Coordinated actions of the forkhead protein Foxp1 and Hox proteins in the columnar organization of spinal motor neurons

Identifying similar populations across independent single cell studies without data integration

Supervised and unsupervised methods have emerged to address the complexity of single cell data analysis in the context of large pools of independent studies. Here, we present ClusterFoldSimilarity (CFS), a novel statistical method design to quantify the similarity between cell groups across any number of independent datasets, without the need for data correction or integration. By bypassing these processes, CFS avoids the introduction of artifacts and loss of information, offering a simple, efficient, and scalable solution. This method match groups of cells that exhibit conserved phenotypes across datasets, including different tissues and species, and in a multimodal scenario, including single-cell RNA-Seq, ATAC-Seq, single-cell proteomics, or, more broadly, data exhibiting differential abundance effects among groups of cells. Additionally, CFS performs feature selection, obtaining cross-dataset markers of the similar phenotypes observed, providing an inherent interpretability of relationships between cell populations. To showcase the effectiveness of our methodology, we generated single-nuclei RNA-Seq data from the motor cortex and spinal cord of adult mice. By using CFS, we identified three distinct sub-populations of astrocytes conserved on both tissues. CFS includes various visualization methods for the interpretation of the similarity scores and similar cell populations.

CtBP1 is essential for epigenetic silencing of μ-opioid receptor genes in the dorsal root ganglion in spinal nerve ligation-induced neuropathic pain

Neuropathic pain poses a significant public health challenge, greatly impacting patients' quality of life. Emerging evidence underscores the involvement of epigenetics in dorsal root ganglion (DRG) neurons relevant to pain modulation. C-terminal binding protein 1 (CtBP1) has emerged as a crucial epigenetic transcriptional coregulator. However, the underlying molecular mechanisms of CtBP1-mediated epigenetic regulation in DRG neurons in neuropathic pain remain poorly elucidated. Here, we employed a Sprague‒Dawley rat model of spinal nerve ligation (SNL) to establish a neuropathic pain model. CtBP1 expression in the ipsilateral DRG gradually increased over a three-week period post-SNL. Immunohistochemistry revealed a significant elevation in CtBP1 levels specifically in NeuN-positive neuronal cells in the ipsilateral DRG following SNL. Further characterization demonstrated CtBP1 expression across various subtypes of DRG neurons in SNL rats. Silencing CtBP1 expression with siRNA reversed tactile allodynia in SNL rats and restored both CtBP1 and μ-opioid receptor expression in the DRG in SNL rats. Moreover, Foxp1 was identified to recruit CtBP1 for mediating μ-opioid receptor gene silencing in the DRG in SNL rats. Subsequent investigation unveiled that Foxp1 recruits CtBP1 and associates with HDAC2 to regulate H3K9Ac binding to μ-opioid receptor chromatin regions in the DRG in SNL rats, implicating epigenetic mechanisms in neuropathic pain. Targeting the Foxp1/CtBP1/HDAC2/μ-opioid receptor signaling pathway in the DRG holds promise as a potential therapeutic strategy for managing neuropathic pain.

Spinal neuron diversity scales exponentially with swim-to-limb transformation during frog metamorphosis

Vertebrates exhibit a wide range of motor behaviors, ranging from swimming to complex limb-based movements. Here we take advantage of frog metamorphosis, which captures a swim-to-limb-based movement transformation during the development of a single organism, to explore changes in the underlying spinal circuits. We find that the tadpole spinal cord contains small and largely homogeneous populations of motor neurons (MNs) and V1 interneurons (V1s) at early escape swimming stages. These neuronal populations only modestly increase in number and subtype heterogeneity with the emergence of free swimming. In contrast, during frog metamorphosis and the emergence of limb movement, there is a dramatic expansion of MN and V1 interneuron number and transcriptional heterogeneity, culminating in cohorts of neurons that exhibit striking molecular similarity to mammalian motor circuits. CRISPR/Cas9-mediated gene disruption of the limb MN and V1 determinants FoxP1 and Engrailed-1, respectively, results in severe but selective deficits in tail and limb function. Our work thus demonstrates that neural diversity scales exponentially with increasing behavioral complexity and illustrates striking evolutionary conservation in the molecular organization and function of motor circuits across species.

Multimodal Hox5 activity generates motor neuron diversity

Motor neurons (MNs) are the final output of circuits driving fundamental behaviors, such as respiration and locomotion. Hox proteins are essential in generating the MN diversity required for accomplishing these functions, but the transcriptional mechanisms that enable Hox paralogs to assign distinct MN subtype identities despite their promiscuous DNA binding motif are not well understood. Here we show that Hoxa5 modifies chromatin accessibility in all mouse spinal cervical MN subtypes and engages TALE co-factors to directly bind and regulate subtype-specific genes. We identify a paralog-specific interaction of Hoxa5 with the phrenic MN-specific transcription factor Scip and show that heterologous expression of Hoxa5 and Scip is sufficient to suppress limb-innervating MN identity. We also demonstrate that phrenic MN identity is stable after Hoxa5 downregulation and identify Klf proteins as potential regulators of phrenic MN maintenance. Our data identify multiple modes of Hoxa5 action that converge to induce and maintain MN identity.

Thorny and Tufted Retinal Ganglion Cells Express the Transcription Factor Forkhead Proteins Foxp1 and Foxp2 in Marmoset (Callithrix jacchus)

The transcription factor forkhead/winged-helix domain proteins Foxp1 and Foxp2 have previously been studied in mouse retina, where they are expressed in retinal ganglion cells named F-mini and F-midi. Here we show that both transcription factors are expressed by small subpopulations (on average less than 10%) of retinal ganglion cells in the retina of the marmoset monkey (Callithrix jacchus). The morphology of Foxp1- and Foxp2-expressing cells was revealed by intracellular DiI injections of immunofluorescent cells. Foxp1- and Foxp2-expressing cells comprised multiple types of wide-field ganglion cells, including broad thorny cells, narrow thorny cells, and tufted cells. The large majority of Foxp2-expressing cells were identified as tufted cells. Tufted cells stratify broadly in the middle of the inner plexiform layer. They resemble broad thorny cells but their proximal dendrites are bare of branches and the distal dendrites branch frequently forming dense dendritic tufts. Double labeling with calretinin, a previously established marker for broad thorny and narrow thorny cells, showed that only a small proportion of ganglion cells co-expressed calretinin and Foxp1 or Foxp2 supporting the idea that the two markers are differentially expressed in retinal ganglion cells of marmoset retina.

Spinal motor neuron development and metabolism are transcriptionally regulated by Nuclear Factor IA

Neural circuits governing all motor behaviors in vertebrates rely on the proper development of motor neurons and their precise targeting of limb muscles. Transcription factors are essential for motor neuron development, regulating their specification, migration, and axonal targeting. While transcriptional regulation of the early stages of motor neuron specification is well-established, much less is known about the role of transcription factors in the later stages of maturation and terminal arborization. Defining the molecular mechanisms of these later stages is critical for elucidating how motor circuits are constructed. Here, we demonstrate that the transcription factor Nuclear Factor-IA (NFIA) is required for motor neuron positioning, axonal branching, and neuromuscular junction formation. Moreover, we find that NFIA is required for proper mitochondrial function and ATP production, providing a new and important link between transcription factors and metabolism during motor neuron development. Together, these findings underscore the critical role of NFIA in instructing the assembly of spinal circuits for movement.

