Smart and bioinspired systems for overcoming biological barriers and enhancing disease theranostics

AI-driven innovations in smart multifunctional nanocarriers for drug and gene delivery: A mini-review

The convergence of artificial intelligence (AI) and nanomedicine has revolutionized the design of smart multifunctional nanocarriers (SMNs) for drug and gene delivery, offering unprecedented precision, efficiency, and personalization in therapeutic applications. AI-driven approaches enhance the development of these nanocarriers by accelerating their design, optimizing drug loading and release kinetics, improving biocompatibility, and predicting interactions with biological barriers. This review explores the transformative role of AI in the fabrication and functionalization of SMNs, emphasizing its impact on overcoming challenges in targeted drug delivery, controlled release, and theranostics. We discuss the integration of AI with advanced nanomaterials-such as polymeric, lipidic, and inorganic nanoparticles-highlighting their potential in oncology and hematology. Furthermore, we examine recent clinical and preclinical case studies demonstrating AI-assisted nanocarrier development for personalized medicine. The synergy between AI and nanotechnology paves the way for next-generation precision therapeutics, addressing critical limitations in traditional drug delivery systems. However, data standardization, regulatory compliance, and translational scalability challenges remain. This review underscores the need for interdisciplinary collaboration to unlock AI's potential in nanomedicine fully, ultimately advancing the clinical application of SMNs for more effective and safer patient care.

Tumor Cell Membrane Biomimetic Mesoporous Silicon Materials in Combination with PD-L1 Knockout Achieved through the CRISPR/Cas9 System for Targeted and Immunotherapeutic Purposes

Nanoparticle-based drug delivery systems, which enable the effective and targeted delivery of chemotherapeutic drugs to tumors, have revolutionized cancer therapy. Mesoporous silicon materials (MSN) have emerged as promising candidates for drug delivery due to their unique properties. The therapeutic efficacy can be significantly enhanced when treatments exhibit both targeting and antiphagocytic properties. In this study, cell membranes extracted from B16-F10 cells were used to encapsulate carboplatin (CBP)-loaded MSN via physical extrusion. Additionally, we intratumorally injected a plasmid containing the CRISPR/Cas9 system to achieve PD-L1 knockout, thereby reactivating the immune system. The cell membrane coating endowed the CBP@MSN with excellent slow-release capability and cytocompatibility. Enhanced tumor cell uptake of CBP@MSN@M was observed due to homologous targeting by cancer cell membranes. Moreover, CBP@MSN@M demonstrated enhanced antitumor efficacy in vivo and promoted the proliferation of immune cells. Finally, the antitumor effect was further improved by the knockout of PD-L1 within the tumor microenvironment. These results suggest that the newly prepared CBP@MSN@M, combined with PD-L1 knockout, holds significant potential as an effective therapeutic approach for treating tumors.

Functional Dendrimer Nanogels for DNA Delivery and Gene Therapy of Tumors

Solving the dilemma between efficacy and cytotoxicity of cationic colloidal vectors is one of the biggest challenges in gene delivery. Cationic dendrimer assemblies with hierarchical structure, smart and biomimetic behaviors have been developed for drug/gene delivery in vivo. Among different dendrimer assemblies, the dendrimer-based nanogels were not intensively studied due to complicated synthesis and unknown properties. Here, for the first time, low-generation dendrimer nanogels with high yield and purity, tunable size, uniform morphology, and good colloidal stability were synthesized using the emulsion-free method, which cannot be obtained by the miniemulsion method. Importantly, the dendrimer nanogels integrate the advantages of low-generation dendrimer and stimuli-responsive polymer, thus achieving dual-active groups, o-hydroxyl amine units, temperature-responsiveness, polyampholyte property, and self-triggered aminolysis. With these unique properties, dendrimer nanogels can "temporarily" acquire high charge density through the covalent crosslinking of low-generation dendrimer for improved DNA compression, promoted cell internalization and lysosomal escape, and efficient DNA delivery, followed by self-triggered aminolysis into small dendrimers to control DNA release, reduce cytotoxicity, and facilitate metabolism in vivo. Compared to high-generation dendrimers, low-generation dendrimer nanogels display higher gene transfection and therapeutic efficacies, and lower side effects simultaneously. This work provides a facile strategy for the preparation of low-generation dendrimer nanogels that break up the contradiction between efficacy and cytotoxicity of cationic colloidal vectors in gene therapy. This innovative approach to construct low-generation dendrimers into smart dendrimer nanogels will have broad applicability in clinical translation.

