indicating a local misregulation of synthesis and activity.

Results

Research in the last decade indicates that RNA-binding proteins (RBPs) responsible for mRNA localization, stability and translation mediate local expression control. Among others, they are affected by mTOR and MAPK to guide expression of epileptic factors. These results suggest that mTOR/MAPK act on RBPs to regulate the fate of mRNAs, indicating a misregulation of protein expression at synapses in epilepsy.

Conclusion

We propose that mTOR and MAPK regulate RBPs, thereby guiding the local expression of their target-mRNAs encoding for markers of epilepsy. Thus, misregulated mTOR/MAPK-RBP interplay may result in excessive local synthesis of ion channels and receptors thereby leading to hyperexcitability. Continuous stimulation of synapses further activates mTOR/MAPK pathway reinforcing their effect on RBP-mediated expression control establishing the basis for epilepsy. Here, we highlight findings showing the tight interplay between mTOR as well as MAPK with RBPs to control expression for epileptic biomarkers.

Mouse hippocampal phosphorylation footprint induced by generalized seizures: Focus on ERK, mTORC1 and Akt/GSK-3 pathways

Exacerbated hippocampal activity has been associated to critical modifications of the intracellular signaling pathways. We have investigated rapid hippocampal adaptive responses induced by maximal electroshock seizure (MES). Here, we demonstrate that abnormal and exacerbated hippocampal activity induced by MES triggers specific and temporally distinct patterns of phosphorylation of extracellular signal-related kinase (ERK), mammalian target of rapamycin complex (mTORC) and Akt/glycogen synthase kinase-3 (Akt/GSK-3) pathways in the mouse hippocampus. While the ERK pathway is transiently activated, the mTORC1 cascade follows a rapid inhibition followed by a transient activation. This rebound of mTORC1 activity leads to the selective phosphorylation of p70S6K, which is accompanied by an enhanced phosphorylation of the ribosomal subunit S6. In contrast, the Akt/GSK-3 pathway is weakly altered. Finally, MES triggers a rapid upregulation of several plasticity-associated genes as a consequence exacerbated hippocampal activity. The results reported in the present study are reminiscent of the one observed in other models of generalized seizures, thus defining a common molecular footprint induced by intense and aberrant hippocampal activities.

Activation of AKT/GSK3β pathway by TDZD-8 attenuates kainic acid induced neurodegeneration but not seizures in mice

Activation of glycogen synthase kinase3β (GSK3β), an enzyme that regulates a multitude of cellular signaling pathways, is implicated in neurodegenerative processes observed in an array of CNS diseases. We examined the hypothesis that the pathological changes in an acute kainic acid (KA) induced excitotoxicity model, relevant to human temporal lobe epilepsy (TLE), could be sensitive to inhibition of GSK3β by 4-benzyl-2-methyl-1,2,4-thiadiazolidine-3,5-dione (TDZD-8) treatment in Swiss albino mice. Immediate seizure responses due to KA were recorded. Neurodegenerative and morphogenic changes were examined by western blot analysis and light microscopy, respectively, 48 h after KA administration. Although tonic-clonic seizure episodes evoked by KA were unaffected, TDZD-8 pretreatment decreased KA mediated elevation in caspase-3 cleavage as well as increased Bcl2 and phospho-GSK3β (Ser9; pGSK3β(Ser9)) expression. Likewise, microscopic examination also revealed that pretreatment with TDZD-8 attenuated cell damage elicited by KA in the CA1, CA3 and DG regions. In all the above parameters, the combined effect of a sub-effective dose of sodium valproate (SVP) with TDZD-8 was higher than that of solitary TDZD-8 treatment. The findings suggest that activated GSK3β orchestrated neurodegenerative alterations following KA treatment and its inhibition by TDZD-8 affords a distinct neuroprotective profile by activating Akt/GSK3β pathway which might act upstream of Bax/Bcl2 and caspase-3 pathways. Compounds targeting GSK3β activity might represent a novel therapeutic option for exploration as an adjunct to conventional anti-epileptic drugs in preventing neurodegenerative processes in TLE.