Meta-analysis of differential gene expression in lower motor neurons isolated by laser capture microdissection from post-mortem ALS spinal cords

Introduction

ALS is a fatal neurodegenerative disease for which underlying mechanisms are incompletely understood. The motor neuron is a central player in ALS pathogenesis but different transcriptome signatures have been derived from bulk analysis of post-mortem tissue and iPSC-derived motor neurons (iPSC-MNs).

Methods

This study performed a meta-analysis of six gene expression studies (microarray and RNA-seq) in which laser capture microdissection (LCM) was used to isolate lower motor neurons from post-mortem spinal cords of ALS and control (CTL) subjects. Differentially expressed genes (DEGs) with consistent ALS versus CTL expression differences across studies were identified.

Results

The analysis identified 222 ALS-increased DEGs (FDR <0.10, SMD >0.80) and 278 ALS-decreased DEGs (FDR <0.10, SMD < -0.80). ALS-increased DEGs were linked to PI3K-AKT signaling, innate immunity, inflammation, motor neuron differentiation and extracellular matrix. ALS-decreased DEGs were associated with the ubiquitin-proteosome system, microtubules, axon growth, RNA-binding proteins and synaptic membrane. ALS-decreased DEG mRNAs frequently interacted with RNA-binding proteins (e.g., FUS, HuR). The complete set of DEGs (increased and decreased) overlapped significantly with genes near ALS-associated SNP loci (p < 0.01). Transcription factor target motifs with increased proximity to ALS-increased DEGs were identified, most notably DNA elements predicted to interact with forkhead transcription factors (e.g., FOXP1) and motor neuron and pancreas homeobox 1 (MNX1). Some of these DNA elements overlie ALS-associated SNPs within known enhancers and are predicted to have genotype-dependent MNX1 interactions. DEGs were compared to those identified from SOD1-G93A mice and bulk spinal cord segments or iPSC-MNs from ALS patients. There was good correspondence with transcriptome changes from SOD1-G93A mice (r ≤ 0.408) but most DEGs were not differentially expressed in bulk spinal cords or iPSC-MNs and transcriptome-wide effect size correlations were weak (bulk tissue: r ≤ 0.207, iPSC-MN: r ≤ 0.037).

Conclusion

This study defines a robust transcriptome signature from LCM-based motor neuron studies of post-mortem tissue from ALS and CTL subjects. This signature differs from those obtained from analysis of bulk spinal cord segments and iPSC-MNs. Results provide insight into mechanisms underlying gene dysregulation in ALS and highlight connections between these mechanisms, ALS genetics, and motor neuron biology.

Generation of human iPSC-derived phrenic-like motor neurons to model respiratory motor neuron degeneration in ALS

The fatal motor neuron (MN) disease Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis (ALS) is characterized by progressive MN degeneration. Phrenic MNs (phMNs) controlling the activity of the diaphragm are prone to degeneration in ALS, leading to death by respiratory failure. Understanding of the mechanisms of phMN degeneration in ALS is limited, mainly because human experimental models to study phMNs are lacking. Here we describe a method enabling the derivation of phrenic-like MNs from human iPSCs (hiPSC-phMNs) within 30 days. This protocol uses an optimized combination of small molecules followed by cell-sorting based on a cell-surface protein enriched in hiPSC-phMNs, and is highly reproducible using several hiPSC lines. We show further that hiPSC-phMNs harbouring ALS-associated amplification of the C9orf72 gene progressively lose their electrophysiological activity and undergo increased death compared to isogenic controls. These studies establish a previously unavailable protocol to generate human phMNs offering a disease-relevant system to study mechanisms of respiratory MN dysfunction.

Multimodal Hox5 activity generates motor neuron diversity

Motor neurons (MNs) are the final output of circuits driving fundamental behaviors, such as respiration and locomotion. Hox proteins are essential in generating the MN diversity required for accomplishing these functions, but the transcriptional mechanisms that enable Hox paralogs to assign distinct MN subtype identities despite their promiscuous DNA binding motif are not well understood. Here we show that Hoxa5 controls chromatin accessibility in all mouse spinal cervical MN subtypes and engages TALE co-factors to directly bind and regulate subtype-specific genes. We identify a paralog-specific interaction of Hoxa5 with the phrenic MN-specific transcription factor Scip and show that heterologous expression of Hoxa5 and Scip is sufficient to suppress limb-innervating MN identity. We also demonstrate that phrenic MN identity is stable after Hoxa5 downregulation and identify Klf proteins as potential regulators of phrenic MN maintenance. Our data identify multiple modes of Hoxa5 action that converge to induce and maintain MN identity.

Cell Transplantation for Repair of the Spinal Cord and Prospects for Generating Region-Specific Exogenic Neuronal Cells

Spinal cord injury (SCI) is associated with currently irreversible consequences in several functional components of the central nervous system. Despite the severity of injury, there remains no approved treatment to restore function. However, with a growing number of preclinical studies and clinical trials, cell transplantation has gained significant potential as a treatment for SCI. Researchers have identified several cell types as potential candidates for transplantation. To optimize successful functional outcomes after transplantation, one key factor concerns generating neuronal cells with regional and subtype specificity, thus calling on the developmental transcriptome patterning of spinal cord cells. A potential source of spinal cord cells for transplantation is the generation of exogenic neuronal progenitor cells via the emerging technologies of gene editing and blastocyst complementation. This review highlights the use of cell transplantation to treat SCI in the context of relevant developmental gene expression patterns useful for producing regionally specific exogenic spinal cells via in vitro differentiation and blastocyst complementation.

Establishing and maintaining Hox profiles during spinal cord development

The chromosomally-arrayed Hox gene family plays central roles in embryonic patterning and the specification of cell identities throughout the animal kingdom. In vertebrates, the relatively large number of Hox genes and pervasive expression throughout the body has hindered understanding of their biological roles during differentiation. Studies on the subtype diversification of spinal motor neurons (MNs) have provided a tractable system to explore the function of Hox genes during differentiation, and have provided an entry point to explore how neuronal fate determinants contribute to motor circuit assembly. Recent work, using both in vitro and in vivo models of MN subtype differentiation, have revealed how patterning morphogens and regulation of chromatin structure determine cell-type specific programs of gene expression. These studies have not only shed light on basic mechanisms of rostrocaudal patterning in vertebrates, but also have illuminated mechanistic principles of gene regulation that likely operate in the development and maintenance of terminal fates in other systems.

Generating neural diversity through spatial and temporal patterning

The nervous system consists of a vast diversity of neurons and glia that are accurately assembled into functional circuits. What are the mechanisms that generate these diverse cell types? During development, an epithelial sheet with neurogenic potential is initially regionalised into spatially restricted domains of gene expression. From this, pools of neural stem cells (NSCs) with distinct molecular profiles and the potential to generate different neuron types, are specified. These NSCs then divide asymmetrically to self-renew and generate post-mitotic neurons or glia. As NSCs age, they experience transitions in gene expression, which further allows them to generate different neurons or glia over time. Versions of this general template of spatial and temporal patterning operate during the development of different parts of different nervous systems. Here, I cover our current knowledge of Drosophila brain and optic lobe development as well as the development of the vertebrate cortex and spinal cord within the framework of this above template. I highlight where our knowledge is lacking, where mechanisms beyond these might operate, and how the emergence of new technologies might help address unanswered questions.