Fundamental properties and principal areas of focus in antibody-drug conjugates formulation development

Antibody-drug conjugates (ADCs) have emerged as a rapidly expanding class of therapeutics driven by their superior specificity and clinical efficacy. 14 out of 16 commercially approved ADCs are formulated as lyophilized forms because ADC is generally considered to be less stable than unmodified antibody. The formulation development for ADCs, particularly liquid formulation, presents unique challenges due to their intricate structural complexity, physicochemical properties, and degradation pathways. This review provides the first comprehensive analysis of formulation strategies employed in commercial ADCs. Furthermore, this review discusses the key areas of focus for ADCs throughout the formulation development workflow, spanning from the initial formulation development to the final stage of drug product manufacturing. In addition, we identify and analyze the distinctive technical challenges in ADC formulation development compared to unconjugated antibody, while proposing potential solutions to these challenges. Finally, we offer strategic perspectives on future directions in ADC formulation development to advance this promising therapeutic modality.

Challenging and new opportunities for prodrug technology

Research on prodrug technology has opened new avenues for site-directed chemotherapy rather than systemic chemotherapy. This distinctive strategy allows drug delivery to be activated by light-, irradiation-, or ultrasound (US)-tunable chemistries, which have been termed photopharmacology, radiopharmacology, and sonopharmacology, respectively. Prodrugs have emerged as a main strategy for improving pharmacokinetics, reducing side effects, and thus enhancing the therapeutic efficacy of drugs. This review summarizes stimuli-responsive drug release systems and the latest progress in exogenous stimuli-responsive prodrug activation, e.g., light, irradiation, and US, with a focus on the activation of small molecule prodrugs, antibody‒drug conjugates, and prodrug nanosystems. In addition, challenges encountered by Pt drugs and Pt(IV) prodrug nanotherapeutics are summarized and discussed. Moreover, this review presents the current state of precise treatment and discusses the opportunities and challenges for the clinical translation of these strategies.

Enhancing tumor endothelial permeability using MUC18-targeted gold nanorods and mild hyperthermia

The Enhanced Permeability and Retention (EPR) effect, an elevated accumulation of drugs and nanoparticles in tumors versus in normal tissues, is a widely used concept in the field of cancer therapy. It assumes that the vasculature of solid tumors would possess abnormal, leaky endothelial cell barriers, allowing easy access of intravenous-delivered drugs and nanoparticles to tumor regions. However, the EPR effect is not always effective owing to the heterogeneity of tumor endothelium over time, location, and species. Herein, we introduce a unique nanoparticle-based approach, using MUC18-targeted gold nanorods coupled with mild hyperthermia, to specifically enhance tumor endothelial permeability. This improves the efficacy of traditional cancer therapy including photothermal therapy and anticancer drug delivery by increasing the transport of photo-absorbers and drugs across the tumor endothelium. Using single cell imaging tools and classic analytical approaches in molecular biology, we demonstrate that MUC18-targeted gold nanorods and mild hyperthermia enlarge the intercellular gaps of tumor endothelium by inducing circumferential actin remodeling, stress fiber formation, and cell contraction of adjacent endothelial cells. Considering MUC18 is overexpressed on a variety of tumor endothelium and cancer cells, this approach paves a new avenue to improve the efficacy of cancer therapy by actively enhancing the tumor endothelial permeability.

Choline Carboxylic Acid Ionic Liquid-stabilized Anisotropic Gold Nanoparticles for Photothermal Therapy

Gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) are commonly used in cancer research due to their unique physical and optical properties. However, current AuNP synthesis methods often involve cytotoxic cationic surfactants like cetyltrimethyl ammonium bromide (CTAB). Tedious CTAB replacement methodologies have been used to increase the biocompatibility, further increasing the complexity of synthesizing biocompatible AuNPs limiting their biomedical applications. To address this issue, we explore cholinium decanoate (CADA) ionic liquid (IL) as a biocompatible stabilizing agent by replacing CTAB using a simple modified seeded method for synthesizing anisotropic AuNPs for photothermal therapy of triple-negative breast cancer cells (MDA-MB-231). The prepared CADA AuNPs showed quasi-spherical morphology, confirmed by transmission electron microscopy (TEM) and a broad plasmonic absorption band using Vis-NIR spectroscopy. CADA AuNPs exhibited excellent in-vitro biocompatibility with both MCF-10A (healthy human mammary cells) and MDA-MB-231 cells. We evaluate their in-vitro photothermal efficacy against MDA-MB-231 cancer cells, demonstrating significant cell death even at low AuNP concentration (20 μg/mL), low laser power density (0.6 W/cm2, 808 nm continuous laser), and short irradiation time of 5 minutes, primarily through apoptosis. Overall, this work represents the first effort in using a modified seeded method for synthesizing biocompatible IL-based anisotropic AuNPs for photothermal therapy, offering a promising avenue for future cancer treatment research using ILs.

