1
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Kovarik Z, Moshitzky G, Maček Hrvat N, Soreq H. Recent advances in cholinergic mechanisms as reactions to toxicity, stress, and neuroimmune insults. J Neurochem 2024; 168:355-369. [PMID: 37429600 DOI: 10.1111/jnc.15887] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/16/2023] [Revised: 05/30/2023] [Accepted: 06/05/2023] [Indexed: 07/12/2023]
Abstract
This review presents recent studies of the chemical and molecular regulators of acetylcholine (ACh) signaling and the complexity of the small molecule and RNA regulators of those mechanisms that control cholinergic functioning in health and disease. The underlying structural, neurochemical, and transcriptomic concepts, including basic and translational research and clinical studies, shed new light on how these processes inter-change under acute states, age, sex, and COVID-19 infection; all of which modulate ACh-mediated processes and inflammation in women and men and under diverse stresses. The aspect of organophosphorus (OP) compound toxicity is discussed based on the view that despite numerous studies, acetylcholinesterase (AChE) is still a vulnerable target in OP poisoning because of a lack of efficient treatment and the limitations of oxime-assisted reactivation of inhibited AChE. The over-arching purpose of this review is thus to discuss mechanisms of cholinergic signaling dysfunction caused by OP pesticides, OP nerve agents, and anti-cholinergic medications; and to highlight new therapeutic strategies to combat both the acute and chronic effects of these chemicals on the cholinergic and neuroimmune systems. Furthermore, OP toxicity was examined in view of cholinesterase inhibition and beyond in order to highlight improved small molecules and RNA therapeutic strategies and assess their predicted pitfalls to reverse the acute toxicity and long-term deleterious effects of OPs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zrinka Kovarik
- Institute for Medical Research and Occupational Health, Zagreb, Croatia
| | - Gilli Moshitzky
- The Edmond and Lily Safra Center for Brain Sciences, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Jerusalem, Israel
- The Alexander Silberman Institute of Life Sciences, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Jerusalem, Israel
| | | | - Hermona Soreq
- The Edmond and Lily Safra Center for Brain Sciences, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Jerusalem, Israel
- The Alexander Silberman Institute of Life Sciences, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Jerusalem, Israel
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2
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Shulaeva MM, Zueva IV, Nikolaev AE, Saifina LF, Sharafutdinova DR, Babaev VM, Semenov VE, Petrov KA. Conjugates of nucleobases with triazole-hydroxamic acids for the reactivation of acetylcholinesterase and treatment of delayed neurodegeneration induced by organophosphate poisoning. Bioorg Chem 2023; 141:106858. [PMID: 37774432 DOI: 10.1016/j.bioorg.2023.106858] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/19/2023] [Revised: 08/26/2023] [Accepted: 09/09/2023] [Indexed: 10/01/2023]
Abstract
A series of new uncharged conjugates of adenine, 3,6-dimetyl-, 1,6-dimethyl- and 6-methyluracil with 1,2,4-triazole-3-hydroxamic and 1,2,3-triazole-4-hydroxamic acid moieties were synthesized and studied as reactivators of organophosphate-inhibited cholinesterase. It is shown that triazole-hydroxamic acids can reactivate acetylcholinesterase (AChE) inhibited by paraoxon (POX) in vitro, offering reactivation constants comparable to those of pralidoxime (2-PAM). However, in contrast to 2-PAM, triazole-hydroxamic acids demonstrated the ability to reactivate AChE in the brain of rats poisoned with POX. At a dose of 200 mg/kg (i.v.), the lead compound 3e reactivated 22.6 ± 7.3% of brain AChE in rats poisoned with POX. In a rat model of POX-induced delayed neurodegeneration, compound 3e reduced the neuronal injury labeled with FJB upon double administration 1 and 3 h after poisoning. Compound 3e was also shown to prevent memory impairment of POX-poisoned rats as tested in a Morris water maze.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marina M Shulaeva
- Arbuzov Institute of Organic and Physical Chemistry, Federal Research Center "Kazan Scientific Center of the Russian Academy of Sciences", Arbuzov str., 8, Kazan 420088, Russian Federation
| | - Irina V Zueva
- Arbuzov Institute of Organic and Physical Chemistry, Federal Research Center "Kazan Scientific Center of the Russian Academy of Sciences", Arbuzov str., 8, Kazan 420088, Russian Federation
| | - Anton E Nikolaev
- Arbuzov Institute of Organic and Physical Chemistry, Federal Research Center "Kazan Scientific Center of the Russian Academy of Sciences", Arbuzov str., 8, Kazan 420088, Russian Federation
| | - Liliya F Saifina
- Arbuzov Institute of Organic and Physical Chemistry, Federal Research Center "Kazan Scientific Center of the Russian Academy of Sciences", Arbuzov str., 8, Kazan 420088, Russian Federation
| | - Dilyara R Sharafutdinova
- Arbuzov Institute of Organic and Physical Chemistry, Federal Research Center "Kazan Scientific Center of the Russian Academy of Sciences", Arbuzov str., 8, Kazan 420088, Russian Federation
| | - Vasily M Babaev
- Arbuzov Institute of Organic and Physical Chemistry, Federal Research Center "Kazan Scientific Center of the Russian Academy of Sciences", Arbuzov str., 8, Kazan 420088, Russian Federation
| | - Vyacheslav E Semenov
- Arbuzov Institute of Organic and Physical Chemistry, Federal Research Center "Kazan Scientific Center of the Russian Academy of Sciences", Arbuzov str., 8, Kazan 420088, Russian Federation.
| | - Konstantin A Petrov
- Arbuzov Institute of Organic and Physical Chemistry, Federal Research Center "Kazan Scientific Center of the Russian Academy of Sciences", Arbuzov str., 8, Kazan 420088, Russian Federation; Kazan Federal University, Kremlyovskaya str., 18, Kazan 420008, Russian Federation
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3
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Andrew PM, Lein PJ. Neuroinflammation as a Therapeutic Target for Mitigating the Long-Term Consequences of Acute Organophosphate Intoxication. Front Pharmacol 2021; 12:674325. [PMID: 34054549 PMCID: PMC8153682 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2021.674325] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/01/2021] [Accepted: 04/30/2021] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Acute intoxication with organophosphates (OPs) can cause a potentially fatal cholinergic crisis characterized by peripheral parasympathomimetic symptoms and seizures that rapidly progress to status epilepticus (SE). While current therapeutic countermeasures for acute OP intoxication significantly improve the chances of survival when administered promptly, they are insufficient for protecting individuals from chronic neurologic outcomes such as cognitive deficits, affective disorders, and acquired epilepsy. Neuroinflammation is posited to contribute to the pathogenesis of these long-term neurologic sequelae. In this review, we summarize what is currently known regarding the progression of neuroinflammatory responses after acute OP intoxication, drawing parallels to other models of SE. We also discuss studies in which neuroinflammation was targeted following OP-induced SE, and explain possible reasons why such therapeutic interventions have inconsistently and only partially improved long-term outcomes. Finally, we suggest future directions for the development of therapeutic strategies that target neuroinflammation to mitigate the neurologic sequelae of acute OP intoxication.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Pamela J. Lein
- Department of Molecular Biosciences, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, CA, United States
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4
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Hobson BA, Rowland DJ, Sisó S, Guignet MA, Harmany ZT, Bandara SB, Saito N, Harvey DJ, Bruun DA, Garbow JR, Chaudhari AJ, Lein PJ. TSPO PET Using [18F]PBR111 Reveals Persistent Neuroinflammation Following Acute Diisopropylfluorophosphate Intoxication in the Rat. Toxicol Sci 2020; 170:330-344. [PMID: 31087103 DOI: 10.1093/toxsci/kfz096] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/17/2023] Open
Abstract
Acute intoxication with organophosphates (OPs) can trigger status epilepticus followed by persistent cognitive impairment and/or electroencephalographic abnormalities. Neuroinflammation is widely posited to influence these persistent neurological consequences. However, testing this hypothesis has been challenging, in part because traditional biometrics preclude longitudinal measures of neuroinflammation within the same animal. Therefore, we evaluated the performance of noninvasive positron emission tomography (PET), using the translocator protein (TSPO) radioligand [18F]PBR111 against classic histopathologic measures of neuroinflammation in a preclinical model of acute intoxication with the OP diisopropylfluorophosphate (DFP). Adult male Sprague Dawley rats administered pyridostigmine bromide (0.1 mg/kg, im) 30 min prior to administration of DFP (4 mg/kg, sc), atropine sulfate (2 mg/kg, im) and 2-pralidoxime (25 mg/kg, im) exhibited moderate-to-severe seizure behavior. TSPO PET performed prior to DFP exposure and at 3, 7, 14, 21, and 28 days postexposure revealed distinct lesions, as defined by increased standardized uptake values (SUV). Increased SUV showed high spatial correspondence to immunohistochemical evidence of neuroinflammation, which was corroborated by cytokine gene and protein expression. Regional SUV metrics varied spatiotemporally with days postexposure and correlated with the degree of neuroinflammation detected immunohistochemically. Furthermore, SUV metrics were highly correlated with seizure severity, suggesting that early termination of OP-induced seizures may be critical for attenuating subsequent neuroinflammatory responses. Normalization of SUV values to a cerebellar reference region improved correlations to all outcome measures and seizure severity. Collectively, these results establish TSPO PET using [18F]PBR111 as a robust, noninvasive tool for longitudinal monitoring of neuroinflammation following acute OP intoxication.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brad A Hobson
