Minimal zoonotic risk of cryptosporidiosis from pet dogs and cats

Awareness of parasitic zoonotic diseases among pet owners in Cairo, Egypt

Egyptians are becoming more interested in owning and raising pets; however, most of them lack essential awareness about the risk of zoonotic parasites that could be transmitted. The objective of the present investigation was to evaluate the degree of awareness Egyptian pet owners possess concerning zoonotic parasitic diseases, the risk of transmission, and preventative measures. A cross-sectional study was conducted using an e-survey. Among 246 pet owners, 64.2% (158) were females, and 67.9% (167) belonged to the 20-30 age group. The majority, 78.9% (194), were raising cats. Only 13.8% (34) visited the veterinarian regularly, with significantly higher results among dog owners (p < 0.05). Only 31.3% (77) participants were regularly deworming their pets, and 19.9% (49) were giving their pets prophylaxis against ectoparasites, with significantly higher results among those who visited the veterinarian regularly (p < 0.0001) and among dog owners (p < 0.05). Only 54.1% (133) had heard about the term "zoonoses" before, and about 8.9% (22) of participants showed a history of zoonotic parasitic diseases, with significantly higher results among those who allowed their animals to play with other animals of neighbors and friends (p < 0.05). The obtained results concluded that the surveyed group had a relatively good degree of knowledge regarding pets as a source of zoonotic illness; raising pet owners' awareness regarding the importance of routine medical examinations and minimizing the contact of pets with other stray animals is essential.

Evidence of the Zoonotic Transmission of Cryptosporidium among Children and Pets

We investigated the zoonotic transmission of Cryptosporidium among the children (n = 188), dogs (n = 133), and cats (n = 55) living in 188 households. Fecal samples were examined using ELISA and confirmed via nested PCR. Coproantigens oocysts were detected in 3.7% of children, 8.3% of dogs, and 5.5% of cats. We found strong evidence of two cases of the zoonotic transmission of Cryptosporidium canis between children and dogs. Furthermore, four children and their respective pets (one dog and three cats) were infected with Cryptosporidium parvum, but we cannot exclude the hypotheses that the oocysts were transmitted from children to animals or that both hosts were infected by a shared source, such as contaminated water or food. The presence of an infected animal elevated the risk of zoonotic transmission by 129.7-fold (95% CI: 13.92-1209.68). Furthermore, sharing a bed with pets was identified as a risk factor for infection in children (OR: 9.9, 95% CI: 1.37-71.2). In conclusion, the zoonotic transmission of Cryptosporidium among children and pets cohabiting in the same household may be quite common, especially when infected animals lie or sleep on children's beds. These findings unequivocally highlight the public health concern surrounding C. canis.

The detection and phylogenetic characterization of Cryptosporidium, Cystoisospora, and Giardia duodenalis of cats in South Korea

Introduction

Cryptosporidium, Cystoisospora, and Giardia duodenalis are gastrointestinal protozoa parasites that cause diarrhea in various animals. However, information regarding the detection and phylogenetic characterization of gastrointestinal protozoa parasites in cats is limited throughout South Korea. Therefore, this study aimed to determine the detection and identify subspecies of gastrointestinal protozoa parasites in cats from South Korea.

Methods

A total of 290 fecal samples were collected from stray, companion, and shelter cats in six provinces. Cryptosporidium, Cystoisospora, and G. duodenalis were identified by PCR. All positive samples were subtyped by PCR and sequencing of gp60, ITS-1, tpi, bg, and gdh.

Results

The overall detection of gastrointestinal protozoan parasitic infection was 17.93%. G. duodenalis was the most prevalent, with 7.93%, followed by Cystoisospora spp. (7.24%) and Cryptosporidium spp. (4.48%). In addition, C. felis (n=10), C. parvum (n=2), C. ryanae (n=1), Cystoisospora felis (n=14), Cystoisospora suis (n=5), Cystoisospora ohioensis (n=1), Cystoisospora spp. were identified in subspecies analysis of positive samples. C. felis showed a significant association with diarrhea (7.81%) and living condition (6.04%), and Cystoisospora felis in diarreha (9.38%) according to detection. Through phylogenetic analysis of the tpi, bg, and gdh genes from 23 G. duodenalispositive samples, it was confirmed that the samples of present study belonged to assemblage A, B, C, and D.

Discussion

South Korean cats have a high rate of gastrointestinal protozoan parasites infection with cat-specific Cryptosporidium and Cystoisospora, which are associated with living conditions and diarrhea symptoms. Moreover, zoonotic and other animal-specific subtype of protozoan parasites have been detected in cat feces.

Prevalence and public health relevance of enteric parasites in domestic dogs and cats in the region of Madrid (Spain) with an emphasis on Giardia duodenalis and Cryptosporidium sp

BACKGROUND

Pet dogs and cats exert an unquestionable beneficial effect in the well-being of their owners, but can also act as a source of zoonotic infections if improperly cared.

OBJECTIVES

We investigated the occurrence, risk factors, genetic variability and zoonotic potential of intestinal parasites in dogs and cats attended in a clinical veterinary setting in Spain.

METHODS

Canine (n = 252) and feline (n = 35) faecal samples were collected during 2017-2019 and analysed by coproparasitological methods. A rapid lateral immunochromatographic test (ICT) was used for detecting Giardia duodenalis and Cryptosporidium sp. Samples positive at microscopy examination and/or ICT were reassessed by molecular methods.

RESULTS

Overall, 48.8% (123/252) of dogs and 48.6% (17/35) of cats were infected by enteric parasites. In dogs, G. duodenalis was the most prevalent species (40.9%), followed by Cystoisospora sp. (7.1%), and Toxocara canis (5.2%). In cats, Joyeuxiella sp. and Toxocara cati were the dominant species (20.0% each), followed by G. duodenalis (14.3%), D. caninum (5.7%) and Cystoisospora felis and Toxascaris leonina (2.9% each). Pups and kittens were more likely to harbour intestinal parasites and develop clinical signs. Sequence analyses of dog isolates revealed the presence of assemblages A (n = 1), C (n = 4), D (n = 4) and C+D (n = 1) within G. duodenalis; C. parvum (n = 1) and C. canis (n = 4) within Cryptosporidium and PtEb IX (n = 1) in Enterocytozoon bieneusi. A novel C. canis subtype family, named XXi, is reported.

CONCLUSIONS

Our results highlight that (i) well-cared dogs carry zoonotic enteric protozoan parasites of public health relevance, (ii) proper hygiene practices and routine veterinary treatment are essential to prevent zoonotic infections, (iii) vulnerable populations should avoid contact with pups/kittens with diarrhoea and (iv) infected dogs might be major contributors to the environmental contamination with soil-transmitted helminths (STHs) eggs.

An Epidemiological Assessment of Cryptosporidium and Giardia spp. Infection in Pet Animals from Taiwan

Cryptosporidium spp. and Giardia duodenalis are enteric protozoan pathogens in humans. and animals. Companion animals infected with zoonotic species/assemblages are a matter of major public concern around the world. The objectives of the present study were to determine the prevalences of Cryptosporidium spp. and G. duodenalis infections and their co-infection statuses in dogs and cats living in Taiwan and to identify the species and assemblages. Fecal samples were collected from local animal shelters (n = 285) and a veterinary hospital (n = 108). Nested polymerase chain reaction (PCR) was performed using the SSU-rRNA, β-giardin, and glutamate dehydrogenase genes for Cryptosporidium spp. and G. duodenalis, respectively. Results showed that the overall prevalences of Cryptosporidium and G. duodenalis were 7.38% (29/393) and 10.69% (42/393). In addition, co-infection was detected in 1.02% (4/393) of all samples. Sample source, clinical sign, and breed may be risk factors that influence the infection rate. In Cryptosporidium-positive samples, C. canis and C. felis were detected most frequently. Although the canine-specific assemblages C and D (37/42) were dominant, the zoonotic human-specific assemblage A (1/42) was also found in Giardia-positive samples. Phylogenetic analysis revealed that most positive samples belonged to host-specific subtypes/assemblages, while some Cryptosporidium or Giardia-positive samples could be zoonotic. The findings suggested that pet animals could be a cause of zoonotic transmission, causing human cryptosporidiosis and giardiasis in Taiwan.