Leukocyte-based delivery systems for enhanced nanotheranostics of inflammation and cancer

As a part of the immune system, leukocytes (LEs) have the features of circumvention of immunogenicity as well as recruitment to sites of inflammation during infection and tumorigenesis. Utilizing LEs as vehicles to carry theranostic agents is a promising strategy for highly efficient targeted delivery and treatment for inflammation and cancer. Specifically, the LEs, similar to 'Trojan horses', can bypass the immune system and thus enhance the therapeutic effects on inflammation and cancer. In this context, the latest progress of LEs-based delivery systems for improving theranostics of inflammations and cancers is summarized, includingin vitroincubation andin vivointernalization strategy. Although the therapeutic efficacy of LEs-based delivery systems has been achieved, the system construction is complex and the effect is not fulfilling demand completely. Encouragingly, a most recent work reported that the supramolecular arrangement of proteins on the nanocarriers would drive them to be selectively uptaken by neutrophils, opening a new avenue for diagnosis and treatment of inflammation. Moreover, enucleated cells are considered as the biomimetic drug delivery vehicle to retain the organelles for a range of diseases in a safe, controllable and effective manner. These novel findings provide more opportunities for researchers to rethink and redesign the LEs-based delivery systems to overcome existing limitations and broaden their usage, especially in clinical medicine.

Bohemian Rhapsody of Future Drug Delivery Systems: Rational Changes Necessary for the Next Revolution

Controlled drug delivery technology has matured for more than 70 years, starting from a twice-a-day oral formulation to 6 month long-acting injectable formulations. Further technological advances require superior formulations to treat various diseases more efficiently. Developing future formulations with practical innovations for treating existing and new diseases necessitates our continued efforts to overcome at least three main hurdles. They include (i) drug delivery with reduced side effects, (ii) long-term treatment of chronic diseases, and (iii) the overcoming of biological barriers. Such efforts start with the improved ability to accurately test drug delivery efficacy using proper controls. Future development can be aided by artificial intelligence if used properly. The next revolution of drug delivery systems will be augmented if implementation is given equal weight as discovery. Such a process can be accelerated with the systemic revamp of the research funding structure and cultivating a new generation of scientists who can think differently.

Manganese-induced Photothermal-Ferroptosis for Synergistic Tumor Therapy

Ferroptosis-related tumor therapy based on nanomedicines has recently gained significant attention. However, the therapeutic performance is still hindered by the tumor's physical barriers such as the fibrotic tumor matrix and elevated interstitial fluid pressure, as well as chemical barriers like glutathione (GSH) overabundance. These physicochemical barriers impede the bioavailability of nanomedicines and compromise the therapeutic efficacy of lipid reactive oxygen species (ROS). Thus, this study pioneers a manganese-mediated overcoming of physicochemical barriers in the tumor microenvironment using organosilica-based nanomedicine (MMONs), which bolsters the synergy of photothermal-ferroptosis treatment. The MMONs display commendable proficiency in overcoming tumor physical barriers, due to their MnO2-mediated shape-morphing and softness-transformation ability, which facilitates augmented cellular internalization, enhanced tumor accumulation, and superior drug penetration. Also, the MMONs possess excellent capability in chemical barrier overcoming, including MnO2-mediated dual GSH clearance and enhanced ROS generation, which facilitates ferroptosis and heat shock protein inhibition. Notably, the resulting integration of physical and chemical barrier overcoming leads to amplified photothermal-ferroptosis synergistic tumor therapy both in vitro and in vivo. Accordingly, the comparative proteomic analysis has identified promoted ferroptosis with a transient inhibitory response observed in the mitochondria. This research aims to improve treatment strategies to better fight the complex defenses of tumors.