- Department of Radiology, University of California Davis School of Medicine, Sacramento, California 95817
| | - Douglas J Rowland
- Center for Molecular and Genomic Imaging, Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of California Davis College of Engineering, Davis, California 95616
| | - Sílvia Sisó
- Department of Pathology, Microbiology and Immunology
| | - Michelle A Guignet
- Department of Molecular Biosciences, University of California Davis School of Veterinary Medicine, Davis, California 95616
| | - Zachary T Harmany
- Center for Molecular and Genomic Imaging, Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of California Davis College of Engineering, Davis, California 95616
| | - Suren B Bandara
- Department of Molecular Biosciences, University of California Davis School of Veterinary Medicine, Davis, California 95616
| | - Naomi Saito
- Department of Public Health Sciences, University of California Davis School of Medicine, Davis, California 95616
| | - Danielle J Harvey
- Department of Public Health Sciences, University of California Davis School of Medicine, Davis, California 95616
| | - Donald A Bruun
- Department of Molecular Biosciences, University of California Davis School of Veterinary Medicine, Davis, California 95616
| | - Joel R Garbow
- Department of Radiology, Washington University in St. Louis, St. Louis, Missouri 63110
| | - Abhijit J Chaudhari
- Department of Radiology, University of California Davis School of Medicine, Sacramento, California 95817.,Center for Molecular and Genomic Imaging, Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of California Davis College of Engineering, Davis, California 95616
| | - Pamela J Lein
- Department of Molecular Biosciences, University of California Davis School of Veterinary Medicine, Davis, California 95616
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Zare Z, Zarbakhsh S, Tehrani M, Mohammadi M. Paraoxon-induced damage in rat hippocampus is associated with alterations in the expression of apoptosis-related proteins. PESTICIDE BIOCHEMISTRY AND PHYSIOLOGY 2020; 166:104580. [PMID: 32448426 DOI: 10.1016/j.pestbp.2020.104580] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/17/2019] [Revised: 03/02/2020] [Accepted: 04/06/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
To determine the possible role of apoptosis in the development of paraoxon-induced brain damage, we evaluated expression of apoptosis-related proteins, the extent of neuronal damage, and activation of astrocytes in rat hippocampus. Adult male Wistar rats were intraperitoneally injected with one of three doses of paraoxon (0.3, 0.7, or 1 mg/kg) or corn oil (vehicle). After 14 or 28 days, expression of apoptosis-related proteins, including B-cell leukemia/lymphoma-2 (Bcl-2), Bcl-2 associated X protein (Bax), and caspase-3, as well as the number of neurons and glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP) positive cells in hippocampus were examined by western blot, cresyl blue staining, and immunohistochemistry, respectively. After 14 and 28 days, Bax and caspase-3 proteins were significantly increased in rats receiving 0.7 and 1 mg/kg of paraoxon. A significant decrease in Bcl-2 protein levels was also observed in 0.7 and 1 mg/kg groups after 14 days and in 1 mg/kg group after 28 days. Animals treated with 1 mg/kg of paraoxon showed a significant decrease in the number of neurons in the CA1 area. Also, those treated with 0.7 and 1 mg/kg of paraoxon showed an increase in the number of GFAP positive cells in both CA1 and CA3 areas as well as a significant decrease in survived neurons in the CA3 area. Our results indicated that neuronal damage induced by convulsive doses of paraoxon in rat hippocampus is mediated in part through apoptosis mechanism. Activation of astrocytes might lead to reduced extent of damage and damage and consequently increased neuronal survival.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zohreh Zare
- Department of Anatomical Sciences, Molecular and Cell Biology Research Center, School of Medicine, Mazandaran University of Medical Sciences, Sari, Iran
| | - Sam Zarbakhsh
- Nervous System Stem Cells Research Center, Semnan University of Medical Sciences, Semnan, Iran
| | - Mohsen Tehrani
- Department of Immunology, Gastrointestinal Cancer Research Center, School of Medicine, Mazandaran University of Medical Sciences, Sari, Iran
| | - Moslem Mohammadi
- Department of Physiology, Molecular and Cell Biology Research Center, School of Medicine, Mazandaran University of Medical Sciences, Sari, Iran.
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6
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Pesticides, cognitive functions and dementia: A review. Toxicol Lett 2020; 326:31-51. [PMID: 32145396 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxlet.2020.03.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 69] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/24/2019] [Revised: 03/02/2020] [Accepted: 03/03/2020] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Pesticides are widely-used chemicals commonly applied in agriculture for the protection of crops from pests. Depending on the class of pesticides, the specific substances may have a specific set of adverse effects on humans, especially in cases of acute poisoning. In past years, evidence regarding sequelae of chronic, low-level exposure has been accumulating. Cognitive impairment and dementia heavily affect a person's quality of life and scientific data has been hinting towards an association between them and antecedent chronic pesticide exposure. Here, we reviewed animal and human studies exploring the association between pesticide exposure, cognition and dementia. Additionally, we present potential mechanisms through which pesticides may act neurotoxically and lead to neurodegeneration. Study designs rarely presented homogeneity and the estimation of the exposure to pesticides has been most frequently performed without measuring the synergic effects and the possible interactions between the toxicants within mixtures, and also overlooking low exposures to environmental toxicants. It is possible that a Real-Life Risk Simulation approach would represent a robust alternative for future studies, so that the safe exposure limits and the net risk that pesticides confer to impaired cognitive function can be examined. Previous studies that evaluated the effect of low dose chronic exposure to mixtures of pesticides and other chemicals intending to simulate real life exposure scenarios showed that hormetic neurobehavioral effects can appear after mixture exposure at doses considered safe for individual compounds and these effects can be exacerbated by a coexistence with specific conditions such as vitamin deficiency. However, there is an overall indication, derived from both epidemiologic and laboratory evidence, supporting an association between exposure to neurotoxic pesticides and cognitive dysfunction, dementia and Alzheimer's disease.
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7
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Kanthasamy A, Jin H, Charli A, Vellareddy A, Kanthasamy A. Environmental neurotoxicant-induced dopaminergic neurodegeneration: a potential link to impaired neuroinflammatory mechanisms. Pharmacol Ther 2019; 197:61-82. [PMID: 30677475 PMCID: PMC6520143 DOI: 10.1016/j.pharmthera.2019.01.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
With the increased incidence of neurodegenerative diseases worldwide, Parkinson's disease (PD) represents the second-most common neurodegenerative disease. PD is a progressive multisystem neurodegenerative disorder characterized by a marked loss of nigrostriatal dopaminergic neurons and the formation of Lewy pathology in diverse brain regions. Although the mechanisms underlying dopaminergic neurodegeneration remain poorly characterized, data from animal models and postmortem studies have revealed that heightened inflammatory responses mediated via microglial and astroglial activation and the resultant release of proinflammatory factors may act as silent drivers of neurodegeneration. In recent years, numerous studies have demonstrated a positive association between the exposure to environmental neurotoxicants and the etiology of PD. Although it is unclear whether neuroinflammation drives pesticide-induced neurodegeneration, emerging evidence suggests that the failure to dampen neuroinflammatory mechanisms may account for the increased vulnerability to pesticide neurotoxicity. Furthermore, recent studies provide additional evidence that shifts the focus from a neuron-centric view to glial-associated neurodegeneration following pesticide exposure. In this review, we propose to summarize briefly the possible factors that regulate neuroinflammatory processes during environmental neurotoxicant exposure with a focus on the potential roles of mitochondria-driven redox mechanisms. In this context, a critical discussion of the data obtained from experimental research and possible epidemiological studies is included. Finally, we hope to provide insights on the pivotal role of exosome-mediated intercellular transmission of aggregated proteins in microglial activation response and the resultant dopaminergic neurodegeneration after exposure to pesticides. Collectively, an improved understanding of glia-mediated neuroinflammatory signaling might provide novel insights into the mechanisms that contribute to neurodegeneration induced by environmental neurotoxicant exposure.