Molecular characteristics and zoonotic potential of enteric protists in domestic dogs and cats in Egypt

Introduction

Domestic dogs and cats can be a source of human infection by a wide diversity of zoonotic pathogens including parasites. Genotyping and subtyping tools are useful in assessing the true public health relevance of canine and feline infections by these pathogens. This study investigated the occurrence, genetic diversity, and zoonotic potential of common diarrhea-causing enteric protist parasites in household dogs and cats in Egypt, a country where this information is particularly scarce.

Methods

In this prospective, cross-sectional study a total of 352 individual fecal samples were collected from dogs (n = 218) and cats (n = 134) in three Egyptian governorates (Dakahlia, Gharbeya, and Giza) during July-December 2021. Detection and identification of Cryptosporidium spp., Giardia duodenalis, Enterocytozoon bieneusi, and Blastocystis sp. were carried out by PCR and Sanger sequencing. Basic epidemiological variables (geographical origin, sex, age, and breed) were examined for association with occurrence of infection by enteric protists.

Results and discussion

The overall prevalence rates of Cryptosporidium spp. and G. duodenalis were 1.8% (95% CI: 0.5-4.6) and 38.5% (95% CI: 32.0-45.3), respectively, in dogs, and 6.0% (95% CI: 2.6-11.4) and 32.1% (95% CI: 24.3-40.7), respectively, in cats. All canine and feline fecal samples analyzed tested negative for E. bieneusi and Blastocystis sp. Dogs from Giza governorate and cats from Dakahlia governorate were at higher risk of infection by Cryptosporidium spp. (p = 0.0006) and G. duodenalis (p = 0.00001), respectively. Sequence analyses identified host-adapted Cryptosporidium canis (n = 4, one of them belonging to novel subtype XXe2) and G. duodenalis assemblages C (n = 1) and D (n = 3) in dogs. In cats the zoonotic C. parvum (n = 5) was more prevalent than host-adapted C. felis (n = 1). Household dogs had a limited (but not negligible) role as source of human giardiasis and cryptosporidiosis, but the unexpected high frequency of zoonotic C. parvum in domestic cats might be a public health concern. This is the first molecular-based description of Cryptosporidium spp. infections in cats in the African continent to date. Molecular epidemiological data provided here can assist health authorities and policy makers in designing and implementing effective campaigns to minimize the transmission of enteric protists in Egypt.

The Role of Veterinarians in Managing Community Cats: A Contextualized, Comprehensive Approach for Biodiversity, Public Health, and Animal Welfare

Homeless cats are a major problem in Europe, with hundreds of thousands abandoned every year. While many die, others can adapt to a lifestyle of roaming freely and establish community cat populations that tend to cluster together in groups. These groups of cats are typically found in urban areas that offer food and shelter to the cats. Animal welfare organizations often care for these cats, providing them with food, shelter, and medical attention. Despite this, conflicts can arise due to the presence of free-roaming cats, with some individuals advocating for drastic measures such as trapping and killing the cats to reduce their populations. However, it is essential to note that such methods are frequently illegal, inhumane, and ultimately ineffective in most situations. A thorough assessment of the impact of cats on a particular natural area requires a comprehensive cat census, a detailed study of the species being preyed upon, and an investigation into the prevalence of zoonotic or epizootic diseases. Moreover, veterinary experts assert that the public health risks associated with cats are often overstated. This article aims to provide a nuanced perspective on the impact of cats on biodiversity in natural areas, while also discussing their role in transmitting the main zoonotic diseases identified in European countries in recent years, with a particular focus on Spain. Effective cat control programs should focus on non-lethal methods such as trap-neuter-return (TNR) and adoption. TNR has proven to be the most effective and humane method of controlling the free-roaming cat population, but its effectiveness is influenced by several factors, including adoption programs and public education on responsible pet ownership. According to Spanish veterinarians, sustainable and science-based solutions such as TNR programs are the best way to achieve population control of free-roaming cats. The veterinary profession should raise awareness regarding sterilization, vaccination, and identification of cats and the consequences of abandonment. They oppose lethal control and removal of cats from the environment, which are ineffective and unethical methods. To promote animal welfare, veterinary professionals must collaborate with public administrations to implement long-term, sustainable solutions to the problem of cat overpopulation. Greater social awareness regarding the importance of sterilization and identification to prevent abandonment and reduce the number of free-roaming cats is also needed. Despite the challenges presented by homeless cat populations in Spain and the rest of Europe, there are many reasons for optimism. Animal welfare organizations and veterinary professionals are actively collaborating to develop humane and effective solutions to manage community cats, including programs such as TNR and adoption. Furthermore, these initiatives are gaining momentum and support from emerging laws and regulations, such as the recent Spanish animal welfare law. Through these efforts, we can reduce the number of free-roaming cats and improve their quality of life.

Cryptosporidiosis: From Prevention to Treatment, a Narrative Review

Cryptosporidiosis is a water- and food-borne zoonotic disease caused by the protozoon parasite of the genus Cryptosporidium. C. hominis and C. parvum are the main two species causing infections in humans and animals. The disease can be transmitted by the fecal-oral route as well as the respiratory route. The infective stage (sporulated oocysts) is resistant to different disinfectants including chlorine. Currently, no effective therapeutic drugs or vaccines are available to treat and control Cryptosporidium infection. To prevent cryptosporidiosis in humans and animals, we need to understand better how the disease is spread and transmitted, and how to interrupt its transmission cycle. This review focuses on understanding cryptosporidiosis, including its infective stage, pathogenesis, life cycle, genomics, epidemiology, previous outbreaks, source of the infection, transmission dynamics, host spectrum, risk factors and high-risk groups, the disease in animals and humans, diagnosis, treatment and control, and the prospect of an effective anti-Cryptosporidium vaccine. It also focuses on the role of the One Health approach in managing cryptosporidiosis at the animal-human-environmental interface. The summarized data in this review will help to tackle future Cryptosporidium infections in humans and animals and reduce the disease occurrence.

Is there any change in the prevalence of intestinal or cardiopulmonary parasite infections in companion animals (dogs and cats) in Germany between 2004-2006 and 2015-2017? An assessment of the impact of the first ESCCAP guidelines

Main objective of the present nationwide study was to assess the impact of the ESCCAP guideline for the control of worm infections in dogs and cats 8-10 years after its first publication in Germany. A secondary aim was to determine the prevalence of canine and feline cardiopulmonary nematodes and intestinal protozoa. Faecal samples of 53,693 dogs and 26,491 cats in 2004-2006 as well as of 129,578 dogs and 45,709 cats in 2015-2017 routinely submitted by veterinarians to a private veterinary laboratory were examined using appropriate parasitological methods. In dogs, the prevalence of Toxocara and taeniid egg shedding was significantly lower in 2015-2017 (3.8 % and 0.16 %, respectively) than in 2004-2006 (4.6 % and 0.27 %, respectively). The prevalence of hookworm and Capillaria eggs was higher in the second study period (2.3 % and 0.77 %, respectively) than in the first (1.3 % and 0.6 %, respectively). For Toxascaris leonina (0.55-0.6 %) and Trichuris (0.8-0.9 %), the difference was not significant between the study periods. Dogs shed more often Angiostrongylus vasorum larvae in the second study (3.1 %) than in the first (1.0 %), whereas the prevalence of Crenosoma vulpis did not change significantly (2.2-2.6 %). Cystoisospora canis and C. ohioensis-like infections were less detected in the second study period (1.0 % and 2.1 %, respectively) than in the first (1.8 % and 2.7 %, respectively). Neospora-like oocysts and Sarcocystis sporocysts were more prevalent in the second study period (0.19 % and 0.13 %, respectively) than in the first (0.13 % and 0.06 %, respectively). The percentage of Giardia or Cryptosporidium coproantigen-positive samples was lower in the second study period (18.9 % and 6.7 %, respectively) than in the first (22.8 % and 10.0 %, respectively). In cats, the prevalence of egg shedding of T. cati, Capillaria and taeniids was significantly lower in 2015-2017 (3.5 %, 0.25 % and 0.1 %, respectively) than in 2004-2006 (4.8 %, 0.54 % and 0.22 %, respectively). No difference was recorded for hookworms (0.12-0.13 %) and Ts. leonina (0.04-0.05 %). Aelurostrongylus-like larvae were detected more often in the second study period (6.5 %) than in the first (2.6 %). Infections with Cystoisospora felis, C. rivolta, Toxoplasma-like coccids and Sarcocystis were less prevalent in the second study period (1.9 %, 0.7 %, 0.24 % and 0.02 %, respectively) than in the first (2.7 %, 1.1 %, 0.36 % and 0.1 %, respectively). The percentage of Giardia or Cryptosporidium coproantigen-positive samples was significantly lower in the second study period (10.6 % and 4.8 %, respectively) than in the first (15.4 % and 8.3 %, respectively). Although these results indicate a decline of the occurrence of most canine and feline intestinal parasites in Germany over the years, a transmission risk of zoonotic parasites remains. Therefore, the control of helminth infections in domestic dogs and cats continues to be a challenge for veterinarians and pet owners.

