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Hong JK, Choi Y, Ahn S, Kim J, Yang DJ, Heo J, Cho JC, Lee TK. The impact of bioaerosol trajectories on microbial community assembly and physicochemical dynamics in the atmosphere. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2024; 930:172736. [PMID: 38663612 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2024.172736] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/29/2024] [Revised: 04/09/2024] [Accepted: 04/22/2024] [Indexed: 05/03/2024]
Abstract
This study explored the assembly mechanisms and physicochemical dynamics of microbial communities within atmospheric bioaerosols, focusing on the influence of different aerial trajectories. Over two years, samples near Seoul were classified into 'North', 'Southwest', and 'Others' categories based on their aerial trajectories. Physicochemical analysis of the PM2.5 particles revealed distinct ion compositions for each cluster, reflecting diverse environmental influences. Microbial community analysis revealed that shared dominant bacterial phyla were present in all clusters. However, distinct taxonomic profiles and biomarkers were also evident, such as coastal bacteria in the 'Southwest' cluster correlating with wind speed, and arid soil-originated bacteria in the 'North' cluster correlating with cations. These findings demonstrate that biomarkers in each cluster are representative of the distinct environments associated with their aerial trajectories. Notably, cluster 'Southwest' the highest microbial diversity and a strong alignment with the neutral community model, suggesting a large influence of passive dispersal from marine environments. Contrarily, 'North' and 'Others' were more influenced by niche-dependent factors. This study highlights the complex interplay between environmental factors and microbial dynamics in bioaerosols and provides important insights for environmental monitoring and public health risk assessment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jin-Kyung Hong
- Department of Environmental and Energy Engineering, Yonsei University, Wonju, Republic of Korea
| | - Yongjoo Choi
- Department of Environmental Science, Hankuk University of Foreign Studies, Yongin, Republic of Korea
| | - Seokhyun Ahn
- Department of Environmental and Energy Engineering, Yonsei University, Wonju, Republic of Korea
| | - Jeonghwan Kim
- Department of Environmental Science, Hankuk University of Foreign Studies, Yongin, Republic of Korea
| | - Dong Jin Yang
- Department of Environmental Science, Hankuk University of Foreign Studies, Yongin, Republic of Korea
| | - Jongwon Heo
- Gyeonggi-do Institute of Health & Environment, Suwon, Republic of Korea
| | - Jae-Chang Cho
- Department of Environmental Science, Hankuk University of Foreign Studies, Yongin, Republic of Korea
| | - Tae Kwon Lee
- Department of Environmental and Energy Engineering, Yonsei University, Wonju, Republic of Korea.
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2
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Paddy EN, Afolabi OOD, Sohail M. Exploring toilet plume bioaerosol exposure dynamics in public toilets using a Design of Experiments approach. Sci Rep 2024; 14:10665. [PMID: 38724540 PMCID: PMC11082142 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-024-61039-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/11/2024] [Accepted: 04/30/2024] [Indexed: 05/12/2024] Open
Abstract
Bioaerosols generated during toilet flushing can contribute to the spread of airborne pathogens and cross-contamination in indoor environments. This presents an increased risk of fomite-mediated or aerosol disease transmission. This study systematically investigated the factors contributing to increased bioaerosol exposure following toilet flushing and developed an empirical model for predicting the exposure-relevant bioaerosol concentration. Air in a toilet cubicle was sampled by impaction after seeding with Clostridium difficile spores. Design of Experiments (DoE) main effects screening and full factorial design approaches were then employed to investigate the significant factors that heighten the risk of exposure to bioaerosols post-flush. Our findings reveal that the inoculated bacterial concentration (C), time elapsed after flushing (t), lateral distance (d), and mechanical ventilation (v) are significant predictors of bioaerosol concentration, with p-values < 0.05. The interaction term, C × d showed a marked increase in bioaerosol concentration up to 232 CFU/m3 at the closest proximity and highest pathogen load. The interplay of C and t (C × t) demonstrated a time-dependent attenuation of bioaerosol viability, with concentrations peaking at 241 CFU/m3 immediately post-flush and notably diminishing over time. The lateral distance and time post-flush (d × t) interaction also revealed a gradual decrease in bioaerosol concentration, highlighting the effectiveness of spatial and temporal dilution in mitigating bioaerosol exposure risks. Furthermore, there is an immediate rise in relative humidity levels post-flush, impacting the air quality in the toilet environment. This study not only advances our understanding of exposure pathways in determining bioaerosol exposure, but also offers pivotal insights for designing targeted interventions to reduce bioaerosol exposure. Recommendations include designing public toilets with antimicrobial surfaces, optimizing ventilation, and initiating timely disinfection protocols to prioritise surfaces closest to the toilet bowl during peak exposure periods, thereby promoting healthier indoor environments and safeguarding public health in high-traffic toilet settings.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elizabeth N Paddy
- School of Architecture, Building and Civil Engineering, Loughborough University, Loughborough, Leicestershire, UK.