A three-component model of the spinal nerve ramification: Bringing together the human gross anatomy and modern Embryology

Due to its long history, the study of human gross anatomy has not adequately incorporated modern embryological findings; consequently, the current understanding has often been incompatible with recent discoveries from molecular studies. Notably, the traditional epaxial and hypaxial muscle distinction, and their corresponding innervation by the dorsal and ventral rami of the spinal nerve, do not correspond to the primaxial and abaxial muscle distinction, defined by the mesodermal lineages of target tissues. To resolve the disagreement between adult anatomy and embryology, we here propose a novel hypothetical model of spinal nerve ramification. Our model is based on the previously unknown developmental process of the intercostal nerves. Observations of these nerves in the mouse embryos revealed that the intercostal nerves initially had superficial and deep ventral branches, which is contrary to the general perception of a single ventral branch. The initial dual innervation pattern later changes into an adult-like single branch pattern following the retraction of the superficial branch. The modified intercostal nerves consist of the canonical ventral branches and novel branches that run on the muscular surface of the thorax, which sprout from the lateral cutaneous branches. We formulated the embryonic branching pattern into the hypothetical ramification model of the human spinal nerve so that the branching pattern is compatible with the developmental context of the target muscles. In our model, every spinal nerve consists of three components: (1) segmental branches that innervate the primaxial muscles, including the dorsal rami, and short branches and long superficial anterior branches from the ventral rami; (2) plexus-forming intramural branches, the serial homolog of the canonical intercostal nerves, which innervate the abaxial portion of the body wall; and (3) plexus-forming extramural branches, the series of novel branches located outside of the body wall, which innervate the girdle and limb muscles. The selective elaboration or deletion of each component successfully explains the reasoning for the standard morphology and variability of the spinal nerve. Therefore, our model brings a novel understanding of spinal nerve development and valuable information for basic and clinical sciences regarding the diverse branching patterns of the spinal nerve.

Fibroblast-derived Hgf controls recruitment and expansion of muscle during morphogenesis of the mammalian diaphragm

The diaphragm is a domed muscle between the thorax and abdomen essential for breathing in mammals. Diaphragm development requires the coordinated development of muscle, connective tissue, and nerve, which are derived from different embryonic sources. Defects in diaphragm development cause the common and often lethal birth defect, congenital diaphragmatic hernias (CDH). HGF/MET signaling is required for diaphragm muscularization, but the source of HGF and the specific functions of this pathway in muscle progenitors and effects on phrenic nerve have not been explicitly tested. Using conditional mutagenesis in mice and pharmacological inhibition of MET, we demonstrate that the pleuroperitoneal folds (PPFs), transient embryonic structures that give rise to the connective tissue in the diaphragm, are the source of HGF critical for diaphragm muscularization. PPF-derived HGF is directly required for recruitment of MET+ muscle progenitors to the diaphragm and indirectly (via its effect on muscle development) required for phrenic nerve primary branching. In addition, HGF is continuously required for maintenance and motility of the pool of progenitors to enable full muscularization. Localization of HGF at the diaphragm's leading edges directs dorsal and ventral expansion of muscle and regulates its overall size and shape. Surprisingly, large muscleless regions in HGF and Met mutants do not lead to hernias. While these regions are likely more susceptible to CDH, muscle loss is not sufficient to cause CDH.

The Cell Autonomous and Non-Cell Autonomous Aspects of Neuronal Vulnerability and Resilience in Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis

Simple Summary

Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) is a fatal disease characterized by a progressive paralysis due to the loss of particular neurons in our nervous system called motor neurons, that exert voluntary control of all our skeletal muscles. It is not entirely understood why motor neurons are particularly vulnerable in ALS, neither is it completely clear why certain groups of motor neurons, including those that regulate eye movement, are rather resilient to this disease. However, both vulnerability and resilience to ALS likely reflect cell intrinsic properties of different motor neuron subpopulations as well as non-cell autonomous events regulated by surrounding cell types. In this review we dissect the particular properties of different motor neuron types and their responses to disease that may underlie their respective vulnerabilities and resilience. Disease progression in ALS involves multiple cell types that are closely connected to motor neurons and we here also discuss their contributions to the differential vulnerability of motor neurons.

Abstract

Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) is defined by the loss of upper motor neurons (MNs) that project from the cerebral cortex to the brain stem and spinal cord and of lower MNs in the brain stem and spinal cord which innervate skeletal muscles, leading to spasticity, muscle atrophy, and paralysis. ALS involves several disease stages, and multiple cell types show dysfunction and play important roles during distinct phases of disease initiation and progression, subsequently leading to selective MN loss. Why MNs are particularly vulnerable in this lethal disease is still not entirely clear. Neither is it fully understood why certain MNs are more resilient to degeneration in ALS than others. Brain stem MNs of cranial nerves III, IV, and VI, which innervate our eye muscles, are highly resistant and persist until the end-stage of the disease, enabling paralyzed patients to communicate through ocular tracking devices. MNs of the Onuf’s nucleus in the sacral spinal cord, that innervate sphincter muscles and control urogenital functions, are also spared throughout the disease. There is also a differential vulnerability among MNs that are intermingled throughout the spinal cord, that directly relate to their physiological properties. Here, fast-twitch fatigable (FF) MNs, which innervate type IIb muscle fibers, are affected early, before onset of clinical symptoms, while slow-twitch (S) MNs, that innervate type I muscle fibers, remain longer throughout the disease progression. The resilience of particular MN subpopulations has been attributed to intrinsic determinants and multiple studies have demonstrated their unique gene regulation and protein content in health and in response to disease. Identified factors within resilient MNs have been utilized to protect more vulnerable cells. Selective vulnerability may also, in part, be driven by non-cell autonomous processes and the unique surroundings and constantly changing environment close to particular MN groups. In this article, we review in detail the cell intrinsic properties of resilient and vulnerable MN groups, as well as multiple additional cell types involved in disease initiation and progression and explain how these may contribute to the selective MN resilience and vulnerability in ALS.

Mitochondrial dysfunction and oxidative stress contribute to cognitive and motor impairment in FOXP1 syndrome

FOXP1 haploinsufficiency underlies cognitive and motor impairments in individuals with FOXP1 syndrome. Here, we show that mice lacking one Foxp1 copy exhibit similar behavioral deficits, which may be caused by striatal dysfunction. Indeed, Foxp1^+/− striatal medium spiny neurons display reduced neurite branching, and we show altered mitochondrial biogenesis and dynamics; increased mitophagy; reduced mitochondrial membrane potential, structure, and motility; and elevated oxygen species in the striatum of these animals. As FOXP1 is highly conserved, our data strongly suggest that mitochondrial dysfunction and excessive oxidative stress contribute to the motor and cognitive impairments seen in individuals with FOXP1 syndrome. Thus, mitochondrial homeostasis is critical for normal development and can explain deficits in neurodevelopmental disorders.

FOXP1 syndrome caused by haploinsufficiency of the forkhead box protein P1 (FOXP1) gene is a neurodevelopmental disorder that manifests motor dysfunction, intellectual disability, autism, and language impairment. In this study, we used a Foxp1^+/− mouse model to address whether cognitive and motor deficits in FOXP1 syndrome are associated with mitochondrial dysfunction and oxidative stress. Here, we show that genes with a role in mitochondrial biogenesis and dynamics (e.g., Foxo1, Pgc-1α, Tfam, Opa1, and Drp1) were dysregulated in the striatum of Foxp1^+/− mice at different postnatal stages. Furthermore, these animals exhibit a reduced mitochondrial membrane potential and complex I activity, as well as decreased expression of the antioxidants superoxide dismutase 2 (Sod2) and glutathione (GSH), resulting in increased oxidative stress and lipid peroxidation. These features can explain the reduced neurite branching, learning and memory, endurance, and motor coordination that we observed in these animals. Taken together, we provide strong evidence of mitochondrial dysfunction in Foxp1^+/− mice, suggesting that insufficient energy supply and excessive oxidative stress underlie the cognitive and motor impairment in FOXP1 deficiency.