Gastrointestinal parasites of cats in Egypt: high prevalence high zoonotic risk

BACKGROUND

Several gastrointestinal parasites that infect cats pose potential health threats for humans and animals. The present study is the first to report gastrointestinal (GIT) parasites in feces of stray cats from Gharbia governorate, Egypt. Findings were combined with those published in the earlier surveys from various Egyptian governorates, and various meta-analyses were conducted to underline the parasitic zoonoses from cats in Egypt.

RESULTS

Out of 143 samples tested in Gharbia, 75 (52.4%) were found infected with 13 different parasites. Co-infections were observed in 49.3% of positives. Several parasites were detected, e.g., Toxocara cati (30.0%), Toxascaris leonina (22.4%), hookworms (8.4%), taeniids (4.2%), Strongyloides spp. (2.1%), Physaloptera spp. (2.1%), Alaria spp. (1.4%) and Dipylidium caninum (0.7%). Opisthorchis-like eggs were found in a single sample being the first report from cats in Africa. Oocysts of 4 coccidian parasites were identified, and a few Toxoplasma gondii-like oocysts were detected in 2 samples (1.4%). Results of the meta-analysis illustrated that occurrence of T. gondii oocysts in feces of cats from Egypt may have been overestimated in earlier studies; 1432 cats have been tested and displayed a 5 times higher pooled prevalence (11.9%) than the published global pooled prevalence for T. gondii oocysts in cats. This overestimation might have occurred because some small-sized oocysts that belong to other coccidian parasites were mis-identified as T. gondii. Toxocara cati had a high pooled prevalence (22.5%) in cats from Egypt, which is even greater than the published pooled prevalence in cats globally; however, several reports from Egypt have neglected the role of T. cati in human toxocarosis. Dipylidium caninum displayed also a high prevalence (26.7%).

CONCLUSION

Several zoonotic parasite species have been found in stray cats from Egypt, raising concerns about the risks to the Egyptian human population as well as environmental contamination. Prompt surveillance supervised by the government and accompanied by data dissemination will be helpful for developing effective control strategies.

Experimental infection of cats with Cryptosporidium felis

OBJECTIVES

The aims of this study were to experimentally inoculate cats with Cryptosporidium felis oocysts and compare fecal detection by fluorescent antibody assay (FA) and quantitative PCR (qPCR), and document clinical signs associated with infection.

METHODS

Cryptosporidium felis oocysts were concentrated from the feces of a naturally infected cat and orally inoculated into six cats that tested negative for C felis by an FA and fecal flotation (FF). Cats were observed daily for the presence of clinical signs consistent with infection. Fecal samples from all cats on days 0 and 9, and one sample per cat (days 18-21), were evaluated by all assays. On day 31, two cats negative for C felis by FF and FA were administered methylprednisolone acetate and all assays were repeated on days 34, 36 and 38. Samples from all cats were tested by FF and FA on days 41, 43, 45 and 48.

RESULTS

A total of 41 samples were tested, 25 of which were compared by FA and qPCR. Cryptosporidium felis was detected in 2/25 (8%) and in 19/25 (76%) samples by FA and by qPCR, respectively; the other 16 samples were tested by FF and FA. None of the cats was positive for C felis by FF or FA in samples collected on days 0, 9 or 18-21. One, five and six samples tested positive by qPCR on days 0, 9 and 18-21, respectively. The cats administered methylprednisolone acetate tested positive for C felis by FA on day 36 and by qPCR on days 31, 34, 36 and 38. None of the cats showed clinical signs of disease.

CONCLUSIONS AND RELEVANCE

Clinical signs were not recognized in any of the cats for the duration of the study. FA was insensitive compared with qPCR for detecting cats with subclinical C felis infection.

First report of rodent-adapted Cryptosporidium wrairi in an immunocompetent child, Spain

Cryptosporidiosis is a leading cause of childhood diarrhoea. Two species, Cryptosporidium hominis and Cryptosporidium parvum, are responsible for most confirmed cases globally. Close contact with pet animals can be an unnoticed source of children infections. We describe a case of infection by rodent-adapted Cryptosporidium wrairi in a 22-month-old immunocompetent toddler with no clinical manifestations in close contact with a pet guinea pig and poor personal hygiene practices in Majadahonda (Madrid, Spain). Attempts to determine the C. wrairi genotype family at the 60-kDa glycoprotein marker failed repeatedly. This is the first description of C. wrairi in a human host. Although a spurious infection cannot be completely ruled out, data presented here suggest that C. wrairi can be transmitted zoonotically.

Cryptosporidium species in non-human animal species in Latin America: Systematic review and meta-analysis

Cryptosporidiosis is an infection caused by a protozoon that inhabits the gastrointestinal tract. More than forty valid species have been described in the genus Cryptosporidium, infecting a broad range of hosts around the world, some with zoonotic transmission and others with predominant anthroponotic transmission. Prevalence studies conducted in Latin American countries have been specific, without consolidating information on species prevalences. Thus, the aim of this study was to perform a systematic review and meta-analysis addressing the prevalence of Cryptosporidium species in animals in Latin America. The estimated pooled prevalence rate for cryptosporidiosis in animals, by means of meta-analysis with a random-effects model, based on species identification, was 18.0% (95% CI 11.0%-27.0%) with high heterogeneity. The estimated overall prevalence was 20.3% (36/177) in pets, 19.9% (1309/6573) in livestock animals and 23.9% (954/3995) in exotic/captive animals. Evidence of circulation of 16 Cryptosporidium species was found in five Latin American countries: Brazil, Colombia, Chile, Argentina and Mexico. Through meta-analysis with a random-effects model, the pooled prevalence rate for Cryptosporidium parvum was 0.7% (95% CI 0.2%-2.4%). Cryptosporidium felis (8.5%) was the most prevalent species in pets, C. parvum (10.3%) in livestock animals and Cryptosporidium galli (17.6%) in exotic/captive animals. C. parvum was the species with the greatest geographical dispersion, which can be explained by its eurixenic and zoonotic potential. Few studies on cryptosporidiosis in animals in Latin America were found, which shows that there is a need for investment in and expansion of studies on this parasite. The pooled prevalence of C. parvum in Latin America and its wide circulation are similar to what has been observed in other developing regions, which reaffirms the importance of this species as the cause of a neglected, emerging and zoonotic parasitosis.

Cryptosporidium of birds in pet markets in Wuhan city, Hubei, China

Cryptosporidium is a group of protistan parasites of a range of vertebrates including mammals and birds. Stimulated by previous work that revealed “zoonotic” Cryptosporidium meleagridis subtypes (i.e. IIIbA26G1R1b and IIIbA22G1R1c) in diarrhoeic children and domestic chickens in Wuhan city and environs in Hubei Province, China, here we explored whether zoonotic C. meleagridis subtypes might also occur in pet birds in Wuhan city. From 11 bird markets in this city, we collected 322 faecal samples from 48 species of birds (representing six taxonomic orders), isolated genomic DNA and then conducted PCR-based sequencing of genetic markers in the small subunit (SSU) of the nuclear ribosomal RNA and the 60 kDa glycoprotein (gp60) genes of Cryptosporidium. Using SSU, Cryptosporidium was detected in 55 (17%) of the 322 samples. Cryptosporidium avium, C. baileyi, C. meleagridis, C. muris and C. proventriculi were characterised in 18%, 47%, 11%, 2% and 20% of the 55 samples, respectively, and a novel Cryptosporidium galli-like taxon in one sample. Using gp60, only one subtype (IIIeA17G2R1) of C. meleagridis was identified, which had not been detected in a previous study of diarrhoeic children in Wuhan. However, IIIe subtypes have been found in both humans and birds around the world. The relatively high prevalence and genetic diversity of Cryptosporidium recorded here in pet birds raise awareness about possible reservoirs of zoonotic variants of Cryptosporidium in birds in Wuhan, and potentially, other provinces in China.

