PACAP and VIP regulate hypoxia-inducible factors in neuroblastoma cells exposed to hypoxia

Peptidergic Systems and Neuroblastoma

The peptidergic systems are involved in neuroblastoma. Peptides (angiotensin II, neuropeptide Y, neurotensin, substance P) act as oncogenic agents in neuroblastoma, whereas others (adrenomedullin, corticotropin-releasing factor, urocortin, orexin) exert anticancer effects against neuroblastoma. This plethora of peptidergic systems show the functional complexity of the mechanisms regulated by peptides in neuroblastoma. Peptide receptor antagonists act as antineuroblastoma agents since these compounds counteracted neuroblastoma cell growth and migration and the angiogenesis promoted by oncogenic peptides. Other therapeutic approaches (signaling pathway inhibitors, focal adhesion kinase inhibitors, peptide receptor knockdown, acetic acid analogs) that also counteract the beneficial effects mediated by the oncogenic peptides in neuroblastoma are discussed, and future research lines to be developed in neuroblastoma (interactions between oncogenic and anticancer peptides, combination therapy using peptide receptor antagonists and chemotherapy/radiotherapy) are also suggested. Although the data regarding the involvement of the peptidergic systems in neuroblastoma are, in many cases, fragmentary or very scarce for a particular peptidergic system, taken together, they are quite promising with respect to potentiating and developing this research line with the aim of developing new therapeutic strategies to treat neuroblastoma in the future. Peptidergic systems are potential and promising targets for the diagnosis and treatment of neuroblastoma.

Cluster Headache and Hypoxia: Breathing New Life into an Old Theory, with Novel Implications

Cluster headache is a severe, poorly understood disorder for which there are as yet virtually no rationally derived treatments. Here, Lee Kudrow's 1983 theory, that cluster headache is an overly zealous response to hypoxia, is updated according to current understandings of hypoxia detection, signaling, and sensitization. It is shown that the distinctive clinical characteristics of cluster headache (circadian timing of attacks and circannual patterning of bouts, autonomic symptoms, and agitation), risk factors (cigarette smoking; male gender), triggers (alcohol; nitroglycerin), genetic findings (GWAS studies), anatomical substrate (paraventricular nucleus of the hypothalamus, solitary tract nucleus/NTS, and trigeminal nucleus caudalis), neurochemical features (elevated levels of galectin-3, nitric oxide, tyramine, and tryptamine), and responsiveness to treatments (verapamil, lithium, melatonin, prednisone, oxygen, and histamine desensitization) can all be understood in terms of hypoxic signaling. Novel treatment directions are hypothesized, including repurposing pharmacological antagonists of hypoxic signaling molecules (HIF-2; P2X3) for cluster headache, breath training, physical exercise, high-dose thiamine, carnosine, and the flavonoid kaempferol. The limits of current knowledge are described, and a program of basic and translational research is proposed.

Novel Acetamide-Based HO-1 Inhibitor Counteracts Glioblastoma Progression by Interfering with the Hypoxic-Angiogenic Pathway

Glioblastoma multiforme (GBM) represents the deadliest tumor among brain cancers. It is a solid tumor characterized by uncontrolled cell proliferation generating the hypoxic niches in the cancer core. By inducing the transcription of hypoxic inducible factor (HIF), hypoxia triggers many signaling cascades responsible for cancer progression and aggressiveness, including enhanced expression of vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) or antioxidant enzymes, such as heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1). The present work aimed to investigate the link between HO-1 expression and the hypoxic microenvironment of GBM by culturing two human glioblastoma cell lines (U87MG and A172) in the presence of a hypoxic mimetic agent, deferoxamine (DFX). By targeting hypoxia-induced HO-1, we have tested the effect of a novel acetamide-based HO-1 inhibitor (VP18/58) on GBM progression. Results have demonstrated that hypoxic conditions induced upregulation and nuclear expression of HO-1 in a cell-dependent manner related to malignant phenotype. Moreover, our data demonstrated that the HO-1 inhibitor counteracted GBM progression by modulating the HIFα/HO-1/VEGF signaling cascade in cancer cells bearing more malignant phenotypes.

Pleural mesothelioma from fluoro-edenite exposure: PACAP and PAC1 receptor. A preliminary report

Pleural mesothelioma is a devastating malignancy primarily associated with asbestos exposure. However, emerging evidence suggests that exposure to fluoro-edenite fibers, a naturally occurring mineral fiber, can also lead to the development of pleural mesothelioma. In this study, based on the hypothesis that pituitary adenylate cyclase-activating polypeptide (PACAP) and PACAP-preferring receptor (PAC1R) expressions could be dysregulated in pleural mesothelioma samples and that they could potentially act as diagnostic or prognostic biomarkers, we aimed to investigate the immunohistochemical expression of PACAP and PAC1R in pleural biopsies from patients with pleural mesothelioma exposed to fluoro-edenite fibers. A total of 12 patients were included in this study, and their biopsies were processed for immunohistochemical analysis to evaluate the expression of PACAP and its receptor. The study revealed a correlation between the overexpression of PACAP and PAC1R and shorter overall survival in patients with malignant mesothelioma. These findings suggest that PACAP and PAC1R expression levels could serve as potential prognostic biomarkers for malignant mesothelioma. Furthermore, the immunohistochemical analysis of PACAP and PAC1R may provide valuable information for clinicians to guide therapeutic decisions and identify patients with poorer prognosis.