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Affiliation(s)
- Arthi Kanthasamy
- Parkinson's Disorder Research Laboratory, Iowa Center for Advanced Neurotoxicology, Department of Biomedical Sciences, Iowa State University, Ames, IA 50011, USA.
| | - Huajun Jin
- Parkinson's Disorder Research Laboratory, Iowa Center for Advanced Neurotoxicology, Department of Biomedical Sciences, Iowa State University, Ames, IA 50011, USA
| | - Adhithiya Charli
- Parkinson's Disorder Research Laboratory, Iowa Center for Advanced Neurotoxicology, Department of Biomedical Sciences, Iowa State University, Ames, IA 50011, USA
| | - Anantharam Vellareddy
- Parkinson's Disorder Research Laboratory, Iowa Center for Advanced Neurotoxicology, Department of Biomedical Sciences, Iowa State University, Ames, IA 50011, USA
| | - Anumantha Kanthasamy
- Parkinson's Disorder Research Laboratory, Iowa Center for Advanced Neurotoxicology, Department of Biomedical Sciences, Iowa State University, Ames, IA 50011, USA
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8
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Guignet M, Lein PJ. Neuroinflammation in organophosphate-induced neurotoxicity. ROLE OF INFLAMMATION IN ENVIRONMENTAL NEUROTOXICITY 2019. [DOI: 10.1016/bs.ant.2018.10.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
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9
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Potentiation of antiseizure and neuroprotective efficacy of standard nerve agent treatment by addition of tariquidar. Neurotoxicology 2018; 68:167-176. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neuro.2018.08.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/06/2018] [Revised: 08/08/2018] [Accepted: 08/15/2018] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
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10
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Wu X, Kuruba R, Reddy DS. Midazolam-Resistant Seizures and Brain Injury after Acute Intoxication of Diisopropylfluorophosphate, an Organophosphate Pesticide and Surrogate for Nerve Agents. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 2018; 367:302-321. [PMID: 30115757 DOI: 10.1124/jpet.117.247106] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/09/2017] [Accepted: 08/14/2018] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Organophosphates (OP) such as the pesticide diisopropylfluorophosphate (DFP) and the nerve agent sarin are lethal chemicals that induce seizures, status epilepticus (SE), and brain damage. Midazolam, a benzodiazepine modulator of synaptic GABA-A receptors, is currently considered as a new anticonvulsant for nerve agents. Here, we characterized the time course of protective efficacy of midazolam (0.2-5 mg/kg, i.m.) in rats exposed to DFP, a chemical threat agent and surrogate for nerve agents. Behavioral and electroencephalogram (EEG) seizures were monitored for 24 hours after DFP exposure. The extent of brain injury was determined 3 days after DFP exposure by unbiased stereologic analyses of valid markers of neurodegeneration and neuroinflammation. Seizures were elicited within ∼8 minutes after DFP exposure that progressively developed into persistent SE lasting for hours. DFP exposure resulted in massive neuronal injury or necrosis, neurodegeneration of principal cells and interneurons, and neuroinflammation as evident by extensive activation of microglia and astrocytes in the hippocampus, amygdala, and other brain regions. Midazolam controlled seizures, neurodegeneration, and neuroinflammation when given early (10 minutes) after DFP exposure, but it was less effective when given at 40 minutes or later. Delayed therapy (≥40 minutes), a simulation of the practical therapeutic window for first responders or hospital admission, was associated with reduced seizure protection and neuroprotection. These results strongly reaffirm that the DFP-induced seizures and brain damage are progressively resistant to delayed treatment with midazolam, confirming the benzodiazepine refractory SE after OP intoxication. Thus, novel anticonvulsants superior to midazolam or adjunct therapies that enhance its efficacy are needed for effective treatment of refractory SE.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xin Wu
- Department of Neuroscience and Experimental Therapeutics, Texas A&M University Health Science Center College of Medicine, Bryan, Texas
| | - Ramkumar Kuruba
- Department of Neuroscience and Experimental Therapeutics, Texas A&M University Health Science Center College of Medicine, Bryan, Texas
| | - Doodipala Samba Reddy
- Department of Neuroscience and Experimental Therapeutics, Texas A&M University Health Science Center College of Medicine, Bryan, Texas
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11
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Ferrara-Bowens TM, Chandler JK, Guignet MA, Irwin JF, Laitipaya K, Palmer DD, Shumway LJ, Tucker LB, McCabe JT, Wegner MD, Johnson EA. Neuropathological and behavioral sequelae in IL-1R1 and IL-1Ra gene knockout mice after soman (GD) exposure. Neurotoxicology 2017; 63:43-56. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neuro.2017.08.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/24/2016] [Revised: 08/28/2017] [Accepted: 08/28/2017] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
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12
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Lazar S, Egoz I, Brandeis R, Chapman S, Bloch-Shilderman E, Grauer E. Propagation of damage in the rat brain following sarin exposure: Differential progression of early processes. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 2016; 310:87-97. [DOI: 10.1016/j.taap.2016.09.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/03/2016] [Revised: 09/07/2016] [Accepted: 09/12/2016] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
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13
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Flannery BM, Bruun DA, Rowland DJ, Banks CN, Austin AT, Kukis DL, Li Y, Ford BD, Tancredi DJ, Silverman JL, Cherry SR, Lein PJ. Persistent neuroinflammation and cognitive impairment in a rat model of acute diisopropylfluorophosphate intoxication. J Neuroinflammation 2016; 13:267. [PMID: 27733171 PMCID: PMC5062885 DOI: 10.1186/s12974-016-0744-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 63] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/22/2016] [Accepted: 10/06/2016] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Acute intoxication with organophosphorus (OP) cholinesterase inhibitors can trigger convulsions that progress to life-threatening status epilepticus. Survivors face long-term morbidity including mild-to-severe decline in memory. It is posited that neuroinflammation plays a key role in the pathogenesis of OP-induced neuropsychiatric deficits. Rigorous testing of this hypothesis requires preclinical models that recapitulate relevant phenotypic outcomes. Here, we describe a rat model of acute intoxication with the OP diisopropylfluorophosphate (DFP) that exhibits persistent neuroinflammation and cognitive impairment. Methods Neuroinflammation, neurodegeneration, and cognitive function were compared in adult male Sprague Dawley rats injected with an acutely toxic dose of DFP vs. vehicle controls at multiple time points up to 36 days post-exposure. Neuroinflammation was quantified using immunohistochemical biomarkers of microglia (ionized calcium-binding adapter molecule 1, IBA1) and activated astrocytes (glial fibrillary acidic protein, GFAP) and positron emission tomography (PET) imaging of [11C]-(R)-PK11195, a ligand for the 18-kDa mitochondrial membrane translocator protein (TSPO). FluoroJade-B staining was used to assess neurodegeneration; Pavlovian conditioning, to assess cognitive function. Results Animals exhibited moderate-to-severe seizures within minutes of DFP injection that continued for up to 6 h post-injection. As indicated by IBA1 and GFAP immunoreactivity and by PET imaging of TSPO, acute DFP intoxication triggered neuroinflammation in the hippocampus and cortex during the first 3 days that peaked at 7 days and persisted to 21 days post-exposure in most animals. Neurodegeneration was detected in multiple brain regions from 1 to 14 days post-exposure. All DFP-intoxicated animals exhibited significant deficits in contextual fear conditioning at 9 and 20 days post-exposure compared to vehicle controls. Whole-brain TSPO labeling positively correlated with seizure severity score, but did not correlate with performance in the contextual fear-conditioning task. Conclusions We describe a preclinical model in which acute DFP intoxication causes seizures, persistent neuroinflammation, neurodegeneration, and memory impairment. The extent of the neuroinflammatory response is influenced by seizure severity. However, the observation that a subset of animals with moderate seizures and minimal TSPO labeling exhibited cognitive deficits comparable to those of animals with severe seizures and significant TSPO labeling suggests that DFP may impair learning and memory circuitry via mechanisms independent of seizures or neuroinflammation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brenna M Flannery
- Department of Molecular Biosciences, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California-Davis, Davis, CA, 95616, USA
| | - Donald A Bruun
- Department of Molecular Biosciences, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California-Davis, Davis, CA, 95616, USA
| | - Douglas J Rowland
- Center for Molecular and Genomic Imaging, University of California-Davis, Davis, CA, 95616, USA
| | - Christopher N Banks
- Department of Molecular Biosciences, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California-Davis, Davis, CA, 95616, USA.,Current address: Office of Environmental Health Hazard Assessment, California Environmental Protection Agency, Sacramento, CA, 95812, USA
| | - Adam T Austin
- Department of Pediatrics, University of California-Davis Medical Center, Sacramento, CA, 95817, USA.,Current address: Navistar, Inc., 2701 Navistar Drive, Lisle, IL, 60532, USA
| | - David L Kukis
- Center for Molecular and Genomic Imaging, University of California-Davis, Davis, CA, 95616, USA
| | - Yonggang Li
- Division of Biomedical Sciences, University of California-Riverside School of Medicine, Riverside, CA, 92521, USA
| | - Byron D Ford
- Division of Biomedical Sciences, University of California-Riverside School of Medicine, Riverside, CA, 92521, USA
| | - Daniel J Tancredi
- Department of Pediatrics, University of California-Davis Medical Center, Sacramento, CA, 95817, USA
| | - Jill L Silverman
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, University of California-Davis Medical Center, Sacramento, CA, 95817, USA
| | - Simon R Cherry
- Center for Molecular and Genomic Imaging, University of California-Davis, Davis, CA, 95616, USA
| | - Pamela J Lein
- Department of Molecular Biosciences, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California-Davis, Davis, CA, 95616, USA.