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A total of 322 faecal samples from 48 species of pet birds were tested for Cryptosporidium.

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Relatively high prevalence and genetic diversity of Cryptosporidium were found.

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A novel Cryptosporidium galli-like genotype was recorded.

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A Cryptosporidium meleagridis subtype with zoonotic potential was detected.

Molecular prevalence and subtyping of Cryptosporidium spp. in fecal samples collected from stray cats in İzmir, Turkey

Background

Cryptosporidium spp. are obligate intracellular apicomplexan parasites transmitted to humans and other animals by contaminated water, food, or direct contact. They mainly cause gastrointestinal symptoms, although subclinical infections are also common. Cats are primarily infected by host-adapted Cryptosporidium felis while C. parvum and C. muris have also been detected in some cases. In this study, the molecular prevalence of Cryptosporidium spp. was investigated by screening 399 fecal samples collected from stray cats using nested PCR targeting the 18S rRNA gene for the first time in Turkey. Additionally, Cryptosporidium PCR-positive samples were genotyped by nested PCR- restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP), and subsequently, amplicons of 18S SSU rRNA were sequenced. They were further subtyped by amplification and sequencing of the gp60 gene.

Results

Among fecal samples screened, 12 of them (3%) were found to be Cryptosporidium-positive, and according to RFLP and sequencing of 18S rRNA gene, all positive samples were identified as C. felis. Subtyping analyses at the gp60 gene showed that C. felis isolates belonged to the XIXa subtype family, which are closely related to human subtypes of the parasite.

Conclusions

The results of this study are important in terms of indicating the potential role of stray cats for transmission of Cryptosporidium spp. to humans or other animals. Also, the presence of XIXa, which is the dominant subtype family of C. felis in cats and humans was shown for the first time in stray cats of İzmir, Turkey.

Canine and Feline Parasitology: Analogies, Differences, and Relevance for Human Health

Cats and dogs are treated as family members by most pet owners. Therefore, a high quality of veterinary care and preventive medicine is imperative for animal health and welfare and for the protection of humans from zoonotic pathogens. There is a general perception of cats being treated as "small dogs," especially in the field of clinical parasitology. As a result, several important differences between the two animal species are not taken into proper consideration and are often overlooked. Dogs and cats are profoundly different under evolutionary, biological, ethological, behavioral, and immunological standpoints. These differences impact clinical features, diagnosis, and control of canine and feline parasites and transmission risk for humans. This review outlines the most common parasitoses and vector-borne diseases of dogs and cats, with a focus on major convergences and divergences, and discusses parasites that have (i) evolved based on different preys for dogs and cats, (ii) adapted due to different immunological or behavioral animal profiles, and (iii) developed more similarities than differences in canine and feline infections and associated diseases. Differences, similarities, and peculiarities of canine and feline parasitology are herein reviewed in three macrosections: (i) carnivorism, vegetarianism, anatomy, genetics, and parasites, (ii) evolutionary adaptation of nematodes, including veterinary reconsideration and zoonotic importance, and (iii) behavior and immune system driving ectoparasites and transmitted diseases. Emphasis is given to provide further steps toward a more accurate evaluation of canine and feline parasitology in a changing world in terms of public health relevance and One Health approach.

Raw meat based diet (RMBD) for household pets as potential door opener to parasitic load of domestic and urban environment. Revival of understated zoonotic hazards? A review

RMBD (acronym of Raw Meat Based Diet) and BARF diets (acronym for Biologically Appropriate Raw Food or Bones and Raw Food) account dietary regimens based on raw ingredients (including raw meat), popular in pet feeding. Animal tissues and organs as well as other uncooked ingredients are more and more popularly used by pet owners to feed household pets. However, the increased risk of exposure to microbiological and parasitic agents poses the question as to whether such diets may be recommendable to be handled and offered to domestic cats and dogs co-living in domestic and urban environment. Above all, the threat of human and animal infections by parasites from raw meat fed to pets is not sufficiently explored and tracked, meanwhile deserving particular surveillance, instead. At this regard, raw meat feeding to pets may represent a route of exposure to the increased risk of environmental load. In fact, some parasites typically found in rural environment can be given the chance to complete their life-cycle, for the closeness between definitive and intermediate hosts. This is of particular concern, as potentially infected pets serving as definitive hosts can become a continuous source of environmental diffusion of parasites, both at domestic and urban level. The handling of raw meat requires adequate knowledge and awareness of the hygienic principles to prevent the onset of disorders related to both manipulation by pet owners and uncooked food consumption by the pet. This review aimed to shed a comprehensive overview of the hygienic aspects related to raw pet feeding, as to handling of raw meat in domestic environment, with special emphasis on parasitic agents and related zoonotic hazards.

An Update on Zoonotic Cryptosporidium Species and Genotypes in Humans

The enteric parasite, Cryptosporidium is a major cause of diarrhoeal illness in humans and animals worldwide. No effective therapeutics or vaccines are available and therefore control is dependent on understanding transmission dynamics. The development of molecular detection and typing tools has resulted in the identification of a large number of cryptic species and genotypes and facilitated our understanding of their potential for zoonotic transmission. Of the 44 recognised Cryptosporidium species and >120 genotypes, 19 species, and four genotypes have been reported in humans with C. hominis, C. parvum, C. meleagridis, C. canis and C. felis being the most prevalent. The development of typing tools that are still lacking some zoonotic species and genotypes and more extensive molecular epidemiological studies in countries where the potential for transmission is highest are required to further our understanding of this important zoonotic pathogen. Similarly, whole-genome sequencing (WGS) and amplicon next-generation sequencing (NGS) are important for more accurately tracking transmission and understanding the mechanisms behind host specificity.

Molecular Investigation of Zoonotic Intestinal Protozoa in Pet Dogs and Cats in Yunnan Province, Southwestern China

Giardia duodenalis, Enterocytozoon bieneusi and Cryptosporidium spp. are common enteric pathogens that reside in the intestines of humans and animals. These pathogens have a broad host range and worldwide distribution, but are mostly known for their ability to cause diarrhea. However, very limited information on prevalence and genotypes of G. duodenalis, E. bieneusi and Cryptosporidium spp. in pet dogs and cats are available in China. In the present study, a total of 433 fecal samples were collected from 262 pet dogs and 171 pet cats in Yunnan province, southwestern China, and the prevalence and the genotypes of G. duodenalis, E. bieneusi and Cryptosporidium spp. were investigated by nested PCR amplification and DNA sequencing. The prevalence of G. duodenalis, E. bieneusi and Cryptosporidium spp. was 13.7% (36/262), 8.0% (21/262), and 4.6% (12/262) in dogs, and 1.2% (2/171), 2.3% (4/171) and 0.6% (1/171) in cats, respectively. The different living conditions of dogs is a risk factor that is related with the prevalence of G. duodenalis and E. bieneusi (p < 0.05). However, there were no statistically significant difference in prevalence of three pathogens in cats. DNA sequencing and analyses showed that four E. bieneusi genotypes (PtEb IX, CD9, DgEb I and DgEb II), one Cryptosporidium spp. (C. canis) and two G. duodenalis assemblages (C and D) were identified in dogs; two E. bieneusi genotypes (Type IV and CtEb I), one Cryptosporidium spp. (C. felis) and one G. duodenalis assemblage (F) were identified in cats. Three novel E. bieneusi genotypes (DgEb I, DgEb II and CtEb I) were identified, and the human-pathogenic genotypes/species Type IV C. canis and C. felis were also observed in this study, indicating a potential zoonotic threat of pet dogs and cats. Our results revealed the prevalence and genetic diversity of G. duodenalis, E. bieneusi and Cryptosporidium spp. infection in pet dogs and cats in Yunnan province, southwestern China, and suggested the potential threat of pet dogs and cats to public health.