The histone demethylase Kdm6b regulates subtype diversification of mouse spinal motor neurons during development

How a single neuronal population diversifies into subtypes with distinct synaptic targets is a fundamental topic in neuroscience whose underlying mechanisms are unclear. Here, we show that the histone H3-lysine 27 demethylase Kdm6b regulates the diversification of motor neurons to distinct subtypes innervating different muscle targets during spinal cord development. In mouse embryonic motor neurons, Kdm6b promotes the medial motor column (MMC) and hypaxial motor column (HMC) fates while inhibiting the lateral motor column (LMC) and preganglionic motor column (PGC) identities. Our single-cell RNA-sequencing analyses reveal the heterogeneity of PGC, LMC, and MMC motor neurons. Further, our single-cell RNA-sequencing data, combined with mouse model studies, demonstrates that Kdm6b acquires cell fate specificity together with the transcription factor complex Isl1-Lhx3. Our study provides mechanistic insight into the gene regulatory network regulating neuronal cell-type diversification and defines a regulatory role of Kdm6b in the generation of motor neuron subtypes in the mouse spinal cord.

PRC1 sustains the integrity of neural fate in the absence of PRC2 function

Polycomb repressive complexes (PRCs) 1 and 2 maintain stable cellular memories of early fate decisions by establishing heritable patterns of gene repression. PRCs repress transcription through histone modifications and chromatin compaction, but their roles in neuronal subtype diversification are poorly defined. We found that PRC1 is essential for the specification of segmentally restricted spinal motor neuron (MN) subtypes, while PRC2 activity is dispensable to maintain MN positional identities during terminal differentiation. Mutation of the core PRC1 component Ring1 in mice leads to increased chromatin accessibility and ectopic expression of a broad variety of fates determinants, including Hox transcription factors, while neuronal class-specific features are maintained. Loss of MN subtype identities in Ring1 mutants is due to the suppression of Hox-dependent specification programs by derepressed Hox13 paralogs (Hoxa13, Hoxb13, Hoxc13, Hoxd13). These results indicate that PRC1 can function in the absence of de novo PRC2-dependent histone methylation to maintain chromatin topology and postmitotic neuronal fate.

Establishing the Molecular and Functional Diversity of Spinal Motoneurons

Spinal motoneurons are a remarkably diverse class of neurons responsible for facilitating a broad range of motor behaviors and autonomic functions. Studies of motoneuron differentiation have provided fundamental insights into the developmental mechanisms of neuronal diversification, and have illuminated principles of neural fate specification that operate throughout the central nervous system. Because of their relative anatomical simplicity and accessibility, motoneurons have provided a tractable model system to address multiple facets of neural development, including early patterning, neuronal migration, axon guidance, and synaptic specificity. Beyond their roles in providing direct communication between central circuits and muscle, recent studies have revealed that motoneuron subtype-specific programs also play important roles in determining the central connectivity and function of motor circuits. Cross-species comparative analyses have provided novel insights into how evolutionary changes in subtype specification programs may have contributed to adaptive changes in locomotor behaviors. This chapter focusses on the gene regulatory networks governing spinal motoneuron specification, and how studies of spinal motoneurons have informed our understanding of the basic mechanisms of neuronal specification and spinal circuit assembly.

Identification of neural oscillations and epileptiform changes in human brain organoids

Brain organoids represent a powerful tool for studying human neurological diseases, particularly those that affect brain growth and structure. However, many diseases manifest with clear evidence of physiological and network abnormality in the absence of anatomical changes, raising the question of whether organoids possess sufficient neural network complexity to model these conditions. Here, we explore the network-level functions of brain organoids using calcium sensor imaging and extracellular recording approaches that together reveal the existence of complex network dynamics reminiscent of intact brain preparations. We demonstrate highly abnormal and epileptiform-like activity in organoids derived from induced pluripotent stem cells from individuals with Rett syndrome, accompanied by transcriptomic differences revealed by single-cell analyses. We also rescue key physiological activities with an unconventional neuroregulatory drug, pifithrin-α. Together, these findings provide an essential foundation for the utilization of brain organoids to study intact and disordered human brain network formation and illustrate their utility in therapeutic discovery.

Elimination of glutamatergic transmission from Hb9 interneurons does not impact treadmill locomotion

The spinal cord contains neural circuits that can produce the rhythm and pattern of locomotor activity. It has previously been postulated that a population of glutamatergic neurons, termed Hb9 interneurons, contributes to locomotor rhythmogenesis. These neurons were identified by their expression of the homeobox gene, Hb9, which is also expressed in motor neurons. We developed a mouse line in which Cre recombinase activity is inducible in neurons expressing Hb9. We then used this line to eliminate vesicular glutamate transporter 2 from Hb9 interneurons, and found that there were no deficits in treadmill locomotion. We conclude that glutamatergic neurotransmission by Hb9 interneurons is not required for locomotor behaviour. The role of these neurons in neural circuits remains elusive.

Foxp1 Regulates Neural Stem Cell Self-Renewal and Bias Toward Deep Layer Cortical Fates

The laminar architecture of the mammalian neocortex depends on the orderly generation of distinct neuronal subtypes by apical radial glia (aRG) during embryogenesis. Here, we identify critical roles for the autism risk gene Foxp1 in maintaining aRG identity and gating the temporal competency for deep-layer neurogenesis. Early in development, aRG express high levels of Foxp1 mRNA and protein, which promote self-renewing cell divisions and deep-layer neuron production. Foxp1 levels subsequently decline during the transition to superficial-layer neurogenesis. Sustained Foxp1 expression impedes this transition, preserving a population of cells with aRG identity throughout development and extending the early neurogenic period into postnatal life. FOXP1 expression is further associated with the initial formation and expansion of basal RG (bRG) during human corticogenesis and can promote the formation of cells exhibiting characteristics of bRG when misexpressed in the mouse cortex. Together, these findings reveal broad functions for Foxp1 in cortical neurogenesis.

Proprioception revisited: where do we stand?

Originally referred to as 'muscle sense', the notion that skeletal muscle held a peripheral sensory function was first described early in the 19^th century. Foundational experiments by Sherrington in the early 20^th century definitively demonstrated that proprioceptors contained within skeletal muscle, tendons, and joints are innervated by sensory neurons and play an important role in the control of movement. In this review, we will highlight several recent advances in the ongoing effort to further define the molecular diversity underlying the proprioceptive sensorimotor system. Together, the work summarized here represents our current understanding of sensorimotor circuit formation during development and the mechanisms that regulate the integration of proprioceptive feedback into the spinal circuits that control locomotion in both normal and diseased states.