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Piermartiri T, Pan H, Figueiredo TH, Marini AM. α-Linolenic Acid, A Nutraceutical with Pleiotropic Properties That Targets Endogenous Neuroprotective Pathways to Protect against Organophosphate Nerve Agent-Induced Neuropathology. Molecules 2015; 20:20355-80. [PMID: 26569216 PMCID: PMC6332275 DOI: 10.3390/molecules201119698] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/08/2015] [Revised: 10/29/2015] [Accepted: 11/03/2015] [Indexed: 01/23/2023] Open
Abstract
α-Linolenic acid (ALA) is a nutraceutical found in vegetable products such as flax and walnuts. The pleiotropic properties of ALA target endogenous neuroprotective and neurorestorative pathways in brain and involve the transcription factor nuclear factor kappa B (NF-κB), brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), a major neuroprotective protein in brain, and downstream signaling pathways likely mediated via activation of TrkB, the cognate receptor of BDNF. In this review, we discuss possible mechanisms of ALA efficacy against the highly toxic OP nerve agent soman. Organophosphate (OP) nerve agents are highly toxic chemical warfare agents and a threat to military and civilian populations. Once considered only for battlefield use, these agents are now used by terrorists to inflict mass casualties. OP nerve agents inhibit the critical enzyme acetylcholinesterase (AChE) that rapidly leads to a cholinergic crisis involving multiple organs. Status epilepticus results from the excessive accumulation of synaptic acetylcholine which in turn leads to the overactivation of muscarinic receptors; prolonged seizures cause the neuropathology and long-term consequences in survivors. Current countermeasures mitigate symptoms and signs as well as reduce brain damage, but must be given within minutes after exposure to OP nerve agents supporting interest in newer and more effective therapies. The pleiotropic properties of ALA result in a coordinated molecular and cellular program to restore neuronal networks and improve cognitive function in soman-exposed animals. Collectively, ALA should be brought to the clinic to treat the long-term consequences of nerve agents in survivors. ALA may be an effective therapy for other acute and chronic neurodegenerative disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tetsade Piermartiri
- Molecular and Cellular Biology Graduate School Program, Uniformed Services University of the Health Sciences, 4301 Jones Bridge Road, Bethesda, MD 20814, USA.
| | - Hongna Pan
- Department of Neurology and Program in Neuroscience, Uniformed Services University of the Health Sciences, 4301 Jones Bridge Road, Bethesda, MD 20814, USA.
| | - Taiza H Figueiredo
- Department of Anatomy, Physiology and Genetics, Uniformed Services University of the Health Sciences, 4301 Jones Bridge Road, Bethesda, MD 20814, USA.
| | - Ann M Marini
- Department of Neurology and Program in Neuroscience, Uniformed Services University of the Health Sciences, 4301 Jones Bridge Road, Bethesda, MD 20814, USA.
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Alpha-Linolenic Acid-Induced Increase in Neurogenesis is a Key Factor in the Improvement in the Passive Avoidance Task After Soman Exposure. Neuromolecular Med 2015; 17:251-69. [DOI: 10.1007/s12017-015-8353-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/30/2014] [Accepted: 04/11/2015] [Indexed: 02/01/2023]
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16
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Li Y, Lein PJ, Ford GD, Liu C, Stovall KC, White TE, Bruun DA, Tewolde T, Gates AS, Distel TJ, Surles-Zeigler MC, Ford BD. Neuregulin-1 inhibits neuroinflammatory responses in a rat model of organophosphate-nerve agent-induced delayed neuronal injury. J Neuroinflammation 2015; 12:64. [PMID: 25880399 PMCID: PMC4391606 DOI: 10.1186/s12974-015-0283-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/19/2014] [Accepted: 03/17/2015] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Neuregulin-1 (NRG-1) has been shown to act as a neuroprotectant in animal models of nerve agent intoxication and other acute brain injuries. We recently demonstrated that NRG-1 blocked delayed neuronal death in rats intoxicated with the organophosphate (OP) neurotoxin diisopropylflurophosphate (DFP). It has been proposed that inflammatory mediators are involved in the pathogenesis of OP neurotoxin-mediated brain damage. Methods We examined the influence of NRG-1 on inflammatory responses in the rat brain following DFP intoxication. Microglial activation was determined by immunohistchemistry using anti-CD11b and anti-ED1 antibodies. Gene expression profiling was performed with brain tissues using Affymetrix gene arrays and analyzed using the Ingenuity Pathway Analysis software. Cytokine mRNA levels following DFP and NRG-1 treatment was validated by real-time reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR). Results DFP administration resulted in microglial activation in multiple brain regions, and this response was suppressed by treatment with NRG-1. Using microarray gene expression profiling, we observed that DFP increased mRNA levels of approximately 1,300 genes in the hippocampus 24 h after administration. NRG-1 treatment suppressed by 50% or more a small fraction of DFP-induced genes, which were primarily associated with inflammatory responses. Real-time RT-PCR confirmed that the mRNAs for pro-inflammatory cytokines interleukin-1β (IL-1β) and interleukin-6 (IL-6) were significantly increased following DFP exposure and that NRG-1 significantly attenuated this transcriptional response. In contrast, tumor necrosis factor α (TNFα) transcript levels were unchanged in both DFP and DFP + NRG-1 treated brains relative to controls. Conclusion Neuroprotection by NRG-1 against OP neurotoxicity is associated with the suppression of pro-inflammatory responses in brain microglia. These findings provide new insight regarding the molecular mechanisms involved in the neuroprotective role of NRG-1 in acute brain injuries.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yonggang Li
- Department of Neurobiology, Neuroscience Institute, Morehouse School of Medicine, 720 Westview Drive, SW, Atlanta, GA, 30310, USA.
| | - Pamela J Lein
- Department of Molecular Biosciences, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, 1089 Veterinary Medicine Drive, Davis, CA, 95616, USA.
| | - Gregory D Ford
- Department of Biology, Morehouse College, 830 Westview Drive SW, Atlanta, GA, 30310, USA.
| | - Cuimei Liu
- Department of Neurobiology, Neuroscience Institute, Morehouse School of Medicine, 720 Westview Drive, SW, Atlanta, GA, 30310, USA. .,Institute of Infectious Disease, Xiangya Hospital, Central-South University, No.9 Chegongzhuang Avenue, Changsha, 100044, China.
| | - Kyndra C Stovall
- Department of Neurobiology, Neuroscience Institute, Morehouse School of Medicine, 720 Westview Drive, SW, Atlanta, GA, 30310, USA. .,Department of Biology, Morehouse College, 830 Westview Drive SW, Atlanta, GA, 30310, USA. .,Department of Physiology, Emory University, 201 Dowman Dr., Atlanta, GA, 30322, USA.
| | - Todd E White
- Department of Neurobiology, Neuroscience Institute, Morehouse School of Medicine, 720 Westview Drive, SW, Atlanta, GA, 30310, USA.
| | - Donald A Bruun
- Department of Molecular Biosciences, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, 1089 Veterinary Medicine Drive, Davis, CA, 95616, USA.
| | - Teclemichael Tewolde
- Department of Neurobiology, Neuroscience Institute, Morehouse School of Medicine, 720 Westview Drive, SW, Atlanta, GA, 30310, USA.
| | - Alicia S Gates
- Department of Neurobiology, Neuroscience Institute, Morehouse School of Medicine, 720 Westview Drive, SW, Atlanta, GA, 30310, USA.
| | - Timothy J Distel
- Department of Neurobiology, Neuroscience Institute, Morehouse School of Medicine, 720 Westview Drive, SW, Atlanta, GA, 30310, USA.
| | - Monique C Surles-Zeigler
- Department of Neurobiology, Neuroscience Institute, Morehouse School of Medicine, 720 Westview Drive, SW, Atlanta, GA, 30310, USA.
| | - Byron D Ford
- Department of Neurobiology, Neuroscience Institute, Morehouse School of Medicine, 720 Westview Drive, SW, Atlanta, GA, 30310, USA.