Histamine H3 receptor antagonism by ABT-239 attenuates kainic acid induced excitotoxicity in mice

The multifaceted pathogenesis of temporal lobe epilepsy (TLE) offers a number of adjunctive therapeutic prospects. One such therapeutic strategy could be targeting H3 receptor (H3R) by selective H3R antagonists which are perceived to have antiepileptic and neuroprotective potential. Kainic acid (KA) induced seizure, a reliable model of TLE, triggers epileptogenic events resulting from initial neuronal death and ensuing recurring seizures. The present study aimed to determine whether pre-treatment with ABT-239, a novel H3R antagonist, and its combinations with sodium valproate (SVP) and TDZD-8 (glycogen synthase kinase-3β (GSK3β) inhibitor) can prevent the excitotoxic events in mice exposed to KA (10 mg/kg i.p.). ABT-239 (1 and 3 mg/kg i.p.) significantly attenuated KA-mediated behavioural and excitotoxic anomalies and restored altered expression of Bax, cleaved caspase-3, phospho-Akt (Ser473) and cAMP response element binding protein (CREB). Surprisingly, restoration of Bcl2 and phospho-GSK3β (Ser9) by ABT-239 did not reach the level of statistical significance. Co-administration of ABT-239 (1 and 3 mg/kg) with a sub-effective dose of SVP (150 mg/kg i.p.) yielded improved efficacy than when given alone. Similarly, low and high dose combinations of ABT-239 (1 and 3 mg/kg) with TDZD-8 (5 and 10 mg/kg i.p.) produced greater neuroprotection than any other treatment group. Our findings suggests a neuroprotective potential of ABT-239 and its combinations with SVP and TDZD-8 against KA-induced neurotoxicity, possibly mediated through in part each by modulating Akt/GSK3β and CREB pathways. The use of H3R antagonists as adjuvant in the treatment of human TLE might find potential utility, and can be pursued further.

Mice Lacking Functional Fas Death Receptors Are Protected from Kainic Acid-Induced Apoptosis in the Hippocampus

The Fas receptor (FasR)/Fas ligand (FasL) system plays a significant role in the process of neuronal loss in neurological disorders. Thus, in the present study, we used a real-time PCR array focused apoptosis (Mouse Apoptosis RT(2) PCR Array) to study the role of the Fas pathway in the apoptotic process that occurs in a kainic acid (KA) mice experimental model. In fact, significant changes in the transcriptional activity of a total of 23 genes were found in the hippocampus of wild-type C57BL/6 mice after 12 h of KA treatment compared to untreated mice. Among the up-regulated genes, we found key factors involved in the extrinsic apoptotic pathway, such as tnf, fas and fasL, and also in caspase genes (caspase -4, caspase-8 and caspase-3). To discern the importance of the FasR/FasL pathway, mice lacking the functional Fas death receptor (lpr) were also treated with KA. After 24 h of neurotoxin treatment, lpr mice exhibited a reduced number of apoptotic positive cells, determined by the terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase dUTP nick end labelling (TUNEL) method in different regions of the hippocampus, when compared to wild-type mice. In addition, treatment of lpr mice with KA did not produce significant changes in the transcriptional activity of genes related to apoptosis in the hippocampus, either in the fas and fas ligand genes or in caspase-4 and caspase-8 and the executioner caspase-3 genes, as occurred in wild-type C57BL/6 mice. Thus, these data provide direct evidence that Fas signalling plays a key role in the induction of apoptosis in the hippocampus following KA treatment, making the inhibition of the death receptor pathway a potentially suitable target for excitotoxicity neuroprotection in neurological conditions such as epilepsy.