FOXP1 negatively regulates intrinsic excitability in D2 striatal projection neurons by promoting inwardly rectifying and leak potassium currents

Heterozygous loss-of-function mutations in the transcription factor FOXP1 are strongly associated with autism. Dopamine receptor 2 expressing (D2) striatal projection neurons (SPNs) in heterozygous Foxp1 (Foxp1^+/-) mice have higher intrinsic excitability. To understand the mechanisms underlying this alteration, we examined SPNs with cell-type specific homozygous Foxp1 deletion to study cell-autonomous regulation by Foxp1. As in Foxp1^+/- mice, D2 SPNs had increased intrinsic excitability with homozygous Foxp1 deletion. This effect involved postnatal mechanisms. The hyperexcitability was mainly due to down-regulation of two classes of potassium currents: inwardly rectifying (K_IR) and leak (K_Leak). Single-cell RNA sequencing data from D2 SPNs with Foxp1 deletion indicated the down-regulation of transcripts of candidate ion channels that may underlie these currents: Kcnj2 and Kcnj4 for K_IR and Kcnk2 for K_Leak. This Foxp1-dependent regulation was neuron-type specific since these same currents and transcripts were either unchanged, or very little changed, in D1 SPNs with cell-specific Foxp1 deletion. Our data are consistent with a model where FOXP1 negatively regulates the excitability of D2 SPNs through K_IR and K_Leak by transcriptionally activating their corresponding transcripts. This, in turn, provides a novel example of how a transcription factor may regulate multiple genes to impact neuronal electrophysiological function that depends on the integration of multiple current types - and do this in a cell-specific fashion. Our findings provide initial clues to altered neuronal function and possible therapeutic strategies not only for FOXP1-associated autism but also for other autism forms associated with transcription factor dysfunction.

HOX paralogs selectively convert binding of ubiquitous transcription factors into tissue-specific patterns of enhancer activation

Gene expression programs determine cell fate in embryonic development and their dysregulation results in disease. Transcription factors (TFs) control gene expression by binding to enhancers, but how TFs select and activate their target enhancers is still unclear. HOX TFs share conserved homeodomains with highly similar sequence recognition properties, yet they impart the identity of different animal body parts. To understand how HOX TFs control their specific transcriptional programs in vivo, we compared HOXA2 and HOXA3 binding profiles in the mouse embryo. HOXA2 and HOXA3 directly cooperate with TALE TFs and selectively target different subsets of a broad TALE chromatin platform. Binding of HOX and tissue-specific TFs convert low affinity TALE binding into high confidence, tissue-specific binding events, which bear the mark of active enhancers. We propose that HOX paralogs, alone and in combination with tissue-specific TFs, generate tissue-specific transcriptional outputs by modulating the activity of TALE TFs at selected enhancers.

The Geometry of Limb Motor Innervation is Controlled by the Dorsal-Ventral Compartment Boundary in the Chick Limbless Mutant

Precise control of limb muscles, and ultimately of limb movement, requires accurate motor innervation. Motor innervation of the vertebrate limb is established by sequential selection of trajectories at successive decision points. Motor axons of the lateral motor column (LMC) segregate at the base of the limb into two groups that execute a choice between dorsal and ventral tissue: medial LMC axons innervate the ventral limb, whereas lateral LMC axons innervate the dorsal limb. We investigated how LMC axons are targeted to the limb using the chick mutant limbless (ll), which has a dorsal transformation of the ventral limb mesenchyme. In ll the spatial pattern of motor projections to the limb is abnormal while their targeting is normal. While extensive, the dorsal transformation of the ll ventral limb mesenchyme is incomplete whereas the generation, specification and targeting of spinal motor neurons are apparently unaffected. Thus, the dorsal-ventral motor axon segregation is an active choice that is independent of the ratio between dorsal and ventral tissue but dependent on the presence of both tissues. Therefore, the fidelity of the motor projections to the limb depends on the presence of both dorsal and ventral compartments, while the geometry of motor projections is controlled by the position of limb dorsal-ventral compartment boundary.

An offset ON-OFF receptive field is created by gap junctions between distinct types of retinal ganglion cells

In the vertebrate retina, the location of a neuron's receptive field in visual space closely corresponds to the physical location of synaptic input onto its dendrites, a relationship called the retinotopic map. We report the discovery of a systematic spatial offset between the ON and OFF receptive subfields in F-mini-ON retinal ganglion cells (RGCs). Surprisingly, this property does not come from spatially offset ON and OFF layer dendrites, but instead arises from a network of electrical synapses via gap junctions to RGCs of a different type, the F-mini-OFF. We show that the asymmetric morphology and connectivity of these RGCs can explain their receptive field offset, and we use a multicell model to explore the effects of receptive field offset on the precision of edge-location representation in a population. This RGC network forms a new electrical channel combining the ON and OFF feedforward pathways within the output layer of the retina.

Differential abilities to engage inaccessible chromatin diversify vertebrate Hox binding patterns

Although Hox genes encode for conserved transcription factors (TFs), they are further divided into anterior, central and posterior groups based on their DNA-binding domain similarity. The posterior Hox group expanded in the deuterostome clade and patterns caudal and distal structures. We aimed to address how similar Hox TFs diverge to induce different positional identities. We studied Hox TF DNA-binding and regulatory activity during an in vitro motor neuron differentiation system that recapitulates embryonic development. We found diversity in the genomic binding profiles of different Hox TFs, even among the posterior group paralogs that share similar DNA-binding domains. These differences in genomic binding were explained by differing abilities to bind to previously inaccessible sites. For example, the posterior group HOXC9 had a greater ability to bind occluded sites than the posterior HOXC10, producing different binding patterns and driving differential gene expression programs. From these results, we propose that the differential abilities of posterior Hox TFs to bind to previously inaccessible chromatin drive patterning diversification.This article has an associated 'The people behind the papers' interview.

Walking with Salamanders: From Molecules to Biorobotics

How do four-legged animals adapt their locomotion to the environment? How do central and peripheral mechanisms interact within the spinal cord to produce adaptive locomotion and how is locomotion recovered when spinal circuits are perturbed? Salamanders are the only tetrapods that regenerate voluntary locomotion after full spinal transection. Given their evolutionary position, they provide a unique opportunity to bridge discoveries made in fish and mammalian models. Genetic dissection of salamander neural circuits is becoming feasible with new methods for precise manipulation, elimination, and visualisation of cells. These approaches can be combined with classical tools in neuroscience and with modelling and a robotic environment. We propose that salamanders provide a blueprint of the function, evolution, and regeneration of tetrapod locomotor circuits.

FOXP transcription factors in vertebrate brain development, function, and disorders

FOXP transcription factors are an evolutionarily ancient protein subfamily coordinating the development of several organ systems in the vertebrate body. Association of their genes with neurodevelopmental disorders has sparked particular interest in their expression patterns and functions in the brain. Here, FOXP1, FOXP2, and FOXP4 are expressed in distinct cell type-specific spatiotemporal patterns in multiple regions, including the cortex, hippocampus, amygdala, basal ganglia, thalamus, and cerebellum. These varied sites and timepoints of expression have complicated efforts to link FOXP1 and FOXP2 mutations to their respective developmental disorders, the former affecting global neural functions and the latter specifically affecting speech and language. However, the use of animal models, particularly those with brain region- and cell type-specific manipulations, has greatly advanced our understanding of how FOXP expression patterns could underlie disorder-related phenotypes. While many questions remain regarding FOXP expression and function in the brain, studies to date have illuminated the roles of these transcription factors in vertebrate brain development and have greatly informed our understanding of human development and disorders. This article is categorized under: Nervous System Development > Vertebrates: General Principles Gene Expression and Transcriptional Hierarchies > Gene Networks and Genomics Nervous System Development > Vertebrates: Regional Development.