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Long-term and low-dose malathion exposure causes cognitive impairment in adult mice: evidence of hippocampal mitochondrial dysfunction, astrogliosis and apoptotic events. Arch Toxicol 2015; 90:647-60. [DOI: 10.1007/s00204-015-1466-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/22/2014] [Accepted: 01/13/2015] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
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Vito ST, Austin AT, Banks CN, Inceoglu B, Bruun DA, Zolkowska D, Tancredi DJ, Rogawski MA, Hammock BD, Lein PJ. Post-exposure administration of diazepam combined with soluble epoxide hydrolase inhibition stops seizures and modulates neuroinflammation in a murine model of acute TETS intoxication. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 2014; 281:185-94. [PMID: 25448683 DOI: 10.1016/j.taap.2014.10.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/17/2014] [Revised: 09/19/2014] [Accepted: 10/02/2014] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Abstract
Tetramethylenedisulfotetramine (TETS) is a potent convulsant poison for which there is currently no approved antidote. The convulsant action of TETS is thought to be mediated by inhibition of type A gamma-aminobutyric acid receptor (GABAAR) function. We, therefore, investigated the effects of post-exposure administration of diazepam, a GABAAR positive allosteric modulator, on seizure activity, death and neuroinflammation in adult male Swiss mice injected with a lethal dose of TETS (0.15mg/kg, ip). Administration of a high dose of diazepam (5mg/kg, ip) immediately following the second clonic seizure (approximately 20min post-TETS injection) effectively prevented progression to tonic seizures and death. However, this treatment did not prevent persistent reactive astrogliosis and microglial activation, as determined by GFAP and Iba-1 immunoreactivity and microglial cell morphology. Inhibition of soluble epoxide hydrolase (sEH) has been shown to exert potent anti-inflammatory effects and to increase survival in mice intoxicated with other GABAAR antagonists. The sEH inhibitor TUPS (1mg/kg, ip) administered immediately after the second clonic seizure did not protect TETS-intoxicated animals from tonic seizures or death. Combined administration of diazepam (5mg/kg, ip) and TUPS (1mg/kg, ip, starting 1h after diazepam and repeated every 24h) prevented TETS-induced lethality and influenced signs of neuroinflammation in some brain regions. Significantly decreased microglial activation and enhanced reactive astrogliosis were observed in the hippocampus, with no changes in the cortex. Combining an agent that targets specific anti-inflammatory mechanisms with a traditional antiseizure drug may enhance treatment outcome in TETS intoxication.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stephen T Vito
- Department of Entomology, College of Agricultural and Environmental Sciences, University of California-Davis, Davis, CA 95616, United States.
| | - Adam T Austin
- Department of Pediatrics, School of Medicine, University of California-Davis Medical Center, Sacramento, CA 95817, United States.
| | - Christopher N Banks
- Department of Molecular Biosciences, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California-Davis, Davis, CA 95616, United States.
| | - Bora Inceoglu
- Department of Entomology, College of Agricultural and Environmental Sciences, University of California-Davis, Davis, CA 95616, United States.
| | - Donald A Bruun
- Department of Molecular Biosciences, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California-Davis, Davis, CA 95616, United States.
| | - Dorota Zolkowska
- Department of Neurology, School of Medicine, University of California-Davis, Sacramento, CA 95817, United States.
| | - Daniel J Tancredi
- Department of Pediatrics, School of Medicine, University of California-Davis Medical Center, Sacramento, CA 95817, United States.
| | - Michael A Rogawski
- Department of Neurology, School of Medicine, University of California-Davis, Sacramento, CA 95817, United States.
| | - Bruce D Hammock
- Department of Entomology, College of Agricultural and Environmental Sciences, University of California-Davis, Davis, CA 95616, United States.
| | - Pamela J Lein
- Department of Molecular Biosciences, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California-Davis, Davis, CA 95616, United States.
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Pita R, Marco-Contelles J, Ramos E, Del Pino J, Romero A. Toxicity induced by chemical warfare agents: insights on the protective role of melatonin. Chem Biol Interact 2013; 206:134-42. [PMID: 24035908 DOI: 10.1016/j.cbi.2013.09.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/03/2013] [Revised: 08/24/2013] [Accepted: 09/02/2013] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Chemical Warfare Agents (CWAs) are substances that can be used to kill, injure or incapacitate an enemy in warfare, but also against civilian population in terrorist attacks. Many chemical agents are able to generate free radicals and derived reactants, excitotoxicity process, or inflammation, and as consequence they can cause neurological symptoms and damage in different organs. Nowadays, taking into account that total immediate decontamination after exposure is difficult to achieve and there are not completely effective antidotes and treatments against all CWAs, we advance and propose that medical countermeasures against CWAs poisoning would benefit from a broad-spectrum multipotent molecule. Melatonin, a versatile and ubiquitous antioxidant molecule, originally discovered as a hormone synthesized mainly in the pineal gland, has low toxicity and high efficacy in reducing oxidative damage, anti-inflammatory effects by regulation of multiple cellular pathways and properties to prevent excitotoxicity, among others. The purpose of this review is to show the multiple and diverse properties of melatonin, as a pleiotropic indole derivative, and its marked potential for improving human health against the most widely used chemical weapons.
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Affiliation(s)
- René Pita
- Chemical Defence Department, CBRN Defence School, Army Engineer School, 28240-Hoyo de Manzanares, Madrid, Spain
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20
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Garrett TL, Joshi K, Rapp CM, Chapleau M, Cool DR, Schlager JJ, Lucot JB. The effects of 8-OH-DPAT on neuroinflammation after sarin exposure in mice. Toxicology 2013; 310:22-8. [DOI: 10.1016/j.tox.2013.05.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/16/2012] [Revised: 05/07/2013] [Accepted: 05/10/2013] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
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Naltrexone prevents delayed encephalopathy in rats poisoned with the sarin analogue diisopropylflurophosphate. Am J Emerg Med 2013; 31:676-9. [PMID: 23380104 DOI: 10.1016/j.ajem.2012.12.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/07/2012] [Revised: 11/28/2012] [Accepted: 12/02/2012] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Acute poisoning with organophosphate compounds can cause chronic neuropsychological disabilities not prevented by standard antidotes of atropine and pralidoxime. We determine the efficacy of naltrexone in preventing delayed encephalopathy after poisoning with the sarin analogue diisofluorophosphate (DFP) in rats. METHODS A randomized controlled experiment was conducted. Rats were randomly assigned to receive a single intraperitoneal (IP) injection of 5 mg/kg DFP (n = 12) or vehicle control (isopropyl alcohol, n = 5). Rats were observed for cholinesterase toxicity and treated with IP atropine (2 mg/kg) and pralidoxime (25 mg/kg) as needed. After resolution of acute toxicity, rats injected with DFP were again randomized to receive daily injections of naltrexone (5 mg/kg per day) or saline (vehicle control). Control animals also received daily injections of saline. For 4 weeks after acute poisoning, rats underwent neurologic testing with the Morris Water Maze for assessment of spatial learning and reference memory. Comparisons on each test day were made across groups using analysis of variance followed by Fisher's least significant difference. Comparisons of changes in performance between first and last test day within each group were made using a paired t test. Significance was determined at P < .05. RESULTS All rats receiving DFP developed toxicity requiring rescue. Spatial learning was significantly worse in the DFP-only group compared with the naltrexone-treated and control groups at day 10 (P = .0078), day 13 (P = .01), day 24 (P = .034), and day 31 (P = .03). No significant differences in reference memory were detected at any time point. CONCLUSION Naltrexone protected against impairment of spatial learning from acute poisoning with DFP in rats.
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22
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Fauvelle F, Carpentier P, Dorandeu F, Foquin A, Testylier G. Prediction of Neuroprotective Treatment Efficiency Using a HRMAS NMR-Based Statistical Model of Refractory Status Epilepticus on Mouse: A Metabolomic Approach Supported by Histology. J Proteome Res 2012; 11:3782-95. [DOI: 10.1021/pr300291d] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Florence Fauvelle
- Département Effets Biologiques
des Rayonnements, IRBA-CRSSA, La Tronche,
France
| | - Pierre Carpentier
- Département
de Toxicologie
et Risques Chimiques, IRBA-CRSSA, La Tronche,
France
| | - Frederic Dorandeu
- Département
de Toxicologie
et Risques Chimiques, IRBA-CRSSA, La Tronche,
France
- Ecole du Val-de-Grâce, Paris, France
| | - Annie Foquin
- Département
de Toxicologie
et Risques Chimiques, IRBA-CRSSA, La Tronche,
France
| | - Guy Testylier
- Département
de Toxicologie
et Risques Chimiques, IRBA-CRSSA, La Tronche,
France
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Banks CN, Lein PJ. A review of experimental evidence linking neurotoxic organophosphorus compounds and inflammation. Neurotoxicology 2012; 33:575-84. [PMID: 22342984 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuro.2012.02.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 152] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/22/2011] [Revised: 01/31/2012] [Accepted: 02/01/2012] [Indexed: 01/14/2023]
Abstract
Organophosphorus (OP) nerve agents and pesticides inhibit acetylcholinesterase (AChE), and this is thought to be a primary mechanism mediating the neurotoxicity of these compounds. However, a number of observations suggest that mechanisms other than or in addition to AChE inhibition contribute to OP neurotoxicity. There is significant experimental evidence that acute OP intoxication elicits a robust inflammatory response, and emerging evidence suggests that chronic repeated low-level OP exposure also upregulates inflammatory mediators. A critical question that is just beginning to be addressed experimentally is the pathophysiologic relevance of inflammation in either acute or chronic OP intoxication. The goal of this article is to provide a brief review of the current status of our knowledge linking inflammation to OP intoxication, and to discuss the implications of these findings in the context of therapeutic and diagnostic approaches to OP neurotoxicity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christopher N Banks
- Department of Molecular Biosciences, UC Davis School of Veterinary Medicine, One Shields Ave., Davis, CA 95616, USA.