The global prevalence and risk factors of Cryptosporidium infection among cats during 1988-2021: A systematic review and meta-analysis

Cryptosporidiosis is an important zoonosis caused by Cryptosporidium. This disease causes a global public health problem. The cat is considered to be one of the potential hosts for transmitting Cryptosporidium to humans. In this study, a global meta-analysis for Cryptosporidium infection in cats was performed. The articles related to Cryptosporidium infection in cats were systematically searched in databases China National Knowledge Infrastructure (CNKI), Wanfang data, VIP Chinese Journal Database, PubMed, and ScienceDirect. Finally, 92 articles published from 1988 to 2021, which met the criteria of systematic review and meta-analysis, were collected. During the selected period, the overall prevalence of Cryptosporidium among cats was identified to be 6.0%. The prevalence of Cryptosporidium detected by microscopy, coproantigens, and molecular biology methods were 4.2%, 8.2%, and 5.0%, respectively. Among 9 species/genotypes (C. felis, C. parvum, C. muris, Cryptosporidium rat genotype IV, C. baileyi, C. ryanae, C. hominis, Cryptosporidium sp. rat genotype III and most closely related to Cryptosporidium sp. rat genotype III), the prevalence of C. parvum (4.2%) was significantly higher than that of other species/genotypes. Among five continents, the prevalence of Cryptosporidium in Africa (30.5%) was significantly higher than in other continents. We also analyzed the effects of different geographical factors (longitude, latitude, altitude, mean temperature, precipitation, and humidity) on Cryptosporidium infection among cats. The results showed that cryptosporidiosis was common in cats all over the world. This systematic review and meta-analysis has systematically introduced the global epidemiology of Cryptosporidium in cats and correlated risk factors. Health authorities, doctors, veterinarians and cat owners' awareness of the prevalence, risk factors and complications of Cryptosporidium are important for the development of effective prevention strategies for cryptosporidiosis.

Molecular detection of Cryptosporidium: an emerging parasite in different water sources of 2010 flood-affected district Nowshera, Pakistan

Cryptosporidium is a water-borne zoonotic parasite worldwide, usually found in lakes and rivers contaminated with sewage and animal wastes, causing outbreaks of cryptosporidiosis. In this study, 300 water samples were collected from four designated places of flood-affected district Nowshera consist of different water sources to find out the prevalence of Cryptosporidium via polymerase chain reaction (PCR). The overall prevalence of Cryptosporidium was 30.33% (91/300) with more prevalent 44% in drain water and low 5% in bore/tube well water. The prevalence in open well and tap water was recorded 33% and 20%, respectively. The highest prevalence was recorded in summer (June-September). The result of this study ensures enormous contamination of drinking water that requires appropriate treatment, cleaning and filtration to provide safe drinking water. Preventing water-borne disease and proper treatment of water supplies is essential to public health.

Advances in molecular epidemiology of cryptosporidiosis in dogs and cats

The use of molecular tools has led to the identification of several zoonotic Cryptosporidium spp. in dogs and cats. Among them, Cryptosporidium canis and Cryptosporidium felis are dominant species causing canine and feline cryptosporidiosis, respectively. Some Cryptosporidium parvum infections have also been identified in both groups of animals. The identification of C. canis, C. felis and C. parvum in both pets and owners suggests the possible occurrence of zoonotic transmission of Cryptosporidium spp. between humans and pets. However, few cases of such concurrent infections have been reported. Thus, the cross-species transmission of Cryptosporidium spp. between dogs or cats and humans has long been a controversial issue. Recently developed subtyping tools for C. canis and C. felis should be very useful in identification of zoonotic transmission of both Cryptosporidium spp. Data generated using these tools have confirmed the occurrence of zoonotic transmission of these two Cryptosporidium spp. between owners and their pets, but have also shown the potential presence of host-adapted subtypes. Extensive usage of these subtyping tools in epidemiological studies of human cryptosporidiosis is needed for improved understanding of the importance of zoonotic transmission of Cryptosporidium spp. from pets.

Molecular detection of Giardia duodenalis and Cryptosporidium spp. from stray dogs residing in monasteries in Bangkok, Thailand

Both Cryptosporidium spp. and Giardia duodenalis are enteric protozoan parasites that infect a wide variety of domestic animals as well as humans worldwide, causing diarrheal diseases. Giardia duodenalis assemblages C and D are specific to canine hosts and zoonotic assemblages A and B are also found in dogs as a reservoir host. In dogs, Cryptosporidium canis is the host-specific species while humans are infected by C. hominis and C. parvum and at least another 16 zoonotic Cryptosporidium species have been reported causing human infections, with C. meleagridis, C. viatorum, and C. ubiquitum being the most frequent. The objective of this study was to determine the prevalence of Cryptosporidium spp. and G. duodenalis from stray dogs in areas of Bangkok and to identify the species and assemblages. Fecal samples (540) were collected from dogs residing in 95 monasteries in 48 districts in the Bangkok metropolitan area. Nested Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) was performed using the ssu-rRNA gene for both parasites. In total, 3.0% (16/540) samples were positive for G. duodenalis, with most being G. duodenalis assemblage D (7/16) followed by assemblage C (7/16) and zoonotic assemblage A (2/16). The prevalence of Cryptosporidium spp. was 0.7% (4/540) based on the PCR results and all were the dog genotype C. canis. These results indicated that dogs residing in Bangkok monasteries poses a limited role as source of human giardiosis and cryptosporidiosis.

Molecular Epidemiology of Human Cryptosporidiosis in Low- and Middle-Income Countries

Cryptosporidiosis is one of the most important causes of moderate to severe diarrhea and diarrhea-related mortality in children under 2 years of age in low- and middle-income countries. In recent decades, genotyping and subtyping tools have been used in epidemiological studies of human cryptosporidiosis. Results of these studies suggest that higher genetic diversity of Cryptosporidium spp. is present in humans in these countries at both species and subtype levels and that anthroponotic transmission plays a major role in human cryptosporidiosis. Cryptosporidium hominis is the most common Cryptosporidium species in humans in almost all the low- and middle-income countries examined, with five subtype families (namely, Ia, Ib, Id, Ie, and If) being commonly found in most regions. In addition, most Cryptosporidium parvum infections in these areas are caused by the anthroponotic IIc subtype family rather than the zoonotic IIa subtype family. There is geographic segregation in Cryptosporidium hominis subtypes, as revealed by multilocus subtyping. Concurrent and sequential infections with different Cryptosporidium species and subtypes are common, as immunity against reinfection and cross protection against different Cryptosporidium species are partial. Differences in clinical presentations have been observed among Cryptosporidium species and C. hominis subtypes. These observations suggest that WASH (water, sanitation, and hygiene)-based interventions should be implemented to prevent and control human cryptosporidiosis in low- and middle-income countries.

Development of a Subtyping Tool for Zoonotic Pathogen Cryptosporidium canis

Cryptosporidium canis is an important cause of cryptosporidiosis in canines and humans. Studies of the transmission characteristics of C. canis are currently hampered by the lack of suitable subtyping tools. In this study, we conducted a genomic survey of the pathogen and developed a subtyping tool targeting the partial 60-kDa glycoprotein gene (gp60). Seventy-six isolates previously identified as C. canis were analyzed using the new subtyping tool. Amplicons of the expected size were obtained from 49 isolates, and phylogenetic analysis identified 10 subtypes clustered into five distinct groups (XXa to XXe). The largest group, XXa, contained 43 isolates from four subtypes that differed slightly from each other at the nucleotide level, while groups XXb to XXe contain one to three isolates each. The similar distributions of subtypes in humans and canines suggest that zoonotic transmission might play an important role in the epidemiology of C. canis In addition, suspected zoonotic transmission of C. canis between dogs and humans in a household was confirmed using the subtyping tool. The subtyping tool and data generated in this study might improve our understanding of the transmission of this zoonotic pathogen.