Novel concept for the epaxial/hypaxial boundary based on neuronal development

Trunk muscles in vertebrates are classified as either dorsal epaxial or ventral hypaxial muscles. Epaxial and hypaxial muscles are defined as muscles innervated by the dorsal and ventral rami of spinal nerves, respectively. Each cluster of spinal motor neurons passing through dorsal rami innervates epaxial muscles, whereas clusters traveling on the ventral rami innervate hypaxial muscles. Herein, we show that some motor neurons exhibiting molecular profiles for epaxial muscles follow a path in the ventral rami. Dorsal deep-shoulder muscles and some body wall muscles are defined as hypaxial due to innervation via the ventral rami, but a part of these ventral rami has the molecular profile of motor neurons that innervate epaxial muscles. Thus, the epaxial and hypaxial boundary cannot be determined simply by the ramification pattern of spinal nerves. We propose that, although muscle innervation occurs via the ventral rami, dorsal deep-shoulder muscles and some body wall muscles represent an intermediate group that lies between epaxial and hypaxial muscles.

Characterization of Human iPSC-derived Spinal Motor Neurons by Single-cell RNA Sequencing

Human induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs) offer the opportunity to generate specific cell types from healthy and diseased individuals, allowing the study of mechanisms of early human development, modelling a variety of human diseases, and facilitating the development of new therapeutics. Human iPSC-based applications are often limited by the variability among iPSC lines originating from a single donor, as well as the heterogeneity among specific cell types that can be derived from iPSCs. The ability to deeply phenotype different iPSC-derived cell types is therefore of primary importance to the successful and informative application of this technology. Here we describe a combination of motor neuron (MN) derivation and single-cell RNA sequencing approaches to generate and characterize specific MN subtypes obtained from human iPSCs. Our studies provide evidence for rapid and robust generation of MN progenitor cells that can give rise to a heterogenous population of MNs. Approximately 58% of human iPSC-derived MNs display molecular characteristics of lateral motor column MNs, with a number of molecularly distinct subpopulations present within this MN group. Roughly 19% of induced MNs resemble hypaxial motor column MNs, while ∼6% of induced MNs have features of median motor column MNs. The present study has the potential to improve our understanding of iPSC-derived MN subtype function and dysfunction, possibly leading to improved iPSC-based applications for the study of human MN biology and disease.

Functional Roles of Long Non-coding RNAs in Motor Neuron Development and Disease

Long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs) have gained increasing attention as they exhibit highly tissue- and cell-type specific expression patterns. LncRNAs are highly expressed in the central nervous system and their roles in the brain have been studied intensively in recent years, but their roles in the spinal motor neurons (MNs) are largely unexplored. Spinal MN development is controlled by precise expression of a gene regulatory network mediated spatiotemporally by transcription factors, representing an elegant paradigm for deciphering the roles of lncRNAs during development. Moreover, many MN-related neurodegenerative diseases, such as amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) and spinal muscular atrophy (SMA), are associated with RNA metabolism, yet the link between MN-related diseases and lncRNAs remains obscure. In this review, we summarize lncRNAs known to be involved in MN development and disease, and discuss their potential future therapeutic applications.

Post-crossing segment of dI1 commissural axons forms collateral branches to motor neurons in the developing spinal cord

The dI1 commissural axons in the developing spinal cord, upon crossing the midline through the floor plate, make a sharp turn to grow rostrally. These post-crossing axons initially just extend adjacent to the floor plate without entering nearby motor columns. However, it remains poorly characterized how these post-crossing dI1 axons behave subsequently to this process. In the present study, to address this issue, we examined in detail the behavior of post-crossing dI1 axons in mice, using the Atoh1 enhancer-based conditional expression system that enables selective and sparse labeling of individual dI1 axons, together with Hb9 and ChAT immunohistochemistry for precise identification of spinal motor neurons (MNs). We found unexpectedly that the post-crossing segment of dI1 axons later gave off collateral branches that extended laterally to invade motor columns. Interestingly, these collateral branches emerged at around the time when their primary growth cones initiated invasion into motor columns. In addition, although the length of the laterally growing collateral branches increased with age, the majority of them remained within motor columns. Strikingly, these collateral branches further gave rise to multiple secondary branches in the region of MNs that innervate muscles close to the body axis. Moreover, these axonal branches formed presynaptic terminals on MNs. These observations demonstrate that dI1 commissural neurons develop axonal projection to spinal MNs via collateral branches arising later from the post-crossing segment of these axons. Our findings thus reveal a previously unrecognized projection of dI1 commissural axons that may contribute directly to generating proper motor output.

The Cofilin/Limk1 Pathway Controls the Growth Rate of Both Developing and Regenerating Motor Axons

Regenerating axons often have to grow considerable distances to reestablish circuits, making functional recovery a lengthy process. One solution to this problem would be to co-opt the "temporal" guidance mechanisms that control the rate of axon growth during development to accelerate the rate at which nerves regenerate in adults. We have previously found that the loss of Limk1, a negative regulator of cofilin, accelerates the rate of spinal commissural axon growth. Here, we use mouse models to show that spinal motor axon outgrowth is similarly promoted by the loss of Limk1, suggesting that temporal guidance mechanisms are widely used during development. Furthermore, we find that the regulation of cofilin activity is an acute response to nerve injury in the peripheral nervous system. Within hours of a sciatic nerve injury, the level of phosphorylated cofilin dramatically increases at the lesion site, in a Limk1-dependent manner. This response may be a major constraint on the rate of peripheral nerve regeneration. Proof-of-principle experiments show that elevating cofilin activity, through the loss of Limk1, results in faster sciatic nerve growth, and improved recovery of some sensory and motor function.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT The studies shed light on an endogenous, shared mechanism that controls the rate at which developing and regenerating axons grow. An understanding of these mechanisms is key for developing therapies to reduce painful recovery times for nerve-injury patients, by accelerating the rate at which damaged nerves reconnect with their synaptic targets.

Transcriptional mechanisms of motor neuron development in vertebrates and invertebrates

Across phylogeny, motor neurons (MNs) represent a single but often remarkably diverse neuronal class composed of a multitude of subtypes required for vital behaviors, such as eating and locomotion. Over the past decades, seminal studies in multiple model organisms have advanced our molecular understanding of the early steps of MN development, such as progenitor specification and acquisition of MN subtype identity, by revealing key roles for several evolutionarily conserved transcription factors. However, very little is known about the molecular strategies that allow distinct MN subtypes to maintain their identity- and function-defining features during the late steps of development and postnatal life. Here, we provide an overview of invertebrate and vertebrate studies on transcription factor-based strategies that control early and late steps of MN development, aiming to highlight evolutionarily conserved gene regulatory principles necessary for establishment and maintenance of neuronal identity.

Restoring Motor Neurons in Spinal Cord Injury With Induced Pluripotent Stem Cells

Spinal cord injury (SCI) is a devastating neurological disorder that damages motor, sensory, and autonomic pathways. Recent advances in stem cell therapy have allowed for the in vitro generation of motor neurons (MNs) showing electrophysiological and synaptic activity, expression of canonical MN biomarkers, and the ability to graft into spinal lesions. Clinical translation, especially the transplantation of MN precursors in spinal lesions, has thus far been elusive because of stem cell heterogeneity and protocol variability, as well as a hostile microenvironment such as inflammation and scarring, which yield inconsistent pre-clinical results without a consensus best-practice therapeutic strategy. Induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs) in particular have lower ethical and immunogenic concerns than other stem cells, which could make them more clinically applicable. In this review, we focus on the differentiation of iPSCs into neural precursors, MN progenitors, mature MNs, and MN subtype fates. Previous reviews have summarized MN development and differentiation, but an up-to-date summary of technological and experimental advances holding promise for bench-to-bedside translation, especially those targeting individual MN subtypes in SCI, is currently lacking. We discuss biological mechanisms of MN lineage, recent experimental protocols and techniques for MN differentiation from iPSCs, and transplantation of neural precursors and MN lineage cells in spinal cord lesions to restore motor function. We emphasize efficient, clinically safe, and personalized strategies for the application of MN and their subtypes as therapy in spinal lesions.