Neuroprotective effects of extract of Acanthopanax senticosus harms on SH-SY5Y cells overexpressing wild-type or A53T mutant α-synuclein

Extract of Acanthopanax senticosus harms (EAS) has been shown to have neuroprotective effects on dopaminergic neurons in Parkinson's disease (PD) mice model. α-Synuclein is a key player in the pathogenesis of PD, the elevated level of which is deleterious to dopaminergic neurons, and enhancing its clearance might be a promising strategy for treating PD. To assess the potential of EAS in this regard, we investigated its effect on the SH-SY5Y cells overexpressing wild-type α-synuclein (WT-α-Syn) or A53T mutant α-synuclein (A53T-α-Syn), and the implicated pathway it might mediate. After treatment with EAS, the changes of α-synuclein, caspase-3, parkin, phospho-protein kinase B (Akt), phospho-glycogen synthase kinase 3 beta (GSK3β), and phospho-microtubule-associated protein tau (Tau) in WT-α-Syn or A53T-α-Syn transgenic cells were reverted back to near normal levels, demonstrated by the western blotting and quantitative real-time PCR outcomes. The neuroprotective effects of EAS may be able to protect WT-α-Syn or A53T-α-Syn transgenic SH-SY5Y cells from α-synuclein overexpression and toxicity. Therefore, we speculate that EAS might be a promising candidate for prevention or treatment of α-synuclein-related neurodegenerative disorders such as PD.

CDK5-induced p-PPARγ(Ser 112) downregulates GFAP via PPREs in developing rat brain: effect of metal mixture and troglitazone in astrocytes

The peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma (PPARγ), a group of ligand-activated transcriptional factors, is expressed in glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP)-immunoreactive astrocytes. Here, we investigated the role of PPARγ in regulating GFAP using a mixture of As, Cd and Pb (metal mixture, MM) that induces apoptosis and aberrant morphology in rat brain astrocytes. We observed a phospho PPARγ (serine 112 (S112)) (p-PPARγ (S112))-mediated downregulation of GFAP in the MM-exposed astrocytes. We validated this using pure PPARγ agonist, troglitazone (TZ). As reported with MM, TZ induced astrocyte damage owing to reduced GFAP. In silico analysis in the non-coding region of GFAP gene revealed two PPARγ response elements (PPREs); inverted repeat 10 and direct repeat 1 sequences. Gel shift and chromatin immunoprecipitation assays demonstrated enhancement in binding of p-PPARγ (S112) to the sequences, and luciferase reporter assay revealed strong repression of GFAP via PPREs, in response to both MM and TZ. This indicated that suppression in GFAP indeed occurs through direct regulation of these elements by p-PPARγ (S112). Signaling studies proved that MM, as well as TZ, activated the cyclin-dependent kinase 5 (CDK5) and enhanced its interaction with PPARγ resulting into increased p-PPARγ (S112). The p-CDK5 levels were dependent on proximal activation of extracellular signal-regulated protein kinase 1/2 and downstream Jun N-terminal kinase. Taken together, these results are the first to delineate downregulation of GFAP through genomic and non-genomic signaling of PPARγ. It also brings forth a resemblance of TZ with MM in terms of astrocyte disarray in developing brain.

Xanthoceraside attenuates tau hyperphosphorylation and cognitive deficits in intracerebroventricular-streptozotocin injected rats

RATIONALE

Xanthoceraside, a novel triterpenoid saponin extracted from the fruit husks of Xanthoceras sorbifolia Bunge, reverses cognitive deficits in intracerebroventricular injection of Aβ25-35 or Aβ1-42 mice. However, whether xanthoceraside has a positive effect on hyperphosphorylated tau protein remains unclear.

OBJECTIVES

We investigated the effects of xanthoceraside on behavioural impairments induced by intracerebroventricular injection of streptozotocin (STZ) in rats and its potential mechanisms.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The rats were administered with xanthoceraside (0.06, 0.12 or 0.24 mg/kg) or vehicle once daily after STZ intracerebroventricular injections. The Y-maze test and novel object recognition test were performed 21 and 22 days after the second STZ injection, respectively. The levels of hyperphosphorylated tau, phosphatidylinositol-3-kinase (PI3K)/serine/threonine protein kinase B (Akt), glycogen synthase kinase-3β (GSK-3β), protein phosphatase 1 (PP-1) and protein phosphatase 2A (PP-2A) were also tested by Western blot.