Retinal VIP-amacrine cells: their development, structure, and function

Amacrine cells (ACs) are the most structurally and functionally diverse neuron type in the retina. Different ACs have distinct functions, such as neuropeptide secretion and inhibitory connection. Vasoactive intestinal peptide (VIP) -ergic -ACs are retina gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) -ergic -ACs that were discovered long ago. They secrete VIP and form connections with bipolar cells (BCs), other ACs, and retinal ganglion cells (RGCs). They have a specific structure, density, distribution, and function. They play an important role in myopia, light stimulated responses, retinal vascular disease and other ocular diseases. Their significance in the study of refractive development and disease is increasing daily. However, a systematic review of the structure and function of retinal VIP-ACs is lacking. We discussed the detailed characteristics of VIP-ACs from every aspect across species and providing systematic knowledge base for future studies. Our review led to the main conclusion that retinal VIP-ACs develop early, and although their morphology and distribution across species are not the same, they have similar functions in a wide range of ocular diseases based on their function of secreting neuropeptides and forming inhibitory connections with other cells.

Characterization of Retinal VIP-Amacrine Cell Development During the Critical Period

Retinal vasoactive intestinal peptide amacrine cells (VIP-ACs) play an important role in various retinal light-mediated pathological processes related to different developmental ocular diseases and even mental disorders. It is important to characterize the developmental changes in VIP-ACs to further elucidate their mechanisms of circuit function. We bred VIP-Cre mice with Ai14 and Ai32 to specifically label retinal VIP-ACs. The VIP-AC soma and spine density generally increased, from postnatal day (P)0 to P35, reaching adult levels at P14 and P28, respectively. The VIP-AC soma density curve was different with the VIP-AC spine density curve. The total retinal VIP content reached a high level plateau at P14 but was decreased in adults. From P14 to P16, the resting membrane potential (RMP) became more negative, and the input resistance decreased. Cell membrane capacitance (MC) showed three peaks at P7, P12 and P16. The RMP and MC reached a stable level similar to the adult level at P18, whereas input resistance reached a stable level at P21. The percentage of sustained voltage-dependent potassium currents peaked at P16 and remained stable thereafter. The spontaneous excitatory postsynaptic current and spontaneous inhibitory postsynaptic current frequencies and amplitudes, as well as charge transfer, peaked at P12 to P16; however, there were also secondary peaks at different time points. In conclusion, we found that the second, third and fourth weeks after birth were important periods of VIP-AC development. Many developmental changes occurred around eye opening. The development of soma, dendrite and electrophysiological properties showed uneven dynamics of progression. Cell differentiation may contribute to soma development whereas the changes of different ion channels may play important role for spine development.

Cell Cycle Reactivation, at the Start of Neurodegeneration, Induced by Forskolin and Aniline in Differentiated Neuroblastoma Cells

A characteristic hallmark of Alzheimer's disease (AD) is the intracellular accumulation of hyperphosphorylated tau protein, a phenomenon that appears to have associations with oxidative stress, double-stranded DNA breakage, and the de-condensation of heterochromatin. Re-entry into the cell division cycle appears to be involved in the onset of this neurodegenerative process. Indeed, the cell cycle cannot proceed regularly in the differentiated neurons leading to cell death. Here, we induced cell cycle reactivation in neuronal-like cells, obtained by neuroblastoma cells treated with retinoic acid, by exposure to forskolin or aniline. These compounds determine tau hyperphosphorylation or oxidative stress, respectively, resulting in the appearance of features resembling the start of neuronal degeneration typical of AD, such as tau hyperphosphorylation and re-entry into the cell cycle. Indeed, we detected an increased transcriptional level of cyclins and the appearance of a high number of mitotic cells. We also observed a delay in the initiation of the cell cycle when forskolin was co-administered with pituitary adenylate cyclase-activating polypeptide (PACAP). This delay was not observed when PACAP was co-administered with aniline. Our data demonstrate the relevance of tau hyperphosphorylation in initiating an ectopic cell cycle in differentiated neuronal cells, a condition that can lead to neurodegeneration. Moreover, we highlight the utility of neuroblastoma cell lines as an in vitro cellular model to test the possible neuroprotective effects of natural molecules.

Ferroptosis in the Lacrimal Gland Is Involved in Dry Eye Syndrome Induced by Corneal Nerve Severing

Purpose

Dry eye syndrome (DES) is a prevalent postoperative complication after myopic corneal refractive surgeries and the main cause of postoperative dissatisfaction. Although great efforts have been made in recent decades, the molecular mechanism of postoperative DES remains poorly understood. Here, we used a series of bioinformatics approaches and experimental methods to investigate the potential mechanism involved in postoperative DES.

Methods

BALB/c mice were randomly divided into sham, unilateral corneal nerve cutting (UCNV) + saline, UCNV + vasoactive intestinal peptide (VIP), and UCNV + ferrostatin-1 (Fer-1, inhibitor of ferroptosis) groups. Corneal lissamine green dye and tear volume were measured before and two weeks after the surgery in all groups. Lacrimal glands were collected for secretory function testing, RNA sequencing, ferroptosis verification, and inflammatory factor detection.

Results

UCNV significantly induced bilateral decreases in tear secretion. Inhibition of the maturation and release of secretory vesicles was observed in bilateral lacrimal glands. More importantly, UCNV induced ferroptosis in bilateral lacrimal glands. Furthermore, UCNV significantly decreased VIP, a neural transmitter, in bilateral lacrimal glands, which increased Hif1a, the dominant transcription factor of transferrin receptor protein 1 (TfR1). Supplementary VIP inhibited ferroptosis, which decreased the inflammatory reaction and promoted the maturation and release of secretory vesicles. Supplementary VIP and Fer-1 improved tear secretion.

Conclusions

Our data suggest a novel mechanism by which UCNV induces bilateral ferroptosis through the VIP/Hif1a/TfR1 pathway, which might be a promising therapeutic target for DES-induced by corneal refractive surgeries.