Critical roles of ARHGAP36 as a signal transduction mediator of Shh pathway in lateral motor columnar specification

During spinal cord development, Sonic hedgehog (Shh), secreted from the floor plate, plays an important role in the production of motor neurons by patterning the ventral neural tube, which establishes MN progenitor identity. It remains unknown, however, if Shh signaling plays a role in generating columnar diversity of MNs that connect distinct target muscles. Here, we report that Shh, expressed in MNs, is essential for the formation of lateral motor column (LMC) neurons in vertebrate spinal cord. This novel activity of Shh is mediated by its downstream effector ARHGAP36, whose expression is directly induced by the MN-specific transcription factor complex Isl1-Lhx3. Furthermore, we found that AKT stimulates the Shh activity to induce LMC MNs through the stabilization of ARHGAP36 proteins. Taken together, our data reveal that Shh, secreted from MNs, plays a crucial role in generating MN diversity via a regulatory axis of Shh-AKT-ARHGAP36 in the developing mouse spinal cord.

Diverse spinal commissural neuron populations revealed by fate mapping and molecular profiling using a novel Robo3Cre mouse

The two sides of the nervous system coordinate and integrate information via commissural neurons, which project axons across the midline. Commissural neurons in the spinal cord are a highly heterogeneous population of cells with respect to their birthplace, final cell body position, axonal trajectory, and neurotransmitter phenotype. Although commissural axon guidance during development has been studied in great detail, neither the developmental origins nor the mature phenotypes of commissural neurons have been characterized comprehensively, largely due to lack of selective genetic access to these neurons. Here, we generated mice expressing Cre recombinase from the Robo3 locus specifically in commissural neurons. We used Robo3 ^Cre mice to characterize the transcriptome and various origins of developing commissural neurons, revealing new details about their extensive heterogeneity in molecular makeup and developmental lineage. Further, we followed the fate of commissural neurons into adulthood, thereby elucidating their settling positions and molecular diversity and providing evidence for possible functions in various spinal cord circuits. Our studies establish an important genetic entry point for further analyses of commissural neuron development, connectivity, and function.

Positional Strategies for Connection Specificity and Synaptic Organization in Spinal Sensory-Motor Circuits

Proprioceptive sensory axons in the spinal cord form selective connections with motor neuron partners, but the strategies that confer such selectivity remain uncertain. We show that muscle-specific sensory axons project to motor neurons along topographically organized angular trajectories and that motor pools exhibit diverse dendritic arbors. On the basis of spatial constraints on axo-dendritic interactions, we propose positional strategies that can account for sensory-motor connectivity and synaptic organization. These strategies rely on two patterning principles. First, the degree of axo-dendritic overlap reduces the number of potential post-synaptic partners. Second, a close correlation between the small angle of axo-dendritic approach and the formation of synaptic clusters imposes specificity of connections when sensory axons intersect multiple motor pools with overlapping dendritic arbors. Our study identifies positional strategies with prominent roles in the organization of spinal sensory-motor circuits.

Single cell transcriptomics reveals spatial and temporal dynamics of gene expression in the developing mouse spinal cord

The coordinated spatial and temporal regulation of gene expression in the vertebrate neural tube determines the identity of neural progenitors and the function and physiology of the neurons they generate. Progress has been made deciphering the gene regulatory programmes that are responsible for this process; however, the complexity of the tissue has hampered the systematic analysis of the network and the underlying mechanisms. To address this, we used single cell mRNA sequencing to profile cervical and thoracic regions of the developing mouse neural tube between embryonic days 9.5-13.5. We confirmed that the data accurately recapitulates neural tube development, allowing us to identify new markers for specific progenitor and neuronal populations. In addition, the analysis highlighted a previously underappreciated temporal component to the mechanisms that generate neuronal diversity, and revealed common features in the sequence of transcriptional events that lead to the differentiation of specific neuronal subtypes. Together, the data offer insight into the mechanisms that are responsible for neuronal specification and provide a compendium of gene expression for classifying spinal cord cell types that will support future studies of neural tube development, function and disease.

Effect of sonic hedgehog on motor neuron positioning in the spinal cord during chicken embryonic development

Sonic hedgehog (SHH) is a vertebrate homologue of the secreted Drosophila protein hedgehog and is expressed by the notochord and floor plate in the developing spinal cord. Sonic hedgehog provides signals relevant for positional information, cell proliferation and possibly cell survival, depending on the time and location of expression. Although the role of SHH in providing positional information in the neural tube has been experimentally proven, the underlying mechanism remains unclear. In this study, in ovo electroporation was employed in the chicken spinal cord during chicken embryo development. Electroporation was conducted at stage 17 (E2.5), after electroporation the embryos were continued incubating to stage 28 (E6) for sampling, tissue fixation with 4% paraformaldehyde and frozen sectioning. Sonic hedgehog and related protein expressions were detected by in situ hybridization and fluorescence immunohistochemistry and the results were analysed after microphotography. Our results indicate that the ectopic expression of SHH leads to ventralization in the spinal cord during chicken embryonic development by inducing abnormalities in the structure of the motor column and motor neuron integration. In addition, ectopic SHH expression inhibits the expression of dorsal transcription factors and commissural axon projections. The correct location of SHH expression is vital to the formation of the motor column. Ectopic expression of SHH in the spinal cord not only affects the positioning of motor neurons, but also induces abnormalities in the structure of the motor column. It leads to ventralization in the spinal cord, resulting in the formation of more ventral neurons forming during neuronal formation.

Conserved regulation of neurodevelopmental processes and behavior by FoxP in Drosophila

FOXP proteins form a subfamily of evolutionarily conserved transcription factors involved in the development and functioning of several tissues, including the central nervous system. In humans, mutations in FOXP1 and FOXP2 have been implicated in cognitive deficits including intellectual disability and speech disorders. Drosophila exhibits a single ortholog, called FoxP, but due to a lack of characterized mutants, our understanding of the gene remains poor. Here we show that the dimerization property required for mammalian FOXP function is conserved in Drosophila. In flies, FoxP is enriched in the adult brain, showing strong expression in ~1000 neurons of cholinergic, glutamatergic and GABAergic nature. We generate Drosophila loss-of-function mutants and UAS-FoxP transgenic lines for ectopic expression, and use them to characterize FoxP function in the nervous system. At the cellular level, we demonstrate that Drosophila FoxP is required in larvae for synaptic morphogenesis at axonal terminals of the neuromuscular junction and for dendrite development of dorsal multidendritic sensory neurons. In the developing brain, we find that FoxP plays important roles in α-lobe mushroom body formation. Finally, at a behavioral level, we show that Drosophila FoxP is important for locomotion, habituation learning and social space behavior of adult flies. Our work shows that Drosophila FoxP is important for regulating several neurodevelopmental processes and behaviors that are related to human disease or vertebrate disease model phenotypes. This suggests a high degree of functional conservation with vertebrate FOXP orthologues and established flies as a model system for understanding FOXP related pathologies.