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Dhote F, Carpentier P, Barbier L, Peinnequin A, Baille V, Pernot F, Testylier G, Beaup C, Foquin A, Dorandeu F. Combinations of ketamine and atropine are neuroprotective and reduce neuroinflammation after a toxic status epilepticus in mice. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 2012; 259:195-209. [PMID: 22245128 DOI: 10.1016/j.taap.2011.12.024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/06/2011] [Revised: 12/22/2011] [Accepted: 12/26/2011] [Indexed: 01/30/2023]
Abstract
Epileptic seizures and status epilepticus (SE) induced by the poisoning with organophosphorus nerve agents (OP), like soman, are accompanied by neuroinflammation whose role in seizure-related brain damage (SRBD) is not clear. Antagonists of the NMDA glutamate ionotropic receptors are currently among the few compounds able to arrest seizures and provide neuroprotection even during refractory status epilepticus (RSE). Racemic ketamine (KET), in combination with atropine sulfate (AS), was previously shown to counteract seizures and SRBD in soman-poisoned guinea-pigs. In a mouse model of severe soman-induced SE, we assessed the potentials of KET/AS combinations as a treatment for SE/RSE-induced SRBD and neuroinflammation. When starting 30min after soman challenge, a protocol involving six injections of a sub-anesthetic dose of KET (25mg/kg) was evaluated on body weight loss, brain damage, and neuroinflammation whereas during RSE, anesthetic protocols were considered (KET 100mg/kg). After confirming that during RSE, KET injection was to be repeated despite some iatrogenic deaths, we used these proof-of-concept protocols to study the changes in mRNA and related protein contents of some inflammatory cytokines, chemokines and adhesion molecules in cortex and hippocampus 48h post-challenge. In both cases, the KET/AS combinations showed important neuroprotective effects, suppressed neutrophil granulocyte infiltration and partially suppressed glial activation. KET/AS could also reduce the increase in mRNA and related pro-inflammatory proteins provoked by the poisoning. In conclusion, the present study confirms that KET/AS treatment has a strong potential for SE/RSE management following OP poisoning. The mechanisms involved in the reduction of central neuroinflammation remain to be studied.
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Affiliation(s)
- Franck Dhote
- Département de Toxicologie et risques chimiques, Institut de Recherche Biomédicale des armées - Centre de recherches du Service de santé des armées IRBA-CRSSA, La Tronche cedex, France.
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Langston JL, Wright LKM, Connis N, Lumley LA. Characterizing the behavioral effects of nerve agent-induced seizure activity in rats: increased startle reactivity and perseverative behavior. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 2011; 100:382-91. [PMID: 21983492 DOI: 10.1016/j.pbb.2011.09.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/06/2011] [Revised: 08/21/2011] [Accepted: 09/24/2011] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
The development and deployment of next-generation therapeutics to protect military and civilian personnel against chemical warfare nerve agent threats require the establishment and validation of animal models. The purpose of the present investigation was to characterize the behavioral consequences of soman (GD)-induced seizure activity using a series of behavioral assessments. Male Sprague-Dawley rats (n=24), implanted with a transmitter for telemetric recording of encephalographic signals, were administered either saline or 1.0 LD₅₀ GD (110 μg/kg, sc) followed by treatment with a combination of atropine sulfate (2 mg/kg, im) and the oxime HI-6 (93.6 mg/kg, im) at 1 min post-exposure. Seizure activity was allowed to continue for 30 min before administration of the anticonvulsant diazepam (10 mg/kg, sc). The animals that received GD and experienced seizure activity had elevated startle responses to both 100- and 120-dB startle stimuli compared to control animals. The GD-exposed animals that had seizure activity also exhibited diminished prepulse inhibition in response to 120-dB startle stimuli, indicating altered sensorimotor gating. The animals were subsequently evaluated for the acquisition of lever pressing using an autoshaping procedure. Animals that experienced seizure activity engaged in more goal-directed (i.e., head entries into the food trough) behavior than did control animals. There were, however, no differences between groups in the number of lever presses made during 15 sessions of autoshaping. Finally, the animals were evaluated for the development of fixed-ratio (FR) schedule performance. Animals that experienced GD-induced seizure activity engaged in perseverative food trough-directed behaviors. There were few differences between groups on other measures of FR schedule-controlled behavior. It is concluded that the GD-induced seizure activity increased startle reactivity and engendered perseverative responding and that these measures are useful for assessing the long-term effects of GD exposure in rats.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jeffrey L Langston
- US Army Medical Research Institute of Chemical Defense, Analytical Toxicology Division, Neurobehavioral Toxicology Branch, Aberdeen Proving Ground, MD 21010-5400, USA
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Collombet JM. Nerve agent intoxication: Recent neuropathophysiological findings and subsequent impact on medical management prospects. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 2011; 255:229-41. [DOI: 10.1016/j.taap.2011.07.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/14/2011] [Revised: 07/07/2011] [Accepted: 07/08/2011] [Indexed: 01/14/2023]
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Collombet JM, Béracochéa D, Liscia P, Piérard C, Lallement G, Filliat P. Long-term effects of cytokine treatment on cognitive behavioral recovery and neuronal regeneration in soman-poisoned mice. Behav Brain Res 2011; 221:261-70. [PMID: 21396966 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbr.2011.03.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2010] [Revised: 03/01/2011] [Accepted: 03/03/2011] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
Abstract
Increasing numbers of reports have substantiated to date, a beneficial influence of cytokine treatment on neurogenesis processes in damaged rodent brains. Most of these investigations further revealed that cytokine treatment induces either partial or full recovery of cognitive behavior impaired by cerebral lesions. Hence, we investigated the effects of a cytokine treatment on neuronal regeneration and cognitive behavior in mice subjected to nerve agent exposure. Subcutaneous injection of a mixture of 40 μg/kg fibroblast growth factor-2 (FGF-2) and epidermal growth factor (EGF) was administered daily over 8 days to soman-poisoned mice (1.2 LD50 soman). Memory performances (T-maze and Morris water maze) and emotional behavior (elevated plus maze; auditory and contextual response in a fear conditioning task) were assessed on post-soman days 30 and 90. Brains were collected on post-soman days 9, 30 and 90 so as to perform NeuN-immunohistochemistry in the hippocampus and amygdala (neuronal regeneration quantification). Following soman-induced brain lesions, a spontaneous neuronal regeneration occurred in both the hippocampus and amygdala. Cytokine treatment enhanced neuronal regeneration in the hippocampus however not in the amygdala. Soman poisoning fostered altogether memory impairments as well as anxiety or fear-like behavioral disturbances in mice. A spontaneous recovery of standard emotional behavior occurred overtime. Such a recovery displayed significantly enhanced speed under cytokine treatment. Unfortunately, no memory performance recovery was evidenced in soman-intoxicated mice whether treated or not with cytokines.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jean-Marc Collombet
- Département Soutien Médico-Chirurgical des Forces, IRBA, BP 73, 91223 Brétigny sur Orge Cedex, France.
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A murine model for sarin exposure using the carboxylesterase inhibitor CBDP. Neurotoxicology 2010; 31:502-8. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neuro.2010.05.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/24/2009] [Revised: 03/25/2010] [Accepted: 05/17/2010] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
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Abstract
The amygdala has received considerable attention because of its established role in specific behaviors and disorders such as anxiety, depression, and autism. Studies have revealed that the amygdala is a complex and dynamic brain region that is highly connected with other areas of the brain. Previous works have focused on neurons, demonstrating that the amygdala in rodents is highly plastic and sexually dimorphic. However, our more recent work explores sex differences in nonneuronal cells, joining a rich literature concerning glia in the amygdala. Prior investigation of glia in the amygdala can generally be divided into disease-related and hormone-related categories, with both areas of research producing interesting findings concerning glia in this important brain region. Despite a wide range of research topics, the collected findings make it clear that glia in the amygdala are sensitive and plastic cells that respond and develop in a highly region specific manner.