| | - Oluwasola O D Afolabi
- School of Architecture, Building and Civil Engineering, Loughborough University, Loughborough, Leicestershire, UK
| | - M Sohail
- School of Architecture, Building and Civil Engineering, Loughborough University, Loughborough, Leicestershire, UK
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3
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Tang L, Rhoads WJ, Eichelberg A, Hamilton KA, Julian TR. Applications of Quantitative Microbial Risk Assessment to Respiratory Pathogens and Implications for Uptake in Policy: A State-of-the-Science Review. ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH PERSPECTIVES 2024; 132:56001. [PMID: 38728217 PMCID: PMC11086748 DOI: 10.1289/ehp12695] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/04/2023] [Revised: 02/28/2024] [Accepted: 03/08/2024] [Indexed: 05/12/2024]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Respiratory tract infections are major contributors to the global disease burden. Quantitative microbial risk assessment (QMRA) holds potential as a rapidly deployable framework to understand respiratory pathogen transmission and inform policy on infection control. OBJECTIVES The goal of this paper was to evaluate, motivate, and inform further development of the use of QMRA as a rapid tool to understand the transmission of respiratory pathogens and improve the evidence base for infection control policies. METHODS We conducted a literature review to identify peer-reviewed studies of complete QMRA frameworks on aerosol inhalation or contact transmission of respiratory pathogens. From each of the identified studies, we extracted and summarized information on the applied exposure model approaches, dose-response models, and parameter values, including risk characterization. Finally, we reviewed linkages between model outcomes and policy. RESULTS We identified 93 studies conducted in 16 different countries with complete QMRA frameworks for diverse respiratory pathogens, including SARS-CoV-2, Legionella spp., Staphylococcus aureus, influenza, and Bacillus anthracis. Six distinct exposure models were identified across diverse and complex transmission pathways. In 57 studies, exposure model frameworks were informed by their ability to model the efficacy of potential interventions. Among interventions, masking, ventilation, social distancing, and other environmental source controls were commonly assessed. Pathogen concentration, aerosol concentration, and partitioning coefficient were influential exposure parameters as identified by sensitivity analysis. Most (84%, n = 78 ) studies presented policy-relevant content including a) determining disease burden to call for policy intervention, b) determining risk-based threshold values for regulations, c) informing intervention and control strategies, and d) making recommendations and suggestions for QMRA application in policy. CONCLUSIONS We identified needs to further the development of QMRA frameworks for respiratory pathogens that prioritize appropriate aerosol exposure modeling approaches, consider trade-offs between model validity and complexity, and incorporate research that strengthens confidence in QMRA results. https://doi.org/10.1289/EHP12695.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lizhan Tang
- Eawag, Swiss Federal Institute of Aquatic Science and Technology, Dübendorf, Switzerland
| | - William J. Rhoads
- Eawag, Swiss Federal Institute of Aquatic Science and Technology, Dübendorf, Switzerland
| | - Antonia Eichelberg
- Eawag, Swiss Federal Institute of Aquatic Science and Technology, Dübendorf, Switzerland
| | - Kerry A. Hamilton
- School of Sustainable Engineering and the Built Environment, Arizona State University, Tempe, Arizona, USA
- Biodesign Institute Center for Environmental Health Engineering, Arizona State University, Tempe, Arizona, USA
| | - Timothy R. Julian
- Eawag, Swiss Federal Institute of Aquatic Science and Technology, Dübendorf, Switzerland
- Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute, Allschwil, Switzerland
- University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland
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4
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Clements E, Crank K, Nerenberg R, Atkinson A, Gerrity D, Hannoun D. Quantitative Microbial Risk Assessment Framework Incorporating Water Ages with Legionella pneumophila Growth Rates. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2024; 58:6540-6551. [PMID: 38574283 PMCID: PMC11025131 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.4c01208] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2024] [Revised: 03/20/2024] [Accepted: 03/21/2024] [Indexed: 04/06/2024]