New perspectives on the mechanisms establishing the dorsal-ventral axis of the spinal cord

Distinct classes of neurons arise at different positions along the dorsal-ventral axis of the spinal cord leading to spinal neurons being segregated along this axis according to their physiological properties and functions. Thus, the neurons associated with motor control are generally located in, or adjacent to, the ventral horn whereas the interneurons (INs) that mediate sensory activities are present within the dorsal horn. Here, we review classic and recent studies examining the developmental mechanisms that establish the dorsal-ventral axis in the embryonic spinal cord. Intriguingly, while the cellular organization of the dorsal and ventral halves of the spinal cord looks superficially similar during early development, the underlying molecular mechanisms that establish dorsal vs ventral patterning are markedly distinct. For example, the ventral spinal cord is patterned by the actions of a single growth factor, sonic hedgehog (Shh) acting as a morphogen, i.e., concentration-dependent signal. Recent studies have shed light on the mechanisms by which the spatial and temporal gradient of Shh is transduced by cells to elicit the generation of different classes of ventral INs, and motor neurons (MNs). In contrast, the dorsal spinal cord is patterned by the action of multiple factors, most notably by members of the bone morphogenetic protein (BMP) and Wnt families. While less is known about dorsal patterning, recent studies have suggested that the BMPs do not act as morphogens to specify dorsal IN identities as previously proposed, rather each BMP has signal-specific activities. Finally, we consider the promise that elucidation of these mechanisms holds for neural repair.

Identification of the neurotransmitter profile of AmFoxP expressing neurons in the honeybee brain using double-label in situ hybridization

BACKGROUND

FoxP transcription factors play crucial roles for the development and function of vertebrate brains. In humans the neurally expressed FOXPs, FOXP1, FOXP2, and FOXP4 are implicated in cognition, including language. Neural FoxP expression is specific to particular brain regions but FoxP1, FoxP2 and FoxP4 are not limited to a particular neuron or neurotransmitter type. Motor- or sensory activity can regulate FoxP2 expression, e.g. in the striatal nucleus Area X of songbirds and in the auditory thalamus of mice. The DNA-binding domain of FoxP proteins is highly conserved within metazoa, raising the possibility that cellular functions were preserved across deep evolutionary time. We have previously shown in bee brains that FoxP is expressed in eleven specific neuron populations, seven tightly packed clusters and four loosely arranged groups.

RESULTS

The present study examined the co-expression of honeybee FoxP (AmFoxP) with markers for glutamatergic, GABAergic, cholinergic and monoaminergic transmission. We found that AmFoxP could co-occur with any one of those markers. Interestingly, AmFoxP clusters and AmFoxP groups differed with respect to homogeneity of marker co-expression; within a cluster, all neurons co-expressed the same neurotransmitter marker, within a group co-expression varied. We also assessed qualitatively whether age or housing conditions providing different sensory and motor experiences affected the AmFoxP neuron populations, but found no differences.

CONCLUSIONS

Based on the neurotransmitter homogeneity we conclude that AmFoxP neurons within the clusters might have a common projection and function whereas the AmFoxP groups are more diverse and could be further sub-divided. The obtained information about the neurotransmitters co-expressed in the AmFoxP neuron populations facilitated the search of similar neurons described in the literature. These comparisons revealed e.g. a possible function of AmFoxP neurons in the central complex. Our findings provide opportunities to focus future functional studies on invertebrate FoxP expressing neurons. In a broader context, our data will contribute to the ongoing efforts to discern in which cases relationships between molecular and phenotypic signatures are linked evolutionary.

Sympathetic tales: subdivisons of the autonomic nervous system and the impact of developmental studies

Remarkable progress in a range of biomedical disciplines has promoted the understanding of the cellular components of the autonomic nervous system and their differentiation during development to a critical level. Characterization of the gene expression fingerprints of individual neurons and identification of the key regulators of autonomic neuron differentiation enables us to comprehend the development of different sets of autonomic neurons. Their individual functional properties emerge as a consequence of differential gene expression initiated by the action of specific developmental regulators. In this review, we delineate the anatomical and physiological observations that led to the subdivision into sympathetic and parasympathetic domains and analyze how the recent molecular insights melt into and challenge the classical description of the autonomic nervous system.

Columnar-Intrinsic Cues Shape Premotor Input Specificity in Locomotor Circuits

Control of movement relies on the ability of circuits within the spinal cord to establish connections with specific subtypes of motor neuron (MN). Although the pattern of output from locomotor networks can be influenced by MN position and identity, whether MNs exert an instructive role in shaping synaptic specificity within the spinal cord is unclear. We show that Hox transcription-factor-dependent programs in MNs are essential in establishing the central pattern of connectivity within the ventral spinal cord. Transformation of axially projecting MNs to a limb-level lateral motor column (LMC) fate, through mutation of the Hoxc9 gene, causes the central afferents of limb proprioceptive sensory neurons to target MNs connected to functionally inappropriate muscles. MN columnar identity also determines the pattern and distribution of inputs from multiple classes of premotor interneurons, indicating that MNs broadly influence circuit connectivity. These findings indicate that MN-intrinsic programs contribute to the initial architecture of locomotor circuits.

Development, functional organization, and evolution of vertebrate axial motor circuits

Neuronal control of muscles associated with the central body axis is an ancient and essential function of the nervous systems of most animal species. Throughout the course of vertebrate evolution, motor circuits dedicated to control of axial muscle have undergone significant changes in their roles within the motor system. In most fish species, axial circuits are critical for coordinating muscle activation sequences essential for locomotion and play important roles in postural correction. In tetrapods, axial circuits have evolved unique functions essential to terrestrial life, including maintaining spinal alignment and breathing. Despite the diverse roles of axial neural circuits in motor behaviors, the genetic programs underlying their assembly are poorly understood. In this review, we describe recent studies that have shed light on the development of axial motor circuits and compare and contrast the strategies used to wire these neural networks in aquatic and terrestrial vertebrate species.

Cerebrospinal Fluid from Patients with Sporadic Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis Induces Degeneration of Motor Neurons Derived from Human Embryonic Stem Cells

Disease modeling has become challenging in the context of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), as obtaining viable spinal motor neurons from postmortem patient tissue is an unlikely possibility. Limitations in the animal models due to their phylogenetic distance from human species hamper the success of translating possible findings into therapeutic options. Accordingly, there is a need for developing humanized models as a lead towards identifying successful therapeutic possibilities. In this study, human embryonic stem cells-BJNHem20-were differentiated into motor neurons expressing HB9, Islet1, and choline acetyl transferase using retinoic acid and purmorphamine. These motor neurons discharged spontaneous action potentials with two different frequencies (< 5 and > 5 Hz), and majority of them were principal neurons firing with < 5 Hz. Exposure to cerebrospinal fluid from ALS patients for 48 h induced several degenerative changes in the motor neurons as follows: cytoplasmic changes such as beading of neurites and vacuolation; morphological alterations, viz., dilation and vacuolation of mitochondria, curled and closed Golgi architecture, dilated endoplasmic reticulum, and chromatin condensation in the nucleus; lowered activity of different mitochondrial complex enzymes; reduced expression of brain-derived neurotrophic factor; up-regulated neurofilament phosphorylation and hyperexcitability represented by increased number of spikes. All these changes along with the enhanced expression of pro-apoptotic proteins-Bax and caspase 9-culminated in the death of motor neurons.