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Angoa-Pérez M, Kreipke CW, Thomas DM, Van Shura KE, Lyman M, McDonough JH, Kuhn DM. Soman increases neuronal COX-2 levels: possible link between seizures and protracted neuronal damage. Neurotoxicology 2010; 31:738-46. [PMID: 20600289 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuro.2010.06.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/03/2010] [Revised: 06/10/2010] [Accepted: 06/20/2010] [Indexed: 01/27/2023]
Abstract
Nerve agent-induced seizures cause neuronal damage in brain limbic and cortical circuits leading to persistent behavioral and cognitive deficits. Without aggressive anticholinergic and benzodiazepine therapy, seizures can be prolonged and neuronal damage progresses for extended periods of time. The objective of this study was to determine the effects of the nerve agent soman on expression of cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2), the initial enzyme in the biosynthetic pathway of the proinflammatory prostaglandins and a factor that has been implicated in seizure initiation and propagation. Rats were exposed to a toxic dose of soman and scored behaviorally for seizure intensity. Expression of COX-2 was determined throughout brain from 4h to 7 days after exposure by immunohistochemistry and immunoblotting. Microglial activation and astrogliosis were assessed microscopically over the same time-course. Soman increased COX-2 expression in brain regions known to be damaged by nerve agents (e.g., hippocampus, amygdala, piriform cortex and thalamus). COX-2 expression was induced in neurons, and not in microglia or astrocytes, and remained elevated through 7 days. The magnitude of COX-2 induction was correlated with seizure intensity. COX-1 expression was not changed by soman. Increased expression of neuronal COX-2 by soman is a late-developing response relative to other signs of acute physiological distress caused by nerve agents. COX-2-mediated production of prostaglandins is a consequence of the seizure-induced neuronal damage, even after survival of the initial cholinergic crisis is assured. COX-2 inhibitors should be considered as adjunct therapy in nerve agent poisoning to minimize nerve agent-induced seizure activity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mariana Angoa-Pérez
- Research & Development Service, John D. Dingell VA Medical Center, Detroit, MI, USA
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Collombet JM, Elias M, Gotthard G, Four E, Renault F, Joffre A, Baubichon D, Rochu D, Chabrière E. Eukaryotic DING proteins are endogenous: an immunohistological study in mouse tissues. PLoS One 2010; 5:e9099. [PMID: 20161715 PMCID: PMC2817009 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0009099] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/29/2009] [Accepted: 01/20/2010] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Background DING proteins encompass an intriguing protein family first characterized by their conserved N-terminal sequences. Some of these proteins seem to have key roles in various human diseases, e.g., rheumatoid arthritis, atherosclerosis, HIV suppression. Although this protein family seems to be ubiquitous in eukaryotes, their genes are consistently lacking from genomic databases. Such a lack has considerably hampered functional studies and has fostered therefore the hypothesis that DING proteins isolated from eukaryotes were in fact prokaryotic contaminants. Principal Findings In the framework of our study, we have performed a comprehensive immunological detection of DING proteins in mice. We demonstrate that DING proteins are present in all tissues tested as isoforms of various molecular weights (MWs). Their intracellular localization is tissue-dependant, being exclusively nuclear in neurons, but cytoplasmic and nuclear in other tissues. We also provide evidence that germ-free mouse plasma contains as much DING protein as wild-type. Significance Hence, data herein provide a valuable basis for future investigations aimed at eukaryotic DING proteins, revealing that these proteins seem ubiquitous in mouse tissue. Our results strongly suggest that mouse DING proteins are endogenous. Moreover, the determination in this study of the precise cellular localization of DING proteins constitute a precious evidence to understand their molecular involvements in their related human diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jean-Marc Collombet
- Département de Toxicologie, Institut de Recherche Biomédicale des Armées, Centre de Recherche du Service de Santé des Armées, La Tronche, France
| | - Mikael Elias
- Architecture et Fonction des Macromolécules Biologiques, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique-Aix Marseille Université, Marseille, France
| | - Guillaume Gotthard
- Architecture et Fonction des Macromolécules Biologiques, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique-Aix Marseille Université, Marseille, France
| | - Elise Four
- Département de Toxicologie, Institut de Recherche Biomédicale des Armées, Centre de Recherche du Service de Santé des Armées, La Tronche, France
| | - Frédérique Renault
- Département de Toxicologie, Institut de Recherche Biomédicale des Armées, Centre de Recherche du Service de Santé des Armées, La Tronche, France
| | - Aurélie Joffre
- Service de Microscopie et d'Imagerie Médicale, Institut de Recherche Biomédicale des Armées, Centre de Recherche du Service de Santé des Armées, La Tronche, France
| | - Dominique Baubichon
- Département de Toxicologie, Institut de Recherche Biomédicale des Armées, Centre de Recherche du Service de Santé des Armées, La Tronche, France
| | - Daniel Rochu
- Département de Toxicologie, Institut de Recherche Biomédicale des Armées, Centre de Recherche du Service de Santé des Armées, La Tronche, France
| | - Eric Chabrière
- Architecture et Fonction des Macromolécules Biologiques, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique-Aix Marseille Université, Marseille, France
- * E-mail:
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Changes in mouse brain metabolism following a convulsive dose of soman: A proton HRMAS NMR study. Toxicology 2010; 267:99-111. [DOI: 10.1016/j.tox.2009.10.026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/08/2009] [Revised: 10/20/2009] [Accepted: 10/21/2009] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
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Collombet JM, Baubichon D, Four E, Sentenac-Masqueliez C, Lallement G. Effects of soman poisoning on mitochondrial respiratory enzyme activity in the mouse hippocampus and cerebral cortex. Drug Chem Toxicol 2009; 32:405-10. [DOI: 10.1080/01480540903019182] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/03/2023]
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34
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Cerutti SM, Gomide VC, de Moraes Ferrari EA, Chadi G. Long-Term Astroglial Reaction and Neuronal Plasticity in the Subcortical Visual Pathways After a Complete Ablation of Telencephalon in Pigeons (Columba livia). Int J Neurosci 2009; 119:384-403. [DOI: 10.1080/00207450802480291] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/17/2023]
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35
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Joosen MJ, Jousma E, van den Boom TM, Kuijpers WC, Smit AB, Lucassen PJ, van Helden HP. Long-term cognitive deficits accompanied by reduced neurogenesis after soman poisoning. Neurotoxicology 2009; 30:72-80. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neuro.2008.11.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/11/2008] [Revised: 11/12/2008] [Accepted: 11/24/2008] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
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Collombet JM, Piérard C, Béracochéa D, Coubard S, Burckhart MF, Four E, Masqueliez C, Baubichon D, Lallement G. Long-term consequences of soman poisoning in mice. Behav Brain Res 2008; 191:88-94. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bbr.2008.02.043] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/04/2008] [Accepted: 02/28/2008] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
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Long-term consequences of soman poisoning in mice: part 2. Emotional behavior. Behav Brain Res 2008; 191:95-103. [PMID: 18457884 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbr.2008.03.027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/05/2008] [Revised: 03/14/2008] [Accepted: 03/16/2008] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
The organophosphorus compound soman produces long-lasting epileptic seizure activity which is associated to brain damage, more particularly in the hippocampus and the amygdala. The companion paper (see part 1 in the same journal issue) describes the neuropathology in the amygdala of soman-poisoned mice. The present paper examines the long-term effects of soman poisoning on emotional reactivity in mice, 30 or 90 days after intoxication using behavioral tasks involving amygdala function. The emotional behavior was estimated in animal tests of unconditioned fear (light/dark boxes, elevated plus-maze) and conditioned fear (auditory and contextual response). In the light/dark boxes and elevated plus-maze, mice intoxicated with soman (110 microg/kg, 1.2 LD(50)) showed an anxiety-like behavior profile at post-poisoning days 30 and 90. In conditioned fear, results showed that both auditory and contextual conditioned responses are increased on post-soman day 30 but no longer on post-soman day 90, evidencing behavioral recovery overtime. This latter behavioral result is in accordance with the delayed neuronal regeneration patterns described in the companion paper (part 1).
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Lallement G. [Overview on neurogenesis induced by organophosphate poisoning: results and perspectives]. ANNALES PHARMACEUTIQUES FRANÇAISES 2007; 65:415-21. [PMID: 18079674 DOI: 10.1016/s0003-4509(07)74201-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
Nerve agents could be potentially used as during a conflict or a terrorist attack. If an emergency treatment is not provided after poisoning, irreversible brain damages and behavioural sequels are expected to appear. In vivo cell therapy seems to be a promising approach for delayed treatment to contribute to brain repair. A mobilization of endogenous neural progenitors would be the basis of such an approach. After migrating, these progenitors would engraft in damaged brain regions and subsequently differentiate into functional neurons. In this review, after a few reminders regarding nerve agent poisoning and the emergency treatment of such an intoxication, progresses in terms of cell therapy and its potential application to nerve agent-induced brain lesions are summarized.
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Affiliation(s)
- G Lallement
- Département de Toxicologie, Centre de Recherches du Service de Santé des Armées (CRSSA), 24, avenue des Maquis du Grésivaudan, BP 87, F 38702, La Tronche Cedex, France.