Abstract
Water age in drinking water systems is often used as a proxy for water quality but is rarely used as a direct input in assessing microbial risk. This study directly linked water ages in a premise plumbing system to concentrations of Legionella pneumophila via a growth model. In turn, the L. pneumophila concentrations were used for a quantitative microbial risk assessment to calculate the associated probabilities of infection (Pinf) and clinically severe illness (Pcsi) due to showering. Risk reductions achieved by purging devices, which reduce water age, were also quantified. The median annual Pinf exceeded the commonly used 1 in 10,000 (10-4) risk benchmark in all scenarios, but the median annual Pcsi was always 1-3 orders of magnitude below 10-4. The median annual Pcsi was lower in homes with two occupants (4.7 × 10-7) than with one occupant (7.5 × 10-7) due to more frequent use of water fixtures, which reduced water ages. The median annual Pcsi for homes with one occupant was reduced by 39-43% with scheduled purging 1-2 times per day. Smart purging devices, which purge only after a certain period of nonuse, maintained these lower annual Pcsi values while reducing additional water consumption by 45-62%.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emily Clements
- Southern
Nevada Water Authority, P.O. Box 99954, Las Vegas, Nevada 89193, United States
| | - Katherine Crank
- Southern
Nevada Water Authority, P.O. Box 99954, Las Vegas, Nevada 89193, United States
| | - Robert Nerenberg
- Department
of Civil & Environmental Engineering & Earth Science, University of Notre Dame, 156 Fitzpatrick Hall, Notre
Dame, Indiana 46556, United States
| | - Ariel Atkinson
- Southern
Nevada Water Authority, P.O. Box 99954, Las Vegas, Nevada 89193, United States
| | - Daniel Gerrity
- Southern
Nevada Water Authority, P.O. Box 99954, Las Vegas, Nevada 89193, United States
| | - Deena Hannoun
- Southern
Nevada Water Authority, P.O. Box 99954, Las Vegas, Nevada 89193, United States
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5
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Bechmann L, Bauer K, Zerban P, Esser T, Tersteegen A, Fuchs SA, Kaasch AJ, Wolleschak D, Schalk E, Fischer T, Mougiakakos D, Geginat G. Prevention of legionella infections from toilet flushing cisterns. J Hosp Infect 2024; 146:37-43. [PMID: 38224856 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhin.2023.12.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/04/2023] [Revised: 11/27/2023] [Accepted: 12/10/2023] [Indexed: 01/17/2024]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Immunocompromised patients are at an increased risk of severe legionella infections. We present the results of an outbreak investigation initiated following a fatal case of hospital-acquired legionellosis linked to contaminated water from a toilet-flushing cistern. Additionally, we provide experimental data on the growth of Legionella spp. in flushing cisterns and propose a straightforward protocol for prevention. METHODS We monitored the growth of Legionella spp. in the building's hot- and cold-water systems using quantitative bacterial culture on selective agar. Molecular typing of Legionella pneumophila isolates from the infected patient and the water system was conducted through core-genome multi-locus sequence typing (cgMLST). RESULTS Legionella contamination in the hospital building's cold-water system was significantly higher than in the hot-water system and significantly higher in toilet flushing cistern's water compared with cold water from bathroom sinks and showers. Isolates from the patient and from the flushing cistern of the patient's bathroom were identical by cgMLST. In an experimental setting, daily toilet flushing for a period of 21 days resulted in a 67% reduction in the growth of Legionella spp. in the water of toilet flushing cisterns. Moreover, a one-time disinfection of cisterns with peracetic acid, followed by daily flushing, decreased legionella growth to less than 1% over a period of at least seven weeks in these setting. CONCLUSIONS One-time disinfection of highly contaminated cisterns with peracetic acid and daily toilet flushing as short-term measure can significantly reduce legionella contamination in flushing cisterns. These measures may aid in preventing legionella infection among immunocompromised patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- L Bechmann
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Infection Control, Otto-von-Guericke University Magdeburg, Magdeburg, Germany.