Cell Membrane-Camouflaged Chitosan-Polypyrrole Nanogels Co-Deliver Drug and Gene for Targeted Chemotherapy and Bone Metastasis Inhibition of Prostate Cancer

The development of functional nanoplatforms to improve the chemotherapy outcome and inhibit distal cancer cell metastasis remains an extreme challenge in cancer management. In this work, a human-derived PC-3 cancer cell membrane-camouflaged chitosan-polypyrrole nanogel (CH-PPy NG) platform, which can be loaded with chemotherapeutic drug docetaxel (DTX) and RANK siRNA for targeted chemotherapy and gene silencing-mediated metastasis inhibition of late-stage prostate cancer in a mouse model, is reported. The prepared NGs with a size of 155.8 nm show good biocompatibility, pH-responsive drug release profile, and homologous targeting specificity to cancer cells, allowing for efficient and precise drug/gene co-delivery. Through in-vivo antitumor treatment in a xenografted PC-3 mouse tumor model, it is shown that such a CH-PPy NG-facilitated co-delivery system allows for effective chemotherapy to slow down the tumor growth rate, and effectively inhibits the metastasis of prostate cancer to the bone via downregulation of the RANK/RANKL signaling pathway. The created CH-Ppy NGs may be utilized as a promising platform for enhanced chemotherapy and anti-metastasis treatment of prostate cancer.

Dendritic nanomedicine enhances chemo-immunotherapy by disturbing metabolism of cancer-associated fibroblasts for deep penetration and activating function of immune cells

Inefficient drug penetration hurdled by the stroma in the tumor tissue leads to a diminished therapeutic effect for drugs and a reduced infiltration level of immune cells. Herein, we constructed a PEGylated dendritic epirubicin (Epi) prodrug (Epi-P4D) to regulate the metabolism of cancer-associated fibroblasts (CAFs), thus enhancing Epi penetration into both multicellular tumor spheroids (MTSs) and tumor tissues in mouse colon cancer (CT26), mouse breast cancer (4T1) and human breast cancer (MDA-MB-231) models. Enhanced cytotoxicity against CT26 MTSs and remarkable antitumor efficacy of Epi-P4D were ascribed to reduced fibronectin, α-SMA, and collagen secretion. Besides, thinning of the tumor tissue stroma and efficient eradication of tumor cells promoted the immunogenic cell death effect for dendritic cell (DC) maturation and subsequent immune activation, including elevating the CD4+ T cell population, reducing CD4+ and CD8+ T cell hyperactivation and exhaustion, and amplifying the natural killer (NK) cell proportion and effectively activating them. As a result, this dendritic nanomedicine thinned the stroma of tumor tissues to enhance drug penetration and facilitate immune cell infiltration for elevated antitumor efficacy.

V-doped MoS2 nanozymes providing reactive oxygen species and depleting glutathione for photothermally-enhanced nanocatalytic therapy

Introduction: The tumor microenvironment and multidrug resistance of tumor cells seriously impair the activity of the nanozymes. Methods: Herein, a polyethylene glycol (PEG)-modified vanadium-doped molybdenum disulfide (V-MoS2@PEG) nanozymes were constructed to enhance anti-tumor activity through multi-enzymatic catalysis and photothermal effect with simultaneous reactive oxygen species replenishment and glutathione depletion. Results and discussion: V-MoS2@PEG nanosheets exerted peroxidase activity by causing molybdenum ion (Mo4+) to react with hydrogen peroxide to form toxic hydroxyl radicals (·OH). Meanwhile, the V-doping can deplete glutathione avoiding ·OH consumption. In addition, the high heat generated by V-MoS2@PEG nanozymes under near-infrared laser irradiation brought about a desirable local temperature gradient, which produced an enhanced catalytic effect by promoting band bending. Furthermore, the photothermally inspired polarized charge increased the permeability of the tumor cell membrane and promoted further aggregation of the nanozymes, which realized the combination of photothermal therapy with multi-enzymatic catalysis, solved the problem of multi-enzyme catalysis, and improved the anti-tumor efficiency.

An "all-in-one" treatment and imaging nanoplatform for breast cancer with photothermal nanoparticles

Drug delivery systems based on nanoparticles still face challenges of low efficacy and an inability to track treatment effects in tumor therapy due to biological barriers. This limitation hinders clinicians' ability to determine treatment effects and proper drug dosages, thus, ultimately impeding the further application and transformation of nanoplatforms. To address this challenge, an all-in-one nanoplatform for therapy and imaging is proposed. The nanoplatform is constructed by using nanoparticles through the co-encapsulation of the photothermal therapeutic agent IR780, the passively targeted drug OA@Fe3O4, and the chemotherapeutic drug paclitaxel. Under the guidance of magnetic navigation, the nanoparticles can enhance local enrichment of the drug, while the luminescence properties of IR780 enable drug tracking at the same time. Remarkably, the nanoparticles exhibit improved photothermal-chemotherapy synergy under magnetic targeting guidance, demonstrating antitumor effects in both in vitro and in vivo experiments. It is demonstrated that the use of these polymeric nanoparticles has significant potential for future biomedical applications and clinical decisions.