Distribution of PACAP and PAC1 Receptor in the Human Eye

Pituitary adenylate cyclase-activating polypeptide (PACAP) is a neuropeptide with widespread distribution and diverse biological functions. Several studies show that PACAP has strong cytoprotective effects mediated mostly through its specific PAC1 receptor (PAC1-R) and it plays important roles in several pathological conditions. Its distribution and altered expression are known in various human tissues, but there is no descriptive data about PACAP and its receptors in the human eyebulb. Since PACAP38 is the dominant form of the naturally occurring PACAP, our aim was to investigate the distribution of PACAP38-like immunoreactivity in the human eye and to describe the presence of PAC1-R. Semiquantitative evaluation was performed after routine histology and immunohistochemical labeling on human eye sections. Our results showed high level of immunopositivity in the corneal epithelium and endothelium. Within the vascular layer, the iris and the ciliary body had strong immunopositivity for both PACAP and PAC1-R. Several layers of the retina showed immunoreactivity for PACAP and PAC1-R, but the ganglion cell layer had a special pattern in the immunolabeling. Labeling was observed in the neuropil within the optic nerve in both cases and glial cells displayed immunoreactivity for PAC1-R. In summary, our study indicates the widespread occurrence of PACAP and its specific receptor in the human eye, implying that the results from in vitro and animal studies have translational value and most probably are also present in the human eye.

A Broad Overview on Pituitary Adenylate Cyclase-Activating Polypeptide Role in the Eye: Focus on Its Repairing Effect in Cornea

Pituitary Adenylate Cyclase-Activating Polypeptide (PACAP) is a neuropeptide with widespread distribution throughout the central and peripheral nervous system as well as in many other peripheral organs. It plays cytoprotective effects mediated mainly through the activation of specific receptors. PACAP is known to play pleiotropic effects on the eye, including the cornea, protecting it against different types of insult. This review firstly provides an overview of the anatomy of the cornea and summarizes data present in literature about PACAP’s role in the eye and, in particular, in the cornea, either in physiological or pathological conditions.

Activity-Dependent Neuroprotective Protein (ADNP)-Derived Peptide (NAP) Counteracts UV-B Radiation-Induced ROS Formation in Corneal Epithelium

The corneal epithelium, the outermost layer of the cornea, acts as a dynamic barrier preventing access to harmful agents into the intraocular space. It is subjected daily to different insults, and ultraviolet B (UV-B) irradiation represents one of the main causes of injury. In our previous study, we demonstrated the beneficial effects of pituitary adenylate cyclase-activating polypeptide (PACAP) against UV-B radiation damage in the human corneal endothelium. Some of its effects are mediated through the activation of the intracellular factor, known as the activity-dependent protein (ADNP). In the present paper, we have investigated the role of ADNP and the small peptide derived from ADNP, known as NAP, in the corneal epithelium. Here, we have demonstrated, for the first time, ADNP expression in human and rabbit corneal epithelium as well as its protective effect by treating the corneal epithelial cells exposed to UV-B radiations with NAP. Our results showed that NAP treatment prevents ROS formation by reducing UV-B-irradiation-induced apoptotic cell death and JNK signalling pathway activation. Further investigations are needed to deeply investigate the possible therapeutic use of NAP to counteract corneal UV-B damage.

Isolation and Characterization of A2-EPTX-Nsm1a, a Secretory Phospholipase A2 from Malaysian Spitting Cobra (Naja sumatrana) Venom

Phospholipase A₂ (PLA₂) toxins are one of the main toxin families found in snake venom. PLA₂ toxins are associated with various detrimental effects, including neurotoxicity, myotoxicity, hemostatic disturbances, nephrotoxicity, edema, and inflammation. Although Naja sumatrana venom contains substantial quantities of PLA₂ components_, there is limited information on the function and activities of PLA₂ toxins from the venom. In this study, a secretory PLA₂ from the venom of Malaysian N. sumatrana, subsequently named A2-EPTX-Nsm1a, was isolated, purified, and characterized. A2-EPTX-Nsm1a was purified using a mass spectrometry-guided approach and multiple chromatography steps. Based on LC-MSMS, A2-EPTX-Nsm1a was found to show high sequence similarity with PLA₂ from venoms of other Naja species. The PLA₂ activity of A2-EPTX-Nsm1 was inhibited by 4-BPB and EDTA. A2-EPTX-Nsm1a was significantly less cytotoxic in a neuroblastoma cell line (SH-SY5Y) compared to crude venom and did not show a concentration-dependent cytotoxic activity. To our knowledge, this is the first study that characterizes and investigates the cytotoxicity of an Asp49 PLA₂ isolated from Malaysian N. sumatrana venom in a human neuroblastoma cell line.

Effect of PACAP on Hypoxia-Induced Angiogenesis and Epithelial-Mesenchymal Transition in Glioblastoma

Pituitary adenylate cyclase-activating polypeptide (PACAP) exerts different effects in various human cancer. In glioblastoma (GBM), PACAP has been shown to interfere with the hypoxic micro-environment through the modulation of hypoxia-inducible factors via PI3K/AKT and MAPK/ERK pathways inhibition. Considering that hypoxic tumor micro-environment is strictly linked to angiogenesis and Epithelial–Mesenchymal transition (EMT), in the present study, we have investigated the ability of PACAP to regulate these events. Results have demonstrated that PACAP and its related receptor, PAC1R, are expressed in hypoxic area of human GBM colocalizing either in epithelial or mesenchymal cells. By using an in vitro model of GBM cells, we have observed that PACAP interferes with hypoxic/angiogenic pathway by reducing vascular-endothelial growth factor (VEGF) release and inhibiting formation of vessel-like structures in H5V endothelial cells cultured with GBM-conditioned medium. Moreover, PACAP treatment decreased the expression of mesenchymal markers such as vimentin, matrix metalloproteinase 2 (MMP-2) and matrix metalloproteinase 9 (MMP-9) as well as CD44 in GBM cells by affecting their invasiveness. In conclusion, our study provides new insights regarding the multimodal role of PACAP in GBM malignancy.