Subtype Characterization and Zoonotic Potential of Cryptosporidium felis in Cats in Guangdong and Shanghai, China

Cryptosporidiumfelis is an important cause of feline and human cryptosporidiosis. However, the transmission of this pathogen between humans and cats remains controversial, partially due to a lack of genetic characterization of isolates from cats. The present study was conducted to examine the genetic diversity of C. felis in cats in China and to assess their potential zoonotic transmission. A newly developed subtyping tool based on a sequence analysis of the 60-kDa glycoprotein (gp60) gene was employed to identify the subtypes of 30 cat-derived C. felis isolates from Guangdong and Shanghai. Altogether, 20 C. felis isolates were successfully subtyped. The results of the sequence alignment showed a high genetic diversity, with 13 novel subtypes and 2 known subtypes of the XIXa subtype family being identified. The known subtypes were previously detected in humans, while some of the subtypes formed well-supported subclusters with human-derived subtypes from other countries in a phylogenetic analysis of the gp60 sequences. The results of this study confirmed the high genetic diversity of the XIXa subtype family of C. felis. The common occurrence of this subtype family in both humans and cats suggests that there could be cross-species transmission of C. felis.

Subtype distribution of zoonotic pathogen Cryptosporidium felis in humans and animals in several countries

Cryptosporidium felis is the major etiologic agent of cryptosporidiosis in felines and has been reported in numerous human cryptosporidiosis cases. Sequence analysis of the 60-kDa glycoprotein (gp60) gene has been developed for subtyping C. felis recently. In this study, 66 C. felis isolates from the United States, Jamaica, Peru, Portugal, Slovakia, Nigeria, Ethiopia, Kenya, China, India and Australia were subtyped using the newly established tool. Forty-four specimens yielded gp60 sequences, generating 23 subtypes clustered in 4 subtype families (XIXa, XIXc, XIXd and XIXe) with high bootstrap support in a phylogenetic analysis of sequence data. Among them, XIXa showed high genetic diversity at the nucleotide level, with the formation of 18 subtypes from both cats and humans with different geographic distribution. In contrast, all 11 XIXd isolates derived from humans from various countries had identical sequences. Results of this study improve our understanding of the genetic diversity, host specificity and transmission dynamics of C. felis.

Cryptosporidium species and cryptosporidiosis in Japan: a literature review and insights into the role played by animals in its transmission

Cryptosporidium species infect domestic animals, livestock, and humans. These protozoan parasites are frequently reported as major environmental contaminants in many countries despite their differing climatic, socioeconomic, and demographic factors. This review focuses on the research findings that relate to Cryptosporidium epidemiology, genetic diversity, and associated risk factors relating to animals, contaminated water sources, and humans in Japan. Adequate knowledge of these factors is essential for understanding the economic and public health importance of cryptosporidiosis in Japan so that effective control strategies against it are implemented. Cryptosporidium infections are highly prevalent in animals in Japan. Among the different animal species, cattle infections stand out because of their economic importance and zoonotic potential. Living circumstances in Japan restrain Cryptosporidium transmission between humans, but there is evidence to suggest that animals, especially those in close contact with humans, can be potential sources of human infections. Water sampling studies have provided clues about how environmental contamination with Cryptosporidium oocysts can cause infections in livestock and wild animals. There is some evidence of person-to-person transmission of cryptosporidiosis, but only occasionally and under certain circumstances. By identifying the major role played by animals in Cryptosporidium transmission to people in Japan, we highlight the urgent need for disease control against this pathogen.

Molecular characterization of Giardia spp. and Cryptosporidium spp. from dogs and coyotes in an urban landscape suggests infrequent occurrence of zoonotic genotypes

Giardia spp. and Cryptosporidium spp. are common gastrointestinal parasites with the potential for zoonotic transmission. This study aimed to (1) determine the genotypes occurring in dogs and coyotes occupying a similar urban area; (2) determine if these hosts were infected with potentially zoonotic genotypes; (3) provide baseline molecular data. In August and September 2012, 860 dog owners living in neighborhoods bordering six urban parks in Calgary, Alberta, Canada, provided faecal samples from their dogs. From March 2012 through July 2013, 193 coyote faeces were also collected from five of six of the same parks. Direct immunofluorescence microscopy (DFA) indicated that Giardia spp. and Cryptosporidium spp. infected a total of 64 (7.4%) and 21 (2.4%) dogs, as well as 15 (7.8%) and three (1.6%) coyotes, respectively. Semi-nested, polymerase chain reactions targeting the 16S small-subunit ribosomal ribonucleic acid (SSU rRNA) and 18S SSU rRNA genes of Giardia spp. and Cryptosporidium spp., respectively, were conducted on samples that screened positive by DFA, and products were sequenced and genotyped. Dogs were infected with Giardia intestinalis canid-associated assemblages C (n = 14), D (n = 13), and Cryptosporidium canis (n = 3). Similarly, G. intestinalis assemblages C (n = 1), D (n = 1) and C. canis (n = 1), were detected in coyotes, as well as G. intestinalis assemblage A (n = 1) and Cryptosporidium vole genotype (n = 1). Dogs and coyotes were predominantly infected with host-specific genotypes and few potentially zoonotic genotypes, suggesting that they may not represent a significant risk for zoonotic transmission of these parasites in urban areas where these hosts are sympatric.

Genetic characterization of Cryptosporidium spp. and Giardia duodenalis in dogs and cats in Guangdong, China

Background

There are only limited number of reports on molecular epidemiology of Cryptosporidium spp. and Giardia duodenalis in dogs and cats in China. This study was conducted to assess the infection rates, genetic identity, and public health potential of these parasites in dogs and cats in Guangdong, China.

Methods

PCR and sequence analyses were used to identify and genotype Cryptosporidium spp. and G. duodenalis in fecal samples from 641 dogs and 418 cats in Guangdong. Chi-square test and odds ratio analysis were used to compare the occurrence rates of these pathogens and identify risk factors for infection.

Results

The overall infection rates of Cryptosporidium spp. and G. duodenalis were 6.9% (44/641) and 9.4% (60/641) in dogs, and 6.2% (26/418) and 3.6% (15/418) in cats. Purebred cats (12.4%; χ² = 5.110, OR = 2.8, P = 0.024) and dogs (10.8%; χ² = 5.597, OR = 4.8, P = 0.018) were more likely to be infected by Cryptosporidium spp. and G. duodenalis, respectively. Dogs (12.0%; χ² = 7.589, OR = 2.6, P = 0.006) and cats (13.6%; χ² = 8.235, OR = 3.5, P = 0.004) under 6 months had significantly higher infection rates of Cryptosporidium spp. than older animals. Household (13.9%; χ² = 10.279, OR = 2.6, P = 0.008) and pet shop dogs (11.0%; χ² = 7.182, OR = 2.0, P = 0.048) had higher occurrence of Cryptosporidium spp., as was the case for G. duodenalis occurrence in experimental dogs (13.4%; χ² = 9.223, OR = 1.9, P = 0.017). Cryptosporidium canis (n = 42), C. muris (n = 1) and Cryptosporidium rat genotype IV (n = 1) were identified in dogs, while C. felis (n = 21), C. parvum (n = 3), C. muris (n = 1) and Cryptosporidium rat genotype IV (n = 1) were identified in cats. In contrast, the canine-specific assemblages C (n = 27) and D (n = 26) and the feline-specific assemblage F (n = 14) were almost exclusively the only genotypes of G. duodenalis in dogs and cats, respectively. There was no significant difference in infection rates of Cryptosporidium spp. and G. duodenalis between diarrheal and non-diarrheal pets.

Conclusions

While domestic pets in Guangdong are infected with zoonotic Cryptosporidium species, they are mainly infected with host-specific G. duodenalis genotypes. Risk factors for infections differ between Cryptosporidium spp. and G. duodenalis and between dogs and cats.

Molecular epidemiology of giardiasis from a veterinary perspective

A total of eight Giardia species are accepted. These include: Giardia duodenalis (syn. Giardia intestinalis and Giardia lamblia), which infects humans and animals, Giardia agilis, Giardia ardeae, Giardia psittaci, Giardia muris, Giardia microti, Giardia peramelis and G. cricetidarum, which infect non-human hosts including amphibians, birds, rodents and marsupials. Giardia duodenalis is a species complex consisting of eight assemblages (A-H), with assemblages A and B the dominant assemblages in humans. Molecular studies to date on the zoonotic potential of Giardia in animals are problematic and are hampered by lack of concordance between loci. Livestock (cattle, sheep, goats and pigs) are predominantly infected with G. duodenalis assemblage E, which has recently been shown to be zoonotic, followed by assemblage A. In cats and dogs, assemblages A, B, C, D and F are commonly reported but relatively few studies have conducted molecular typing of humans and their pets and the results are contradictory with some studies support zoonotic transmission but the majority of studies suggesting separate transmission cycles. Giardia also infects a broad range of wildlife hosts and although much less well studied, host-adapted species as well as G. duodenalis assemblages (A-H) have been identified. Fish and other aquatic wildlife represent a source of infection for humans with Giardia via water contamination and/or consumption of undercooked fish and interestingly, assemblage B and A predominated in the two molecular studies conducted to date. Our current knowledge of the transmission dynamics of Giardia is still poor and the development of more discriminatory typing tools such as whole genome sequencing (WGS) of Giardia isolates is therefore essential.