Silicon-containing nanomedicine and biomaterials: materials chemistry, multi-dimensional design, and biomedical application

The invention of silica-based bioactive glass in the late 1960s has sparked significant interest in exploring a wide range of silicon-containing biomaterials from the macroscale to the nanoscale. Over the past few decades, these biomaterials have been extensively explored for their potential in diverse biomedical applications, considering their remarkable bioactivity, excellent biocompatibility, facile surface functionalization, controllable synthesis, etc. However, to expedite the clinical translation and the unexpected utilization of silicon-composed nanomedicine and biomaterials, it is highly desirable to achieve a thorough comprehension of their characteristics and biological effects from an overall perspective. In this review, we provide a comprehensive discussion on the state-of-the-art progress of silicon-composed biomaterials, including their classification, characteristics, fabrication methods, and versatile biomedical applications. Additionally, we highlight the multi-dimensional design of both pure and hybrid silicon-composed nanomedicine and biomaterials and their intrinsic biological effects and interactions with biological systems. Their extensive biomedical applications span from drug delivery and bioimaging to therapeutic interventions and regenerative medicine, showcasing the significance of their rational design and fabrication to meet specific requirements and optimize their theranostic performance. Additionally, we offer insights into the future prospects and potential challenges regarding silicon-composed nanomedicine and biomaterials. By shedding light on these exciting research advances, we aspire to foster further progress in the biomedical field and drive the development of innovative silicon-composed nanomedicine and biomaterials with transformative applications in biomedicine.

Mesoporous carbon hemispheres integrated with Fe-Gd nanoparticles for potential MR/PA imaging-guided photothermal therapy

Asymmetric carbon has emerged as an important material to enrich morphologies as well as enhance functions for bioapplications. Here, asymmetric mesoporous carbon hemispheres (CHS) integrated with γ-Fe2O3 and GdPO4 (Fe-Gd) nanoparticles are proposed and prepared for potential imaging-guided photothermal therapy (PTT). Interestingly, Fe-Gd/CHS contributes to an almost 1.5 times enhancement in light harvesting and photothermal conversion efficiency as compared with its corresponding spherical analogue. The possible underlying mechanism is discussed in view of the unique asymmetric structure-featured carbon. Further identification of the inherited photoacoustic (PA) and magnetic resonance (MR) imaging properties leads to the consequent in vivo evaluation of its imaging and PTT performances, which demonstrates its capability as a function-integrated system for potential theranostics.

Bimetallic-Coordinated Covalent Triazine Framework-Derived FeNi Alloy Nanoparticle-Decorated Coral-Like Nanocarbons for Oxygen Electrocatalysis

It is highly desirable to fabricate transition bimetallic alloy-embedded porous nanocarbons with a unique nanoarchitecture for the oxygen evolution reaction (OER) and oxygen reduction reaction (ORR) in rechargeable zinc-air batteries. In this work, we introduce a template-assisted in situ alloying synthesis of FeNi alloy nanoparticle-decorated coral-like nanocarbons (FeNi-CNCs) as efficient OER/ORR dual-functional electrocatalysts. The present materials are produced through polycondensation of a covalent triazine framework (CTF), the coordination of Ni and Fe ions, and sequential pyrolytic treatment. Through the pyrolysis process, the nanolamellar FeNi-CTF precursors can be facilely converted into FeNi alloy nanoparticle-decorated nanocarbons. These nanocarbons possess a distinctive three-dimensional (3D) coral-like nanostructure, which is favorable for the transport of oxygen and the diffusion of electrolyte. As a result, FeNi-CNC-800 with the highest efficiency exhibited remarkable electrocatalytic performance and great durability. Additionally, it also can be assembled into rechargeable zinc-air batteries that can be assembled in both liquid and solid forms, offering a superior peak power density, large specific capacity, and outstanding reusability during charging/discharging cycles (e.g., 5160 charging-and-discharging cycles at 10 mA cm-2 for the liquid forms). These traits make it a highly promising option in the burgeoning field of wearable energy conversion.