Multimodal Role of PACAP in Glioblastoma

Glioblastoma multiforme (GBM) is the deadliest form of brain tumors. To date, the GBM therapeutical approach consists of surgery, radiation-therapy and chemotherapy combined with molecules improving cancer responsiveness to treatments. In this review, we will present a brief overview of the GBM classification and pathogenesis, as well as the therapeutic approach currently used. Then, we will focus on the modulatory role exerted by pituitary adenylate cyclase-activating peptide, known as PACAP, on GBM malignancy. Specifically, we will describe PACAP ability to interfere with GBM cell proliferation, as well as the tumoral microenvironment. Considering its anti-oncogenic role in GBM, synthesis of PACAP agonist molecules may open new perspectives for combined therapy to existing gold standard treatment.

PACAP is Protective Against Cellular Stress in Retinal Pigment Epithelial Cells

The integrity of the innermost, pigment epithelial layer of the retina is crucial for the photoreceptor survival and for maintaining the outer blood–retina barrier. In several ocular degenerations, such as diabetic retinopathy or macular edema, the stress caused by various harmful stimuli (hypoxia, oxidative stress, hyperosmosis) lead to severe molecular biological changes in this layer, promoting neovascularization of the retina. Pituitary adenylate cyclase activating polypeptide (PACAP) occurs throughout the whole body, including the eye. It has numerous functions in the retina, including the previously described anti-apoptotic and anti-angiogenic effects in retinal pigment epithelial cells. The aim of this present study was to investigate the influence of PACAP on different stress factors. In accordance with previous findings, PACAP significantly ameliorated the increased Hif1-α levels in hypoxic conditions. In H2O2-induced oxidative stress PACAP had an anti-apoptotic effect, it could decrease the expression of cytochrome-c and p53, while it upregulated the concentration of three antioxidants, namely SOD2, PON2 and thioredoxin. In conclusion, we provided new information on the molecular biological background of the retinoprotective effect of PACAP.

Attenuation of High Glucose-Induced Damage in RPE Cells through p38 MAPK Signaling Pathway Inhibition

This study aimed to investigate the high glucose damage on human retinal pigment epithelial (RPE) cells, the role of p38 MAPK signaling pathway and how dimethyl fumarate can regulate that. We carried out in vitro studies on ARPE-19 cells exposed to physiological and high glucose (HG) conditions, to evaluate the effects of DMF on cell viability, apoptosis, and expression of inflammatory and angiogenic biomarkers such as COX-2, iNOS, IL-1β, and VEGF. Our data have demonstrated that DMF treatment attenuated HG-induced apoptosis, as confirmed by reduction of BAX/Bcl-2 ratio. Furthermore, in RPE cells exposed to HG we observed a significant increase of iNOS, COX-2, and IL-1β expression, that was reverted by DMF treatment. Moreover, DMF reduced the VEGF levels elicited by HG, inhibiting p38 MAPK signaling pathway. The present study demonstrated that DMF provides a remarkable protection against high glucose-induced damage in RPE cells through p38 MAPK inhibition and the subsequent down-regulation of VEGF levels, suggesting that DMF is a small molecule that represents a good candidate for diabetic retinopathy treatment and warrants further in vivo and clinical evaluation.

The Protective Effects of Endogenous PACAP in Oxygen-Induced Retinopathy

Pituitary adenylate cyclase–activating polypeptide (PACAP) is a neuropeptide having trophic and protective functions in neural tissues, including the retina. Previously, we have shown that intravitreal PACAP administration can maintain retinal structure in the animal model of retinopathy of prematurity (ROP). The purpose of this study is to examine the development of ROP in PACAP-deficient and wild-type mice to reveal the function of endogenous PACAP. Wild-type and PACAP-knockout (KO) mouse pups at postnatal day (PD) 7 were maintained at 75% oxygen for 5 consecutive days then returned to room air on PD12 to develop oxygen-induced retinopathy (OIR). On PD15, animals underwent electroretinography (ERG) to assess visual function. On PD16, eyes were harvested for either immunohistochemistry to determine the percentage of the central avascular retinal area or molecular analysis to assess angiogenesis proteins by array kit and anti-apoptotic protein kinase B (Akt) change by western blot. Retinas of PACAP-deficient OIR mice showed a greater central avascular area than that of the wild types. ERG revealed significantly decreased b-wave amplitude in PACAP KO compared to their controls. Several angiogenic proteins were upregulated due to OIR, and 11 different proteins markedly increased in PACAP-deficient mice, whereas western blot analysis revealed a reduction in Akt phosphorylation, suggesting an advanced cell death in the lack of PACAP. This is the first study to examine the endogenous effect of PACAP in the OIR model. Previously, we have shown the beneficial effect of exogenous local PACAP treatment in the rat OIR model. Together with the present findings, we suggest that PACAP could be a novel retinoprotective agent in ROP.

PACAP and PAC1 Receptor Expression in Human Insulinomas

Pituitary adenylate cyclase activating polypeptide (PACAP) is a neuropeptide with widespread occurrence and diverse functions. PACAP binds to specific PAC1 and non-specific VPAC1/2 receptors. PACAP is considered as a growth factor, as it plays important roles during development and participates in reparative processes. Highest concentrations are found in the nervous system and endocrine glands, where several functions are known, including actions in tissue growth, differentiation and tumour development. Therefore, we have investigated expression of PACAP and its receptors in different tumours, including those of endocrine glands. We showed earlier that PACAP and PAC1 receptor staining intensity decreased in pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma. In the present study we aimed to investigate alterations of PACAP and PAC1 receptor in human insulinoma and compared the immunostaining pattern with samples from chronic pancreatitis patients. We collected perioperative and histological data of patients who underwent operation because of insulinoma or chronic pancreatitis over a five-year-long period. Histology showed chronic pancreatitis with severe scar formation in pancreatitis patients, while tumour samples evidenced Grade 1 or 2 insulinoma. PACAP and PAC1 receptor expression was studied using immunohistochemistry. Staining intensity was very strong in the Langerhans islets of normal tissue and discernible staining was also observed in the exocrine pancreas. Immunostaining intensity for both PACAP and PAC1 receptor was markedly weaker in insulinoma samples, and disappeared from chronic pancreatitis samples except for intact islets. These findings show that PAC1 receptor/PACAP signalling is altered in insulinoma and this suggests a possible involvement of this system in tumour growth or differentiation.