RESULTS

Xanthoceraside treatment significantly attenuated learning and memory impairments and reduced the level of STZ-induced hyperphosphorylated tau protein. Xanthoceraside also enhanced PP-2A and PP-1 expressions, increased PI3K (p85) and Akt (Ser473) phosphorylation and decreased GSK-3β (tyr216) phosphorylation.

CONCLUSIONS

Xanthoceraside has protective effect against learning and memory impairments and inhibits tau hyperphosphorylation in the hippocampus, possibly through the inhibition of the PI3K/Akt-dependent GSK-3β signalling pathway and an enhancement of phosphatases activity.

Expression of Tau40 induces activation of cultured rat microglial cells

Accumulation of microtubule-associated protein tau has been observed in the brain of aging and tauopathies. Tau was observed in microglia, but its role is not illustrated. By immunofluorescence staining and the fractal dimension value assay in the present study, we observed that microglia were activated in the brains of rats and mice during aging, simultaneously, the immunoreactivities of total tau and the phosphorylated tau were significantly enhanced in the activated microglia. Furtherly by transient transfection of tau40 (human 2N/4R tau) into the cultured rat microglia, we demonstrated that expression of tau40 increased the level of Iba1, indicating activation of microglia. Moreover, expression of tau40 significantly enhanced the membranous localization of the phosphorylated tau at Ser396 in microglia possibly by a mechanism involving protein phosphatase 2A, extracellular signal-regulated kinase and glycogen synthase kinase-3β. It was also found that expression of tau40 promoted microglial migration and phagocytosis, but not proliferation. And we observed increased secretion of several cytokines, including interleukin (IL)-1β, IL-6, IL-10, tumor necrosis factor-α and nitric oxide after the expression of tau40. These data suggest a novel role of human 2N/4R tau in microglial activation.

Hyperexcitability and epileptic seizures in a model of frontotemporal dementia

Epileptic seizures are more common in patients with Alzheimer disease than in the general elderly population. Abnormal forms of hyperphosphorylated tau accumulate in Alzheimer disease and other tauopathies. Aggregates of tau are also found in patients with epilepsy and in experimental models of epilepsy. We report here the analysis of epileptic activity and neuropathological correlates of a transgenic line over-expressing human mutant tau, a model of frontotemporal dementia with parkinsonism linked to chromosome 17 (FTDP-17). The FTDP-17 model displays spontaneous epileptic activity and seizures with spike-wave complexes in the EEG, and a higher sensitivity to the GABAA receptor antagonist pentylenetetrazol (PTZ) when compared to age-matched controls, showing a notably increased seizure length and a shorter latency to develop severe seizures. FTDP-17 human tau mutants also display lower convulsive thresholds and higher lethality after PTZ injections. Astrocytosis and activated microglia are prominent in the hippocampus and other brain regions of young FTDP-17 mice where the human mutant tau transgene is expressed, before the appearance of hyperphosphorylated tau aggregates in these structures. FTDP-17 human mutant tau over-expression produces epilepsy and increased GABAA receptor-mediated hyperexcitability in the absence of Aβ pathology. Although aggregates of hyperphosphorylated tau have been observed in patients with epilepsy and in different chemically and electrically generated models of epilepsy, the FTDP-17 tau mutant analyzed here is the first model of genetically modified tau that presents with epilepsy. This model may represent a valuable tool to assay novel treatments in order to reduce tau pathology, a potential factor which may be involved in the development of epileptic seizures in dementia and other neurodegenerative diseases.

Tau loss attenuates neuronal network hyperexcitability in mouse and Drosophila genetic models of epilepsy