Enhanced anticancer activity of piperine: Structural optimization and chitosan-based microgels with boosted drug delivery

As a plant-derived drug, piperine possesses therapeutic efficacy for many diseases, but its inherent low solubility and bioavailability have greatly limited its clinical use. Herein, we extracted piperine from black pepper, optimized the structure of piperine to prepare various derivatives, and then explored the anticancer activity of these derivatives. Piperine and its derivatives have high anticancer selectivity against 4T1 cells, exhibiting obvious anticancer properties even at a low concentration of 100 μg/mL. Furthermore, the physicochemical properties of piperine and its derivatives were investigated using density functional theory, demonstrating their considerable biological activity. Moreover, the chitosan-based microgels were prepared to encapsulate the hydrophobic piperine derivative with a high loading efficiency of 81.7 % to overcome the low water solubility of the piperine derivative. It is worth noting that excessive glutathione in tumor cells triggers the degradation of microgels and realizes controllable drug release of up to 72.3 %. Due to its excellent properties, chitosan-based microgels loaded with the piperine derivative can obtain good anticancer behavior of approximately 13.14 % cell viability against 4T1 cells. Therefore, the chitosan-based microgels overcome the low water solubility of the piperine derivative through encapsulation and thus further augment their delivery efficiency and cell internalization capability to realize excellent anticancer activity. This work demonstrates the enhanced anticancer efficacy of the hydrophobic plant-derived drug by means of structural optimization of piperine and chitosan-based microgels with boosted drug delivery.

A polymeric nanocarrier that eradicates breast cancer stem cells and delivers chemotherapeutic drugs

BACKGROUND

Drug nanocarriers can markedly reduce the toxicities and side effects of encapsulated chemotherapeutic drugs in the clinic. However, these drug nanocarriers have little effect on eradicating breast cancer stem cells (BCSCs). Although compounds that can inhibit BCSCs have been reported, these compounds are difficult to use as carriers for the widespread delivery of conventional chemotherapeutic drugs.

METHODS

Herein, we synthesize a polymeric nanocarrier, hyaluronic acid-block-poly (curcumin-dithiodipropionic acid) (HA-b-PCDA), and explore the use of HA-b-PCDA to simultaneously deliver chemotherapeutic drugs and eradicate BCSCs.

RESULTS

Based on molecular docking and molecular dynamics studies, HA-b-PCDA delivers 35 clinical chemotherapeutic drugs. To further verify the drug deliver ability of HA-b-PCDA, doxorubicin, paclitaxel, docetaxel, gemcitabine and camptothecin are employed as model drugs to prepare nanoparticles. These drug-loaded HA-b-PCDA nanoparticles significantly inhibit the proliferation and stemness of BCSC-enriched 4T1 mammospheres. Moreover, doxorubicin-loaded HA-b-PCDA nanoparticles efficiently inhibit tumor growth and eradicate approximately 95% of BCSCs fraction in vivo. Finally, HA-b-PCDA eradicates BCSCs by activating Hippo and inhibiting the JAK2/STAT3 pathway.

CONCLUSION

HA-b-PCDA is a polymeric nanocarrier that eradicates BCSCs and potentially delivers numerous clinical chemotherapeutic drugs.

Asymmetric and Skin-Mimicking Hydrogels with Wide Temperature Tolerance and Superior Elasticity for High-Performance Strain Sensors

Wide temperature tolerance and superior mechanical properties are highly required for composite hydrogels in electronic applications such as electronic skins and soft robotics. In this work, a unique polyacrylamide-based and double-network hydrogel system is designed and fabricated by introducing graphene oxide and glycerol to improve mechanical properties as well as antifreezing and antiheating properties. Maximum stress of the graphene oxide-incorporated hydrogel increases rapidly to 500.0 kPa which is much higher than that of polymetric acrylamide/carboxymethylcellulose sodium hydrogel (281.7 kPa), probably due to the inhibition from graphene oxide in generation and propagation of cracks. With constantly adding glycerol, total elongation and antifreezing and heating properties of the composite hydrogels increase gradually. Especially, sample with 20 vol % of glycerol not only shows stable conductivity and wide temperature tolerance (-50 to 50 °C) but also has ideal strength-toughness match (597.6 kPa and 1263.4%), suggesting that synergistic effect of different layers in the asymmetric structure plays an active role in improvement of mechanical properties.