Emodin protects knee joint cartilage in rats through anti-matrix degradation pathway: An in vitro and in vivo study

AIMS

Osteoarthritis (OA) is a common joint disease and the main cause of disability. We sought to determine the effective concentration of emodin on chondrocytes and to identify the dosage of emodin that induces a comparable therapeutic effect with the COX-2 inhibitor drug, celecoxib that is currently used to treat OA.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

In vitro experiments induced inflammation of chondrocytes by IL-1β, and an osteoarthritis model was established in vivo by cutting rat anterior cruciate ligament. Western Blot, Real-time PCR, HE staining, Safranin O-green staining and immunohistochemistry were performed to detect MMP-3, MMP-13, ADAMTS-4, iNOS and COL2A1 on the chondrocytes or the tibial plateau. The cytokine activity and content in serum of six groups of rats were measured by kit.

RESULTS

It was found that the surface layer of the cartilage was thicker and smoother after the administration of emodin. Tissue expression of MMP-3, MMP-13, ADAMTS-4 and iNOS were significantly (p < 0.05) decreased in chondrocytes and cartilage treated with different doses of emodin, and the content of COL2A1 was reversed. Emodin also significantly decreased the blood levels of COX-2 and PGE2. The effective emodin in vitro was 5 μmol/L, whereas emodin at 80 mg/kg was equivalent to celecoxib in vivo.

CONCLUSION

Emodin reduces the expression of cartilage matrix degradation biomarkers, thereby reducing the degradation of cartilage matrix and protecting the knee joint cartilage. Emodin at 5 μmol/L shows the best concentration to treat chondrocytes, and the protective effect of emodin at 80 mg/kg is comparable to that of celecoxib.

Use of dual-flow bioreactor to develop a simplified model of nervous-cardiovascular systems crosstalk: A preliminary assessment

Chronic conditions requiring long-term rehabilitation therapies, such as hypertension, stroke, or cancer, involve complex interactions between various systems/organs of the body and mutual influences, thus implicating a multiorgan approach. The dual-flow IVTech LiveBox2 bioreactor is a recently developed inter-connected dynamic cell culture model able to mimic organ crosstalk, since cells belonging to different organs can be connected and grown under flow conditions in a more physiological environment. This study aims to setup for the first time a 2-way connected culture of human neuroblastoma cells, SH-SY5Y, and Human Coronary Artery Smooth Muscle Cells, HCASMC through a dual-flow IVTech LiveBox2 bioreactor, in order to represent a simplified model of nervous-cardiovascular systems crosstalk, possibly relevant for the above-mentioned diseases. The system was tested by treating the cells with 10nM angiotensin II (AngII) inducing PKCβII/HuR/VEGF pathway activation, since AngII and PKCβII/HuR/VEGF pathway are relevant in cardiovascular and neuroscience research. Three different conditions were applied: 1- HCASMC and SH-SY5Y separately seeded in petri dishes (static condition); 2- the two cell lines separately seeded under flow (dynamic condition); 3- the two lines, seeded in dynamic conditions, connected, each maintaining its own medium, with a membrane as interface for biohumoral changes between the two mediums, and then treated. We detected that only in condition 3 there was a synergic AngII-dependent VEGF production in SH-SY5Y cells coupled to an AngII-dependent PKCβII/HuR/VEGF pathway activation in HCASMC, consistent with the observed physiological response in vivo. HCASMC response to AngII seems therefore to be generated by/derived from the reciprocal cell crosstalk under the dynamic inter-connection ensured by the dual flow LiveBox 2 bioreactor. This system can represent a useful tool for studying the crosstalk between organs, helpful for instance in rehabilitation research or when investigating chronic diseases; further, it offers the advantageous opportunity of cultivating each cell line in its own medium, thus mimicking, at least in part, distinct tissue milieu.

Effects of Pacap on Schwann Cells: Focus on Nerve Injury

Schwann cells, the most abundant glial cells of the peripheral nervous system, represent the key players able to supply extracellular microenvironment for axonal regrowth and restoration of myelin sheaths on regenerating axons. Following nerve injury, Schwann cells respond adaptively to damage by acquiring a new phenotype. In particular, some of them localize in the distal stump to form the Bungner band, a regeneration track in the distal site of the injured nerve, whereas others produce cytokines involved in recruitment of macrophages infiltrating into the nerve damaged area for axonal and myelin debris clearance. Several neurotrophic factors, including pituitary adenylyl cyclase-activating peptide (PACAP), promote survival and axonal elongation of injured neurons. The present review summarizes the evidence existing in the literature demonstrating the autocrine and/or paracrine action exerted by PACAP to promote remyelination and ameliorate the peripheral nerve inflammatory response following nerve injury.

Simulation of hypoxia of myocardial cells in microfluidic systems

The paper presents a newly designed microfluidic system that allows simulation of myocardial hypoxia by biochemical method. The geometry of the microsystem was designed in such a way, that quantitative fluorescent measurements using a spectrofluorometric plate reader was possible. Biochemical simulation of hypoxia was carried out using potent mitochondrial oxidative phosphorylation uncoupler—Carbonyl cyanide-4-(trifluoromethoxy)phenylhydrazone (FCCP). Two cardiac cell lines were used in the study—rat cardiomyoblasts (H9C2) and human cardiomyocytes. The effectiveness of biochemical simulation of hypoxia was studied using two fluorescent dyes: carbocyanine iodide (JC-1) and Fluo-4. Changes in the mitochondrial membrane potential and concentration of intracellular calcium ions were tested. The major novelty of this research was the applying the microfluidic system to create hypoxia conditions for cardiac cells using the biochemical approach. In further studies, the presented hypoxia model could be used to develop new methods of treatment of ischemic heart disease for example in cell therapy based on stem cells.