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Filliat P, Coubard S, Pierard C, Liscia P, Beracochea D, Four E, Baubichon D, Masqueliez C, Lallement G, Collombet JM. Long-term behavioral consequences of soman poisoning in mice. Neurotoxicology 2006; 28:508-19. [PMID: 17182103 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuro.2006.11.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/01/2006] [Revised: 10/26/2006] [Accepted: 11/03/2006] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
We investigated the long-term (up to 90 days) consequences of soman intoxication in mice on weight, motor performances (grip strength, rotarod) and mnemonic cognitive processes (T-maze, Morris water maze test). First, a relative weight loss of 20%, measured 3 days after intoxication, was evidenced as a threshold beyond which neuropathological damage was observed in the hippocampus. Animals were then distributed into either low weight loss (LWL) or high weight loss (HWL) groups according to the relative 20% weight loss threshold. Compared to controls, both groups of poisoned mice quickly exhibited a decrease in their motor performance subsequent to an acute soman toxicity phase. Then, total motor recovery occurred for the LWL group. Comparatively, HWL mice showed only transient recovery prior to a second decrease phase due to soman-induced delayed toxicity. One month after intoxication, mnemonic cognitive performances of the LWL group were similar to controls while the HWL group did not exhibit any learning skill. Three months after poisoning, compared to controls, the LWL group showed similar mnemonic performances in the maze test but a mild deficit in the Morris water maze task. At the same time, learning skills slightly recovered in the HWL group. Mnemonic cognitive data are discussed in relation to the neuropathology, neurogenesis and sprouting occurring in the hippocampus of soman-intoxicated animals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pierre Filliat
- Département de Toxicologie, Centre de Recherches du Service de Santé des Armées Emile Pardé, 24 Avenue des Maquis du Grésivaudan, B.P. 87, 38702 La Tronche Cedex, France.
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Collombet JM, Four E, Fauquette W, Burckhart MF, Masqueliez C, Bernabé D, Baubichon D, Lallement G. Soman poisoning induces delayed astrogliotic scar and angiogenesis in damaged mouse brain areas. Neurotoxicology 2006; 28:38-48. [PMID: 16949671 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuro.2006.07.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/19/2006] [Revised: 07/08/2006] [Accepted: 07/13/2006] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Gliotic scar formation and angiogenesis are two biological events involved in the tissue reparative process generally occurring in the brain after mechanically induced injury, ischemia or cerebral tumor development. For the first time, in this study, neo-vascularization and glial scar formation were investigated in the brain of soman-poisoned mice over a 3-month period after nerve agent exposure (1.2 LD50 of soman). Using anti-claudin-5 and anti-vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) immunostaining techniques on brain sections, blood vessels were quantified and VEGF expression was verified to appraise the level of neo-angiogenesis induced in damaged brain areas. Furthermore, glial scar formation and neuropathology were estimated over time in the same injured brain regions by anti-glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP) immunohistochemistry and hemalun-phloxin (H&P) dye staining, respectively. VEGF over-expression was noticed on post-soman day 3 in lesioned areas such as the hippocampal CA1 field and amygdala. This was followed by an increase in the quantity of mature blood vessels, 3 months after soman poisoning, in the same brain areas. On the other hand, massive astroglial cell activation was demonstrated on post-soman day 8. Reactive astroglial cells were located only in damaged cerebral regions where H&P-stained eosinophilic neurons were found. For longer experimental times, astroglial response slowly decreased overtime but remained detectable on post-soman day 90 in some discrete brain regions (i.e. CA1 field and amygdala) evidencing the formation of a glial scar. In this study, we discuss the key role of VEGF in the angiogenic process and in the glial or neuronal response induced by soman poisoning.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jean-Marc Collombet
- Département de Toxicologie, CRSSA, 24 avenue des Maquis du Grésivaudan, B.P. 87, 38702 LA TRONCHE Cedex, France.
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Collombet JM, Baubichon D, Masqueliez C, Bernabé D, Four E, Burckhart MF, Lallement G. Effects of aspirin and mefenamic acid on soman poisoning-induced neuropathology in mice. Drug Chem Toxicol 2006; 29:167-81. [PMID: 16707326 DOI: 10.1080/01480540600561411] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
The efficacy of aspirin and mefenamic acid to counteract soman-induced brain damage was investigated in mice. Neuronal damage was evaluated in the hippocampus and amygdala by performing omega3 receptor density measurements and hemalun-phloxin staining. The effect of both drugs on the proliferation of neural progenitors after soman exposure was also assessed. Mefenamic acid aggravated the soman-induced hippocampal neuropathology. On the other hand, aspirin recorded a weak neuroprotective effect in the amygdala. However, this drug also diminished the proliferation of neural precursor cells. The possible neurochemical mechanisms underlying such differences in the efficacy of the two drugs are also reviewed.
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Collombet JM, Carpentier P, Baille V, Four E, Bernabé D, Burckhart MF, Masqueliez C, Baubichon D, Lallement G. Neuronal regeneration partially compensates the delayed neuronal cell death observed in the hippocampal CA1 field of soman-poisoned mice. Neurotoxicology 2005; 27:201-9. [PMID: 16309744 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuro.2005.10.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/04/2005] [Revised: 10/10/2005] [Accepted: 10/10/2005] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
Soman poisoning induces long-term neuropathology characterized by the presence of damaged neurons up to 2 months after exposure in various central brain areas, especially the hippocampal CA1 layer. Rapid depletion of this layer could therefore be expected. Surprisingly, the CA1 layer remained consistently visible, suggesting delayed death of these damaged neurons, potentially accompanied by neuronal regeneration. To address this issue, mice were exposed to a convulsive dose of soman (110 microg/kg followed by 5.0mg/kg of atropine methyl nitrate (MNA) 1 min later) and brains were collected from day 1 to day 90 post-exposure. Damaged and residual healthy neurons were quantified on brain sections using hemalun-phloxin and fluorojade staining or neuronal nuclei antigen (NeuN) immunohistochemistry. On post-soman day 1, a moderate neuronal cell death was noticed in the hippocampal CA1 layer. In this area, an important and steady quantity of damaged neurons (about 48% of the whole pyramidal neurons) was detected from post-soman day 1 to day 30. Thus, throughout this period, damaged neurons seemed to survive, as confirmed by the unmodified depth of the hippocampal CA1 layer. The dramatic disappearance of the damaged neurons occurred only later during the experiment and was almost complete at day 90 after soman exposure. Interestingly, between day 30 and day 90 following poisoning, an increase in the number of residual healthy pyramidal neurons was observed. These different kinetic patterns related to the density of total, damaged and residual healthy neurons after soman poisoning demonstrate that neuronal regeneration is delayed in the hippocampal CA1 layer and is concomitant to the death of damaged neurons.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jean-Marc Collombet
- Département de Toxicologie, Centre de Recherches du Service de Santé des Armées (CRSSA), 24, avenue des Maquis du Grésivaudan, B.P. 87, 38702 LA TRONCHE cedex, France.
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Collombet JM, Four E, Burckhart MF, Masqueliez C, Bernabé D, Baubichon D, Hérodin F, Lallement G. Effect of cytokine treatment on the neurogenesis process in the brain of soman-poisoned mice. Toxicology 2005; 210:9-23. [PMID: 15804454 DOI: 10.1016/j.tox.2005.01.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/15/2004] [Revised: 01/10/2005] [Accepted: 01/11/2005] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
We previously described that enhanced proliferation of neural progenitors occurred in the subgranular zone (SGZ) of the dentate gyrus and in the subventricular zone (SVZ) of the mouse brain following soman poisoning. Then, a discrete number of these cells seemed to migrate and engraft into the main damaged brain regions (hippocampus; septum and amygdala) and subsequently differentiate into neurons. In the present study, the effect of a cytokine treatment on the neurogenesis process was evaluated. For this purpose, subcutaneous injection of a cocktail of 40 microg/kg epidermal growth factor (EGF) and basic fibroblast growth factor (bFGF) was administered daily to soman-poisoned mice (110 microg/kg soman and 5.0 mg/kg methyl nitrate atropine), from post-soman days 1 to 8. To label replicating neural progenitors, 200 mg/kg bromodeoxyuridine (BrdU) was injected twice a day between post-soman days 6 and 8. Mice were sacrificed on post-soman day 9 or 34. On post-soman day 9, the cytokine treatment had no effect on the proliferation of neural progenitors in the SVZ and SGZ, as assessed by BrdU immunochemistry. However, this treatment seemed to promote the migration of neural precursor cells from the proliferative areas towards damaged brain regions. Indeed, in the CA1 hippocampal layer of soman-poisoned mice, on post-soman day 34, the cytokine treatment increased the number of healthy pyramidal neurons stained by hemalun-eosin dye. The cytokine treatment also augmented the number of BrdU-labeled cells in the CA1 hippocampal layer and amygdala. Interestingly, the administration of cytokines resulted in the differentiation of BrdU-positive cells into new neurons in the CA1 hippocampal layer, whereas astrocytic differentiation was preferentially observed in the amygdala.
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