Gastrointestinal parasites in shelter cats of central Italy

In Italy, the limited resources and the large number of cats living in feline shelters may facilitate the spread of parasite infections that may affect the health of cats and expose shelter workers and adoptive owners to zoonosis. Prevalence and risk factors of potential zoonotic and host-specific gastrointestinal parasite infections were assessed in cats living in public and private shelters of central Italy. Individual fecal samples were examined macroscopically and then screened microscopically by fresh and Lugol stained fecal smears and by flotation and the Baermann tests. A commercial rapid immune-chromatographic assay was used to detect Giardia duodenalis and Cryptosporidium spp. All animals were clinically examined to evaluate presence of clinical signs compatible to parasitic infections. Data were statistically analysed by multivariate analysis with logistic regression and chi square testing for bivariate analysis. The overall prevalence of gastrointestinal parasites in the shelter cats surveyed was 22% (29/132), with 26/132 (19.7%) of the animals infected with potentially zoonotic organisms. Upon statistical analysis, parasite infections were identified in significantly more cats younger than 18 months of age (p <0.05), and most often associated with the presence of compatible clinical signs (p <0.05). A higher prevalence of protozoan infections (18.1%, 24/132) than of helminth infections (12.9%, 17/132) was observed. Identified parasites were Giardia duodenalis (10.6%, 14/132), Toxocara cati (9%, 12/132), Cystoisospora felis (3%, 4/132), Cystoisospora rivolta (2.3%, 3/132), hookworms (2.3%, 3/132), Cryptosporidium spp. (1.6%, 2/132), Aonchotheca putorii (0.75%, 1/132), Tritrichomonas foetus (0.75%, 1/132) and Strongyloides sp. (0.75%, 1/132). Co-infections were identified in the 7.6% of animals surveyed. Results obtained from this study indicate high gastrointestinal parasite risk to shelter cats and public health in the examined areas and suggest the need for more effective control measures in shelters surveyed.

Prevalence and genetic characterization of Giardia spp. and Cryptosporidium spp. in dogs in Iqaluit, Nunavut, Canada

There are few epidemiologic studies on the role of dogs in zoonotic parasitic transmission in the Circumpolar North. The objectives of this study were to: (a) estimate the faecal prevalence of Giardia spp. and Cryptosporidium spp. in dogs; (b) investigate potential associations between the type of dog population and the faecal presence of Giardia spp. and Cryptosporidium spp.; and (c) describe the molecular characteristics of Giardia spp. and Cryptosporidium spp. in dogs in Iqaluit, Nunavut. We conducted two cross-sectional studies in July and September 2016. In July, the team collected daily faecal samples for 3 days from each of 20 sled dogs. In September, the team collected three faecal samples from each of 59 sled dogs, 111 samples from shelter dogs and 104 from community dogs. We analysed faecal samples for the presence of Giardia spp. and Cryptosporidium spp. using rapid immunoassay and flotation techniques. Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and sequencing of target genes were performed on positive faecal samples. Overall, the faecal prevalence of at least one of the target parasites, when one faecal sample was chosen at random for all dogs, was 8.16% (CI: 5.52-11.92), and for Giardia spp. and Cryptosporidium spp., prevalence was 4.42% (CI: 2.58-7.49) and 6.12% (CI: 3.88-9.53), respectively. The odds of faecal Giardia spp. in sled dogs were significantly higher than those in shelter and community dogs (OR 10.19 [CI: 1.16-89.35]). Sequence analysis revealed that 6 faecal samples were Giardia intestinalis, zoonotic assemblage B (n = 2) and species-specific assemblages D (n = 3) and E (n = 1), and five faecal samples were Cryptosporidium canis. Giardia intestinalis is zoonotic; however, Cryptosporidium canis is rare in humans and, when present, usually occurs in immunosuppressed individuals. Dogs may be a potential source of zoonotic Giardia intestinalis assemblage B infections in residents in Iqaluit, Nunavut, Canada; however, the direction of transmission is unclear.

Genotypic Characterization of Cryptosporidium Species in Humans and Peri-Domestic Animals in Ekiti and Oyo States, Nigeria

Cryptosporidiosis is one of the leading causes of diarrhea in humans and several other vertebrate species. Because surveys of Cryptosporidium genotypes from animals and humans living in the same region are rare, our understanding of the importance of zoonotic transmission in the epidemiology of cryptosporidiosis remains superficial. PCR was used to amplify a portion of the Cryptosporidium 18S small subunit ribosomal RNA gene from fecal DNA from humans and livestock living in Ekiti and Oyo states, Nigeria. PCR-positive samples were further analyzed using PCR targeting the heat-shock protein HSP-70, the actin, and the sporozoite glycoprotein gene gp60. A questionnaire was used to collect demographic information. Sixteen of 187 samples collected were Cryptosporidium 18S PCR positive. Of these, 5 samples originating from HIV-positive patients, 5 from otherwise healthy children, 2 from chickens, 3 from goats, and 1 from a dog were positive for at least 1 marker. Sequencing of the 18S rRNA amplicons revealed the presence of Cryptosporidium parvum in 2 HIV positive patients and in a child; the actin sequence confirmed the presence of this species. Two samples of HIV-positive patients amplified Cryptosporidium hominis 18S rRNA, one of them confirmed by the HSP-70, actin, and gp60 sequences. Cryptosporidium meleagridis was found in another HIV patient, while C. hominis was detected in 3 children (of which 2 were confirmed by gp60). Cryptosporidium muris was found in 1 child. In birds, we found C. meleagridis and, significantly, C. parvum, whereas we detected C. parvum and C. muris in 1 goat each. The only dog sampled was positive for Cryptosporidium canis. We conclude that, in the environment we surveyed, humans and animals are a potential part of the same transmission cycle. Measures to prevent zoonotic transmission should therefore be considered to reduce the prevalence of cryptosporidiosis.

Prevalence of Cryptosporidium, Blastocystis, and other opportunistic infections in patients with primary and acquired immunodeficiency

Intestinal opportunistic infections are often caused by unicellular parasites. Individuals with decreased immunity are particularly susceptible to infection by said microorganisms, and when they are infected, diarrhea can be the main clinical manifestation. However, intestinal parasites have rarely been taken into account in intestinal disorders. In our study, an investigation was conducted to determine the prevalence of intestinal micro-pathogens, such as Cryptosporidium, Giardia, Blastocystis, and microsporidia, in hospitalized patients with different immunological statuses. The study at hand indicates that protozoan parasitic infections are rare among immunodeficient patients in Poland. The overall prevalence of micro-pathogens among participants was 4.6%; it was three times higher in adults (12.5%) than in children (2.3%). Cryptosporidium and Cyclospora species (Apicomplexa) were diagnosed as the main cause of heavy diarrhea. Accordingly, adult patients were positive mainly for Blastocystis and microsporidia, while children were more often infected with the Cryptosporidium species.

Estimating Cryptosporidium and Giardia disease burdens for children drinking untreated groundwater in a rural population in India

Background

In many low-income settings, despite improvements in sanitation and hygiene, groundwater sources used for drinking may be contaminated with enteric pathogens such as Cryptosporidium and Giardia, which remain important causes of childhood morbidity. In this study, we examined the contribution of diarrhea caused by Cryptosporidium and Giardia found in groundwater sources used for drinking to the total burden of diarrheal disease among children < 5 in rural India.