HIF-1α induces hypoxic apoptosis of MLO-Y4 osteocytes via JNK/caspase-3 pathway and the apoptotic-osteocyte-mediated osteoclastogenesis in vitro

Apoptotic osteocytes were found in the hypoxic bone microenvironment in osteoporosis, osteotomy, orthodontic tooth movement and periodontitis, and played a key role in bone remolding and the differentiation of osteoclasts. Hypoxia inducible factor-1α(HIF-1α), as a transcription factor under hypoxic conditions, has been confirmed to participate in cell apoptosis. However, the effect of HIF-1α on osteocytes apoptosis and the osteocyte-mediated osteoclast formation remains elusive. Here, we hypothesized that HIF-1α was involved in osteocytes apoptosis. Our results showed that CoCl₂ increased the MLO-Y4 cells apoptosis by upregulating the proapoptotic gene expression of caspase-3. Moreover, siRNA-mediated knockdown of HIF-1α decreased the phosphorylation by JNK and the activation of caspase-3 to inhibit the cell apoptosis in MLO-Y4. Furthermore, SP600125, an inhibitor of JNK, reversed CoCl₂-induced the increased apoptosis of MLO-Y4 cells in term of reducing the expression of caspase-3. These findings revealed that HIF-1α served as a pro-apoptotic factor in the apoptosis of MLO-Y4 cells cultured with CoCl₂, by activating the JNK/caspase-3 signaling pathway. Besides, the osteocyte-mediated osteoclastogenesis was reduced with the decline of the expression of HIF-1α and caspase-3 in MLO-Y4 cells. Our study provided an idea for a more comprehensive understanding of HIF-1α and the process of bone remodeling.

Current knowledge of pituitary adenylate cyclase activating polypeptide (PACAP) in articular cartilage

Pituitary adenylate cyclase activating polypeptide (PACAP) is an evolutionally well conserved neuropeptide, mainly expressed by neuronal and peripheral cells. It proves to be an interesting object of study both for its trophic functions during the development of several tissues and for its protective effects against oxidative stress, hypoxia, inflammation and apoptosis in different degenerative diseases. This brief review summarises the recent findings concerning the role of PACAP in the articular cartilage. PACAP and its receptors are expressed during chondrogenesis and are shown to activate the pathways involved in regulating cartilage development. Moreover, this neuropeptide proves to be chondroprotective against those stressors that determine cartilage degeneration and contribute to the onset of osteoarthritis (OA), the most common form of degenerative joint disease. Indeed, the degenerated cartilage exhibits low levels of PACAP, suggesting that its endogenous levels in adult cartilage may play an essential role in maintaining physiological properties. Thanks to its peculiar characteristics, exogenous administration of PACAP could be suggested as a potential tool to slow down the progression of OA and for cartilage regeneration approaches.

PACAP Modulates the Autophagy Process in an In Vitro Model of Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis

Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) is a progressive neurodegenerative disease of complex etiology leading to motor neuron degeneration. Many gene alterations cause this pathology, including mutation in Cu, Zn superoxide dismutase (SOD1), which leads to its gain of function. Mutant SOD1 proteins are prone to aberrant misfolding and create aggregates that impair autophagy. The hypoxic stress is strictly linked to the disease progression since it induces uncontrolled autophagy activation and the consequent high rates of cell death. Previously, we showed that pituitary adenylate cyclase-activating polypeptide (PACAP) exerts neurotrophic activity in cultured mSOD1 motor neurons exposed to serum deprivation. To date, no studies have examined whether the protective effect of PACAP on mSOD1 cells exposed to hypoxic insult is mediated through the regulation of the autophagy process. In the present study, we used the neuroblastoma-spinal cord-34 (NSC-34) cell line, stably expressing human wild type or mutant SOD1 G93A, to represent a well characterized in vitro model of a familial form of ALS. These cells were exposed to 100-µM desferrioxamine mesylate salt for 24h, to mimic the hypoxic stress affecting motor neurons during the disease progression. Our results showed that PACAP treatment significantly reduced cell death and hypoxia-induced mSOD1 accumulation by modulating the autophagy process in G93A motor neurons, as revealed by the decreased LC3II and the increased p62 levels, two autophagy indicators. These results were also confirmed by evaluating the vacuole formation detected through light chain 3 (LC3) immunofluorescence. Furthermore, the PACAP effects on autophagy seem to be mediated through the activation of the MAPK/ERK signaling pathway. Overall, our data demonstrated that PACAP exerts an ameliorative effect on the mSOD1 motor neuron viability by modulating a hypoxia-induced autophagy process through activation of MAPK/ERK signaling cascade.

Protective effect of PACAP against ultraviolet B radiation-induced human corneal endothelial cell injury

The human cornea, a sophisticated example of natural engineering, is composed in the innermost layer by endothelial cells maintaining stromal hydration and clarity. Different types of insults, including ultraviolet (UV) radiations, can lead to corneal opacity due to their degenerative and limited proliferative capability. In our previous studies, we have shown the protective effects of pituitary adenylate cyclase activating polypeptide (PACAP) in human corneal endothelial cells (HCECs), after growth factors deprivation. The aim of the present work has been to investigate the effect of this peptide on UV-B-induced HCECs injury. The results have shown that UV-B irradiations induced apoptotic cells death and consequently alteration in human corneal endothelial barrier. We found that PACAP treatment significantly increased viability, trans-endothelial electrical resistance and tight junctions expression of HCECs exposed to UV-B insult. In conclusion, data have suggested that this peptide could have protective effect to preserve the physiological state of human corneal endothelium exposed to UV-B damage.