Neuronal network hyperexcitability underlies the pathogenesis of seizures and is a component of some degenerative neurological disorders such as Alzheimer's disease (AD). Recently, the microtubule-binding protein tau has been implicated in the regulation of network synchronization. Genetic removal of Mapt, the gene encoding tau, in AD models overexpressing amyloid-β (Aβ) decreases hyperexcitability and normalizes the excitation/inhibition imbalance. Whether this effect of tau removal is specific to Aβ mouse models remains to be determined. Here, we examined tau as an excitability modifier in the non-AD nervous system using genetic deletion of tau in mouse and Drosophila models of hyperexcitability. Kcna1(-/-) mice lack Kv1.1-delayed rectifier currents and exhibit severe spontaneous seizures, early lethality, and megencephaly. Young Kcna1(-/-) mice retained wild-type levels of Aβ, tau, and tau phospho-Thr(231). Decreasing tau in Kcna1(-/-) mice reduced hyperexcitability and alleviated seizure-related comorbidities. Tau reduction decreased Kcna1(-/-) video-EEG recorded seizure frequency and duration as well as normalized Kcna1(-/-) hippocampal network hyperexcitability in vitro. Additionally, tau reduction increased Kcna1(-/-) survival and prevented megencephaly and hippocampal hypertrophy, as determined by MRI. Bang-sensitive Drosophila mutants display paralysis and seizures in response to mechanical stimulation, providing a complementary excitability assay for epistatic interactions. We found that tau reduction significantly decreased seizure sensitivity in two independent bang-sensitive mutant models, kcc and eas. Our results indicate that tau plays a general role in regulating intrinsic neuronal network hyperexcitability independently of Aβ overexpression and suggest that reducing tau function could be a viable target for therapeutic intervention in seizure disorders and antiepileptogenesis.

Kainic acid-induced seizures modulate Akt (SER473) phosphorylation in the hippocampus of dopamine D2 receptor knockout mice

Dopamine D2 receptor (D2R) signalling has been shown to modulate seizure-induced hippocampal cell death. D2R knockout (D2R−/−) mice are more susceptible to kainic acid (KA)-induced excitotoxicity, displaying cell death in the CA3 subfield of the hippocampus at KA doses not damaging in wild-type (WT) animals. Absence of D2R signalling in the hippocampus leads to activation (dephosphorylation) of glycogen synthase kinase 3β (GSK-3β) after KA (20 mg/kg), which is not associated with a change in the phosphorylation of the GSK-3β regulator Akt at the canonical threonine 308 residue. In the present study, we investigated alternative pathways responsible for the activation of GSK-3β in the hippocampus of the D2R−/− mice 24 h following KA-induced seizures. Here, we show that phosphorylation of Akt occurs at serine 473 (Ser473) in the CA3 region of WT but not D2R−/− mice following KA. Moreover, the CA1 subregion, which does not undergo neurodegeneration in either WT or D2R−/− mice, displays a strong induction of Akt (Ser473) phosphorylation after KA. Additionally, the vulnerability in the CA3 is not associated with changes to p38MAPK and Dishevelled activation, and β-catenin does not appear to be a downstream target of the GSK-3β. Thus, we propose that GSK-3β phosphorylation-mediated hippocampal cell survival may depend on Akt (Ser473) phosphorylation; loss of D2R-mediated signalling in the CA3 region of D2R−/− mice leads to reduced Akt (Ser473) phosphorylation rendering neurons more vulnerable to apoptosis. Further investigation is required to fully elucidate the GSK-3β targets involved in D2R-dependent response to excitotoxicity.

Decrease of Tau hyperphosphorylation by 17β estradiol requires sphingosine kinase in a glutamate toxicity model

Several studies have linked estrogens with sphingosine kinase (SphK) activity, enzyme responsible of sphingosine-1-phosphate synthesis (S-1P), however their possible interaction in the nervous system is not documented yet. In the present study, we developed a glutamate toxicity model in SH-SY5Y cells to evaluate the possible effect of the inhibition of SphK activity on the protective capability of 17β-estradiol (E2). Glutamate induced cytoskeletal actin changes associated to cytotoxic stress, significant increase of apoptotic-like nuclear fragmentation, Tau hyperphosphorylation and increase of p25/p35 cleavage. These effects were prevented by E2 pre-treatment during 24 h. Although the inhibition of SphK did not block this protective effect, significantly increased Tau hyperphosphorylation by glutamate, in a way that was not reverted by E2. Our results suggest that the decrease of glutamate-induced Tau hyperphosphorylation by 17β-estradiol requires SphK.