Multistage Self-Assembled Nanomaterials for Cancer Immunotherapy

Advances in nanotechnology have brought innovations to cancer therapy. Nanoparticle-based anticancer drugs have achieved great success from bench to bedside. However, insufficient therapy efficacy due to various physiological barriers in the body remains a key challenge. To overcome these biological barriers and improve the therapeutic efficacy of cancers, multistage self-assembled nanomaterials with advantages of stimuli-responsiveness, programmable delivery, and immune modulations provide great opportunities. In this review, we describe the typical biological barriers for nanomedicines, discuss the recent achievements of multistage self-assembled nanomaterials for stimuli-responsive drug delivery, highlighting the programmable delivery nanomaterials, in situ transformable self-assembled nanomaterials, and immune-reprogramming nanomaterials. Ultimately, we perspective the future opportunities and challenges of multistage self-assembled nanomaterials for cancer immunotherapy.

Cytotoxicity Enhancement of α-Mangostin with Folate-Conjugated Chitosan Nanoparticles in MCF-7 Breast Cancer Cells

α-mangostin (AM) is a promising natural anticancer agent that can be used in cancer research. However, its effectiveness can be limited by poor solubility and bioavailability. To address this issue, chitosan-based nanoparticles (CSNPs) have been investigated as a potential delivery system to enhance the cytotoxicity to cancer cells and improve selectivity against normal cells. In this study, we developed folate-conjugated chitosan nanoparticles (F-CS-NPs) using a carbodiimide-based conjugation method to attach folate to chitosan (CS), which have different molecular weights. The NPs were crosslinked using tripolyphosphate (TPP) via ionic gelation. To characterize the F-CS-NPs, we utilized various analytical techniques, including transmission electron microscopy (TEM) to evaluate the particle size and morphology, Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) to confirm the presence of functional groups, and ultraviolet-visible spectroscopy (UV-Vis) to measure the absorption spectrum and confirm the presence of folate. The particle size of AM-F-CS-NPs ranged from 180 nm to 250 nm, with many having favorable charges ranging from +40.33 ± 3.4 to 10.69 ± 1.3 mV. All NPs exhibited the same spherical morphology. The use of F-CS-NPs increased drug release, followed by a sustained release pattern. We evaluated the cytotoxicity of AM, AM-F-CS-HMW, and AM-F-CS-LMW NPs against MCF-7 cells and found IC50 values of 8.47 ± 0.49, 5.3 ± 0.01, and 4.70 ± 0.11 µg/mL, respectively. These results confirm the improved cytotoxicity of AM in MCF-7 cells when delivered via F-CS-NPs. Overall, our in vitro study demonstrated that the properties of F-CS-NPs greatly influence the cytotoxicity of AM in MCF-7 breast cancer cells (significantly different (p < 0.05)). The use of F-CS-NPs as a drug-delivery system for AM may have the potential to develop novel therapies for breast cancer.

Precise visualization and ROS-dependent photodynamic therapy of colorectal cancer with a novel mitochondrial viscosity photosensitive fluorescent probe

BACKGROUND

Colorectal cancer (CRC) is a prominent global cancer with high mortality rates among human beings. Efficient diagnosis and treatment have always been a challenge for CRC management. Fluorescence guided cancer therapy, which combines diagnosis with therapy into one platform, has brought a new chance for achieving precise cancer theranostics. Among this, photosensitizers, applied in photodynamic therapy (PDT), given the integration of real-time imaging capacity and efficacious treatment feasibility, show great potential to serve as remarkable tools. Although much effort has been put into constructing photosensitizers for locating and destroying CRC cells, it is still in high need to develop novel photosensitizers to attain specific detection and fulfil effective therapy.

METHODS

Probe HTI was rational synthesized for the diagnosis and treatment of CRC. Spectrometric determination was carried out first, followed by the 1O2 generation ability test. Then, HTI was displayed in distinguishing CRC cells from normal cells Further, the PDT effect of the photosensitizer was studied in vitro. Additionally, HTI was used in CRC BALB/c nude mice model to validate its viscosity labelling and tumor suppression characteristics.

RESULTS

We successfully fabricated a mitochondrial targeting probe, HTI, together with remarkable viscosity sensitivity, ultralow background interference, and excellent 1O2 generation capacity. HTI was favorably applied to the viscosity detection, displaying a 11-fold fluorescent intensity enhancement in solvents from 1.57 cp to 2043 cp. Then, it was demonstrated that HTI could distinguish CRC cells from normal cells upon the difference in mitochondrial viscosity. Moreover, HTI was qualified for producing 1O2 with high efficiency in cells, supported by the sparkling signals of DCFH after incubation with HTI under light irradiation. More importantly, the viscosity labelling and tumor suppression performance in CRC CDX model was determined, enriching the multifunctional validation of HTI in vivo.