Protective effect of PACAP-38 on retinal pigmented epithelium in an in vitro and in vivo model of diabetic retinopathy through EGFR-dependent mechanism

Diabetic retinopathy (DR) is one of the most common microvascular complications of diabetes. In the last years, several in vivo studies have demonstrated the protective role of pituitary adenylate cyclase-activating peptide (PACAP-38) to counteract several alterations occurring during DR. Recently, different studies have demonstrated that some PACAP-38 effects are mediated by EGFR trans-activation, although no data exist regarding the link between this peptide and EGFR in DR. The aim of the present study has been to investigate whether retinal effect of PACAP-38 against high glucose damage is mediated by EGFR phosphorylation. Diabetes was induced by a single injection of streptozotocin (STZ) in rats. After 1 week, a group of animals was treated with a single intravitreal injection of 100 μM PACAP-38 or saline solution. Immunohistochemistry and western blot analysis have demonstrated that intravitreal injection of PACAP-38 induced p-EGFR over-expression in retina of diabetic rats. Several pathogenic mechanisms may contribute to diabetic retinopathy including BRB alteration. To better clarify the relationship between PACAP-38 and EGFR, we have also carried out a study on ARPE-19 cells, representing a model in vitro of outer BRB. Our results have shown that PACAP-38 treatment improved cell viability in ARPE-19 cells exposed to hyperglycemic/hypoxic insult mimicking tissue microenvironment occurring in DR. Binding to PAC1R, peptide induces EGFR phosphorylation via PKA-signaling cascade stimulation. EGFR trans-activation triggers MAPK/ERK signaling pathway involved in cell survival and proliferation. In conclusion, data have suggested that PACAP-38 acts through EGFR phosphorylation in DR and this effect particularly occurs on RPE layer.

The amidated PACAP1-23 fragment is a potent reduced-size neuroprotective agent

BACKGROUND

Neurodegenerative disorders, such as Parkinson's disease (PD), are characterized by neuronal death involving, among other events, mitochondrial dysfunction and excitotoxicity. Along these lines, several attempts have been made to slow this pathology but none have been yet discovered. Based on its capacity to cross the blood-brain barrier and provide neuronal protection in vitro and in vivo, the pituitary adenylate cyclase-activating polypeptide (PACAP) represents a promising lead molecule. Pharmacological studies showed that PACAP interacts with three different G protein-coupled receptors, i.e. PAC1, VPAC1 and VPAC2. However, only PAC1 is associated with neuronal anti-apoptotic actions, whilst VPAC activation might cause adverse effects. In the context of the development of PAC1-selective agonists, PACAP(1-23) (PACAP23) appears as the shortest known PACAP bioactive fragment.

METHODS

Hence, the capacity of this peptide to bind PACAP receptors and protect neuroblastoma cells was evaluated under conditions of mitochondrial dysfunction and glutamate excitotoxicity. In addition, its ability to activate downstream signaling events involving G proteins (Gα_s and Gα_q), EPAC, and calcium was also assessed.

RESULTS

Compared to the endogenous peptide, PACAP23 showed a reduced affinity towards PAC1, although this fragment exerted potent neuroprotection. However, surprisingly, some disparities were observed for PACAP23 signaling compared to full length PACAP, suggesting that downstream signaling related to neuroprotection is distinctly regulated following subtle differences in their PAC1 interactions.

CONCLUSIONS

Altogether, this study demonstrates the potent neuroprotective action of amidated PACAP23.

GENERAL SIGNIFICANCE

PACAP23 represents an attractive template for development of shorter PACAP-derived neuroprotective molecules.

Retinoprotective Effects of TAT-Bound Vasoactive Intestinal Peptide and Pituitary Adenylate Cyclase Activating Polypeptide

Vasoactive intestinal peptide (VIP) and pituitary adenylate cyclase activating polypeptide (PACAP) belong to the same peptide family and exert a variety of biological functions. Both PACAP and VIP have protective effects in several tissues. While PACAP is known to be a stronger retinoprotective peptide, VIP has very potent anti-inflammatory effects. The need for a non-invasive therapeutic approach has emerged and PACAP has been shown to be retinoprotective when administered in the form of eye drops as well. The cell penetrating peptide TAT is composed of 11 amino acids and tagging of TAT at the C-terminus of neuropeptides PACAP/VIP can enhance the traversing ability of the peptides through the biological barriers. We hypothesized that TAT-bound PACAP and VIP could be more effective in exerting retinoprotective effects when given in eye drops, by increasing the traversing efficacy and enhancing the activation of the PAC1 receptor. Rats were subjected to bilateral carotid artery occlusion (BCCAO), and retinas were processed for histological analysis 14 days later. The efficiency of the TAT-bound peptides to reach the retina was assessed as well as their cAMP increasing ability. Our present study provides evidence, for the first time, that topically administered PACAP and VIP derivatives (PACAP-TAT and VIP-TAT) attenuate ischemic retinal degeneration via the PAC1 receptor presumably due to a multifactorial protective mechanism.

Involvement of A3 Adenosine Receptor in Neuroblastoma Progression via Modulation of the Hypoxic/Angiogenic Pathway

Neuroblastoma (NB) is the most common extracranial solid tumor of childhood. The clinical course may range from spontaneous regression towards ganglioneuroblastoma/ganglioneuroma or maturation to a very aggressive form characterized by an extensive hypoxic area. In solid tumors, extracellular microenvironment hypoxia induces the transcription of hypoxia-inducible factors (HIFs) leading to synthesis of pro-angiogenic factor, VEGF; also, it increases extracellular adenosine production from ATP breakdown. To date, the role of this nucleoside in the hypoxic/angiogenic pathway characterizing the core of cancer mass has not been investigated yet. Therefore, the aim of the present study was to analyze the adenosine effect on modulation of the HIF-1α/2α/VEGF pathway mediated through A₃ AR binding. To this end, we have used a selective A₃ AR agonist IB-MECA or antagonist VUF 5574 in an in vitro model of malignant undifferentiated and all-trans retinoic acid (RA)-differentiated SH-SY5Y cells, representing the benign form of NB. Our results have shown that specific A₃ AR stimulation induces HIF and VEGF expression through the activation of mitogen-activated protein kinase/Erk kinase signaling cascade. In conclusion, the data suggest that A₃ AR may represent a marker of NB malignancy as well as a drug target for treatment of this solid tumor. Graphical Abstract.