Methodology/Principal findings

We studied a population of 3,385 children < 5 years of age in 100 communities of Puri District, Odisha, India. We developed a coupled quantitative microbial risk assessment (QMRA) and susceptible-infected-recovered (SIR) population model based on observed levels of Cryptosporidium and Giardia in improved groundwater sources used for drinking and compared the QMRA-SIR estimates with independently measured all-cause (i.e., all fecal-oral enteric pathogens and exposure pathways) child diarrhea prevalence rates observed in the study population during two monsoon seasons (2012 and 2013). We used site specific and regional studies to inform assumptions about the human pathogenicity of the Cryptosporidium and Giardia species present in local groundwater. In all three human pathogenicity scenarios evaluated, the mean daily risk of Cryptosporidium or Giardia infection (0.06–1.53%), far exceeded the tolerable daily risk of infection from drinking water in the US (< 0.0001%). Depending on which protozoa species were present, median estimates of daily child diarrhea prevalence due to either Cryptosporidium or Giardia infection from drinking water was as high as 6.5% or as low as < 1% and accounted for at least 2.9% and as much as 65.8% of the all-cause diarrhea disease burden measured in children < 5 during the study period. Cryptosporidium tended to account for a greater share of estimated waterborne protozoa infections causing diarrhea than did Giardia. Diarrhea prevalence estimates for waterborne Cryptosporidium infection appeared to be most sensitive to assumptions about the probability of infection from ingesting a single parasite (i.e. the rate parameter in dose-response model), while Giardia infection was most sensitive to assumptions about the viability of parasites detected in groundwater samples.

Conclusions/Significance

Protozoa in groundwater drinking sources in rural India, even at low concentrations, especially for Cryptosporidium, may account for a significant portion of child diarrhea morbidity in settings were tubewells are used for drinking water and should be more systematically monitored. Preventing diarrheal disease burdens in Puri District and similar settings will benefit from ensuring water is microbiologically safe for consumption and consistent and effective household water treatment is practiced.

Water, sanitation, and hygiene (WASH) interventions aimed at reducing exposure to enteric pathogens have produced mixed health impacts, with some interventions finding no significant difference in health outcomes between intervention and control groups. While there are many explanations why individual WASH interventions may not achieve improved health outcomes, one reason is an incomplete understanding of the conditions that favor perpetuation and transmission of enteric pathogens in a given population and region. In this study, we developed a set of diarrhea-causing disease transmission models using measurements of drinking water contamination and child diarrhea over the same time period in the same study population. Using the disease transmission models, we examined how much of the observed diarrhea in children was due to waterborne transmission of enteric pathogens in a program in rural India that improved household sanitation but failed to produce improvements in child health. We focused on the role of two enteric protozoal pathogens, Cryptosporidium and Giardia, and diarrhea rates among children < 5 years of age in these communities. We found that Cryptosporidium and Giardia infections from drinking water contaminated with these enteric protozoa may have together caused as much as 65.8% (IQR 63.4–68.2%) or as little as 2.9% (IQR 2.3–3.4%) of the observed diarrhea in children depending on modeling assumptions about which protozoa species were present. These findings suggest implementing a single barrier, such as only sanitation, to disrupt the multiple pathways of fecal-oral transmission of enteric pathogens, rather than multiple barriers, such as sanitation and safe drinking water, may lead some interventions to fall short of achieving measurable health improvements. Finally, our research suggests that Cryptosporidium and Giardia may cause significant amounts of child diarrhea morbidity even at low levels of concentration when present in improved drinking water sources and their measurement should be including in community drinking water quality monitoring programs.

Molecular detection and genetic characterizations of Cryptosporidium spp. in farmed foxes, minks, and raccoon dogs in northeastern China

Cryptosporidium spp. are common intestinal protozoa causing diarrhea in humans and a variety of animal species. With the recent development of fur industry, a large number of fur animals are farmed worldwide, especially in China. The existence of identical Cryptosporidium species/genotypes in humans and fur animals suggests zoonotic potential. In order to assess the presence of zoonotic Cryptosporidium species and/or genotypes in farmed fur animals, 367 fecal specimens were collected from 213 foxes, 114 minks and 40 raccoon dogs farmed in Heilongjiang, Jilin, and Liaoning provinces, northeastern China, during the period from June 2014 to October 2016. By PCR and sequencing of the partial small subunit (SSU) rRNA gene of Cryptosporidium, 20 of 367 (5.4%) animal samples were found to be infected, corresponding to 12 of 213 fox samples (5.6%) and 8 of 114 mink samples (7.0%) screened. Three Cryptosporidium species/genotypes were identified: C. canis (n = 17), C. meleagridis (n = 1) and Cryptosporidium mink genotype (n = 2). Two host-adapted C. canis types (C. canis dog genotype and C. canis fox genotype) were found. By PCR and sequencing of the partial 60 kDa glycoprotein (gp60) encoding gene, one mink genotype isolate was successfully subtyped as XcA5G1R1. The three Cryptosporidium species/genotypes identified in this study have been previously reported in humans suggesting that fur animals infected with Cryptosporidium spp. may pose a risk of zoonotic transmission of cryptosporidiosis, especially for the people working in fur animal farming and processing industry.

Foodborne cryptosporidiosis

Foodborne illness, the majority of which is caused by enteric infectious agents, costs global economies billions of dollars each year. The protozoan parasite Cryptosporidium is particularly suited to foodborne transmission and is responsible for >8 million cases of foodborne illness annually. Procedures have been developed for sensitive detection of Cryptosporidium oocysts on fresh produce and molecular diagnostic assays have been widely used in case linkages and infection source tracking, especially during outbreak investigations. The integrated use of advanced diagnostic techniques with conventional epidemiological studies is essential to improve our understanding of the occurrence, source and epidemiology of foodborne cryptosporidiosis. The implementation of food safety management tools such as Good Hygienic Practices (GHP), Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Points (HACCP), and Quantitative Microbial Risk Assessment (QMRA) in industrialised nations and Water, Sanitation, and Hygiene (WASH) in developing countries is central for prevention and control and foodborne cryptosporidiosis in the future.

Molecular prevalence of Cryptosporidium species among household cats and pet shop kittens in Japan

Objectives

To address the lack of up-to-date published data, the present study evaluates the PCR-based prevalence of Cryptosporidium species infection and molecular characteristics of isolates among household cats and pet shop kittens in Japan.

Methods

A total of 357 and 329 fresh faecal samples were collected from household cats and pet shop kittens, respectively, with or without clinical signs of infection. A nested PCR assay targeting the 18S rRNA gene was employed for the detection of Cryptosporidium species. After specific DNA fragments (approximately 826 base pairs) were confirmed, the amplicons were sequenced to determine species.

Results

Seven (2.0%) household cats and one (0.3%) pet shop kitten tested positive for the presence of Cryptosporidium species. In household cats, there was a significant difference in prevalence between cats aged <1 year (4.6%) and those aged ⩾1 year (0.4%). No significantly different prevalence was observed with regard to faecal condition in either household cats or pet shop kittens. A total of eight Cryptosporidium species isolates, seven from household cats and one from a pet shop kitten, were identified as Cryptosporidium felis.

Conclusions and relevance

The present study demonstrates the risk of zoonotic transmission of Cryptosporidium species from household cats and pet shop kittens to humans is low in Japan.

Cryptosporidium in humans and animals-a one health approach to prophylaxis

Cryptosporidium is a major cause of moderate-to-severe diarrhoea in humans worldwide, second only to rotavirus. Due to the wide host range and environmental persistence of this parasite, cryptosporidiosis can be zoonotic and associated with foodborne and waterborne outbreaks. Currently, 31 species are recognized as valid, and of these, Cryptosporidium hominis and Cryptosporidium parvum are responsible for the majority of infections in humans. The immune status of the host, both innate and adaptive immunity, has a major impact on the severity of the disease and its prognosis. Immunocompetent individuals typically experience self-limiting diarrhoea and transient gastroenteritis lasting up to 2 weeks and recover without treatment, suggesting an efficient host antiparasite immune response. Immunocompromised individuals can suffer from intractable diarrhoea, which can be fatal. Effective drug treatments and vaccines are not yet available. As a result of this, the close cooperation and interaction between veterinarians, health physicians, environmental managers and public health operators is essential to properly control this disease. This review focuses on a One Health approach to prophylaxis, including the importance of understanding transmission routes for zoonotic Cryptosporidium species, improved sanitation and better risk management, improved detection, diagnosis and treatment and the prospect of an effective anticryptosporidial vaccine.