CONCLUSIONS

In this study, HTI was demonstrated to show a sensitive response to mitochondrial viscosity and possess a high 1O2 generation capacity. Both in vitro cell imaging and in vivo tumor treatment trials proved that HTI was effectively served as a robust scaffold for tumor labeling and CRC cells clearance. This breakthrough discovery held immense potential for advancing the early diagnosis and management of CRC through PDT. By leveraging HTI's properties, medical professionals could benefit from improved diagnostic accuracy and targeted treatment in CRC management, ultimately leading to enhanced patient outcomes.

Pr3+ Ion-Substituted Ni-Co Nano-Spinel Ferrites: Their Synthesis, Characterization, and Biocompatibility for Colorectal Cancer and Candidaemia

Nanotherapeutics have attracted tremendous research interest in the modern pharmaceutical and biomedical industries due to their potential for drug development, targeted delivery, and therapeutic applications. Therefore, the current study underpins the synthesis of praseodymium ion (Pr3+)-substituted Ni0.5Co0.5Fe2O4 nano-spinel ferrites, (Co0.5Ni0.5PrxFe2-xO4 (0.0 ≤ x ≤ 0.10) NSFs, CoNiPr (x ≤ 0.10) NSFs) via the sonochemical route for its application as a nanotherapeutic treatment option. The synthesized nanomaterial was characterized using various analytical techniques, including scanning/transmission electron microscopy (SEM) and X-ray powder diffractometry (XRD). After substitution with Pr (x = 0.08), the particle size, polydispersity index, and zeta potential analysis indicated an increase in hydrodynamic diameter, with an average zeta potential value of -10.2 mV. The investigation of CoNiPr (x ≤ 0.10) NSFs on colorectal cancer (HCT-116) cells demonstrated a significant effect on cancer cell viability. The inhibitory concentration (IC50) of CoNiPr (x ≤ 0.10) NSFs was between 46 ± 0.91 and 288 ± 8.21 for HCT-116 cells. The effect of CoNiPr (x ≤ 0.10) NSFs on normal human embryonic kidney (HEK-293) cells showed a reduction in the HEK-293 cell viability; however, the cell viability was better than HCT-116. The NSFs treatment also showed morphological changes in cancer cell nuclei, as revealed by DAPI (4',6-diamidino-2-phenylindole), nuclear disintegration, and chromatic fragmentation, which are signs of apoptosis or programmed cell death. To examine the potential antifungal effects of CoNiPr NSFs on Candida albicans, known to cause candidemia among cancer patients, the viability of the cells was assessed post treatment with CoNiPr (x ≤ 0.10) NSFs. The increasing ratio of dopant had a moderate impact on the percentage of cell viability loss of 42, 44, and 43% with x = 0.06, 0.08, and 0.10, respectively. These results reinforce that increased dopant significantly impacts the antifungal properties of the synthesized nanomaterial. These findings support the idea that NSFs might be useful in pharmaceuticals.

Folate-Targeted Nanoliposomal Chemophototherapy

Light-responsive liposomes have been developed for the on-demand release of drugs. However, efficient delivery of chemotherapeutic drugs to tumor for cancer theranostics remains a challenge. Herein, folic acid (FA), an established ligand for targeted drug delivery, was used to decorate light-sensitive porphyrin-phospholipid (PoP) liposomes, which were assessed for FA-targeted chemophototherapy (CPT). PoP liposomes and FA-conjugated PoP liposomes were loaded with Doxorubicin (Dox), and physical properties were characterized. In vitro, FA-PoP liposomes that were incubated with FA receptor-overexpressing human KB cancer cells showed increased uptake compared to non-targeted PoP liposomes. Dox and PoP contributed towards chemophototherapy (CPT) in vitro, and PoP and FA-PoP liposomes induced cell killing. In vivo, mice bearing subcutaneous KB tumors treated with PoP or FA-PoP liposomes loaded with Dox, followed by 665 nm laser treatment, had delayed tumor growth and improved survival. Dox delivery to tumors increased following laser irradiation for both PoP and FA-PoP liposomes. Thus, while Dox-FA-PoP liposomes were effective following systemic administration and local light irradiation in this tumor model, the FA targeting moiety did not appear essential for anti-tumor responses.