Retinoprotective Effects of TAT-Bound Vasoactive Intestinal Peptide and Pituitary Adenylate Cyclase Activating Polypeptide

Vasoactive intestinal peptide (VIP) and pituitary adenylate cyclase activating polypeptide (PACAP) belong to the same peptide family and exert a variety of biological functions. Both PACAP and VIP have protective effects in several tissues. While PACAP is known to be a stronger retinoprotective peptide, VIP has very potent anti-inflammatory effects. The need for a non-invasive therapeutic approach has emerged and PACAP has been shown to be retinoprotective when administered in the form of eye drops as well. The cell penetrating peptide TAT is composed of 11 amino acids and tagging of TAT at the C-terminus of neuropeptides PACAP/VIP can enhance the traversing ability of the peptides through the biological barriers. We hypothesized that TAT-bound PACAP and VIP could be more effective in exerting retinoprotective effects when given in eye drops, by increasing the traversing efficacy and enhancing the activation of the PAC1 receptor. Rats were subjected to bilateral carotid artery occlusion (BCCAO), and retinas were processed for histological analysis 14 days later. The efficiency of the TAT-bound peptides to reach the retina was assessed as well as their cAMP increasing ability. Our present study provides evidence, for the first time, that topically administered PACAP and VIP derivatives (PACAP-TAT and VIP-TAT) attenuate ischemic retinal degeneration via the PAC1 receptor presumably due to a multifactorial protective mechanism.

PACAP through EGFR transactivation preserves human corneal endothelial integrity

The corneal endothelium is composed of a single hexagonal-shaped cells layer adherent to the Descemet's membrane. The primary function of these cells is maintaining of tissue clarity by regulating its hydration. Trauma, aging or other pathologies cause their loss, counterbalanced by enlargement of survived cells unable to guarantee an efficient fluid pumping to and from the stroma. Regenerative medicine using human corneal endothelial cells (HCECs) isolated from peripheral corneal-scleral tissue of a donor could be an attractive solution, overcoming transplantation problems. In a previous study, we have demonstrated that HCECs treatment with pituitary adenylate cyclase-activating polypeptide (PACAP) following growth factors deprivation prevents their degeneration. However, the molecular mechanism mediating this effect has not been clarified, yet. Here, we have shown for the first time the expression of PACAP and its receptor (PAC1R) in human corneal endothelium and demonstrated that this peptide, selectively binding to PAC1R, induces epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) phosphorylation and the MAPK/ERK1/2 signaling pathway activation. In conclusion, our data have suggested that PACAP could represent an important trophic factor in maintaining human corneal endothelial integrity through EGFR transactivation. Therefore, PACAP, as well as epidermal growth factor and fibroblast growth factor, could co-operate to guarantee tissue physiological functioning by supporting corneal endothelial barrier integrity.

HIF-1<alpha> Repression of PTEN Transcription Mediates Protective Effects of BMSCs on Neurons During Hypoxia

Neonatal hypoxic-ischemic brain damage (HIBD) is a cerebral hypoxic-ischemic disease caused by a variety of insults during the perinatal period, leading to varying degrees of cognitive dysfunction. Mesenchymal stem cells play an important role in functional recovery, but the mechanism is not yet clear. It has been reported that HIF-1<alpha> and PTEN are involved in the process of hypoxia-ischemia, but the specific roles that these proteins play remains to be understood. In this study, we performed oxygen glucose deprivation (OGD) or CoCl₂ preconditioning on hippocampal neurons to simulate a hypoxic environment in vitro, and then co-cultured them with BMSCs, to observe the effect of BMSCs and the role of HIF-1<alpha>. In addition, bpV, an inhibitor of PTEN was added to OGD neurons to determine the role of PTEN during hypoxia. We found that the levels of cell damage and apoptosis in OGD neurons decreased significantly after co-culture with BMSCs. Apoptosis was increased when HIF-1<alpha> was inhibited, but neurons remained protected when PTEN was suppressed. We further established that HIF-1<alpha> was enriched at the PTEN promoter both in BMSCs and hippocampal neurons, with increased enrichment under hypoxic conditions, leading to reduced transcription of PTEN. Our findings support the conclusion that CoCl₂ preconditioning of BMSCs can simulate hypoxic conditions and can protect OGD neurons, an effect that is mediated through activation of the HIF-1<alpha> system and repression of PTEN transcription.

Molecular mechanisms involved in the protective effect of pituitary adenylate cyclase-activating polypeptide in an in vitro model of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis

Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) is a fatal neurodegenerative disease characterized by the loss of upper and lower motor neurons. Based on transcriptional profiles of motor cortex samples, in a previous work, we were able to classify two subgroups of sporadic ALS (SALS) patients, named SALS1 and SALS2. A further meta-analysis study has revealed sixteen drug targets commonly deregulated in SALS2 and superoxide dismutase 1 (SOD1) G93A mice. The identified candidate drug targets included pituitary adenylate cyclase-activating polypeptide (PACAP), epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) and matrix metallopeptidase-2 (MMP-2). By using a motor neuron-like hybrid cell line (NSC-34) expressing human SOD1 G93A as an in vitro model of ALS, here we investigated the functional correlation among these three genes. Our results have shown that PACAP increases cell viability following serum deprivation. This effect is induced through EGFR transactivation mediated by protein kinase A stimulation. Furthermore, EGFR phosphorylation activates mitogen-activated protein kinases/extracellular signal-regulated kinases 1 and 2 survival signaling pathway and increases MMP-2 expression, significantly reduced by serum starvation. These results suggest that a deeper characterization of mechanisms involved in PACAP/EGFR/MMP-2 axis activation in G93A SOD1 mutated neurons may allow identifying new targets for ALS therapy.