| | - K Bauer
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Infection Control, Otto-von-Guericke University Magdeburg, Magdeburg, Germany
| | - P Zerban
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Infection Control, Otto-von-Guericke University Magdeburg, Magdeburg, Germany
| | - T Esser
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Infection Control, Otto-von-Guericke University Magdeburg, Magdeburg, Germany
| | - A Tersteegen
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Infection Control, Otto-von-Guericke University Magdeburg, Magdeburg, Germany
| | - S A Fuchs
- Institute of Medical Microbiology and Hospital Hygiene, Heinrich-Heine-University Düsseldorf, Düsseldorf, Germany
| | - A J Kaasch
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Infection Control, Otto-von-Guericke University Magdeburg, Magdeburg, Germany
| | - D Wolleschak
- Department of Haematology and Oncology, Otto-von-Guericke University Magdeburg, Magdeburg, Germany
| | - E Schalk
- Department of Haematology and Oncology, Otto-von-Guericke University Magdeburg, Magdeburg, Germany
| | - T Fischer
- Department of Haematology and Oncology, Otto-von-Guericke University Magdeburg, Magdeburg, Germany
| | - D Mougiakakos
- Department of Haematology and Oncology, Otto-von-Guericke University Magdeburg, Magdeburg, Germany
| | - G Geginat
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Infection Control, Otto-von-Guericke University Magdeburg, Magdeburg, Germany
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Yu F, Nair AA, Lauper U, Luo G, Herb J, Morse M, Savage B, Zartarian M, Wang M, Lin S. Mysteriously rapid rise in Legionnaires' disease incidence correlates with declining atmospheric sulfur dioxide. PNAS NEXUS 2024; 3:pgae085. [PMID: 38476666 PMCID: PMC10929586 DOI: 10.1093/pnasnexus/pgae085] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/27/2023] [Accepted: 02/09/2024] [Indexed: 03/14/2024]
Abstract
Legionnaires' disease (LD) is a severe form of pneumonia (∼10-25% fatality rate) caused by inhalation of aerosols containing Legionella, a pathogenic gram-negative bacteria. These bacteria can grow, spread, and aerosolize through building water systems. A recent dramatic increase in LD incidence has been observed globally, with a 9-fold increase in the United States from 2000 to 2018, and with disproportionately higher burden for socioeconomically vulnerable subgroups. Despite the focus of decades of research since the infamous 1976 outbreak, substantial knowledge gaps remain with regard to source of exposure and the reason(s) for the dramatic increase in LD incidence. Here, we rule out factors indicated in literature to contribute to its long-term increases and identify a hitherto unexplored explanatory factor. We also provide an epidemiological demonstration that the occurrence of LD is linked with exposure to cooling towers (CTs). Our results suggest that declining sulfur dioxide air pollution, which has many well-established health benefits, results in reduced acidity of aerosols emitted from CTs, which may prolong the survival duration of Legionella in contaminated CT droplets and contribute to the increase in LD incidence. Mechanistically associating decreasing aerosol acidity with this respiratory disease has implications for better understanding its transmission, predicting future risks, and informed design of preventive and interventional strategies that consider the complex impacts of continued sulfur dioxide changes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fangqun Yu
- Atmospheric Sciences Research Center, University at Albany, State University of New York, Albany, NY 12226, USA
| | - Arshad A Nair
- Atmospheric Sciences Research Center, University at Albany, State University of New York, Albany, NY 12226, USA
| | - Ursula Lauper
- New York State Department of Health, Bureau of Water Supply Protection, Albany, NY 12223, USA
| | - Gan Luo
- Atmospheric Sciences Research Center, University at Albany, State University of New York, Albany, NY 12226, USA
| | - Jason Herb
- Atmospheric Sciences Research Center, University at Albany, State University of New York, Albany, NY 12226, USA
| | - Matthew Morse
- New York State Department of Health, Bureau of Water Supply Protection, Albany, NY 12223, USA
| | - Braden Savage
- New York State Department of Health, Bureau of Water Supply Protection, Albany, NY 12223, USA
| | - Martin Zartarian
- New York State Department of Health, Bureau of Water Supply Protection, Albany, NY 12223, USA
| | - Meng Wang
- School of Public Health and Health Professions, University at Buffalo, State University of New York, Buffalo, NY 14214, USA
| | - Shao Lin
- School of Public Health, University at Albany, State University of New York, Albany, NY 12144, USA
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7
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Kong J, Lu Y, Ren Y, Chen M, Liu G, Shi L. The risk factors and threshold level of subchronic inhalation exposure of reclaimed water. J Environ Sci (China) 2024; 137:639-650. [PMID: 37980046 DOI: 10.1016/j.jes.2022.12.031] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/19/2022] [Revised: 12/21/2022] [Accepted: 12/25/2022] [Indexed: 11/20/2023]
Abstract
Inhalation of reclaimed water is known to cause lung inflammation, and free endotoxins have been shown to be a major risk factor for acute exposure. Subchronic exposure has also been shown to induce inflammatory responses with visible tissue damage. However, subchronic risk factors have yet to be identified, and a threshold for the protection of occupational populations during urban reuse is necessary. In this study, potential risk factors in reclaimed water were examined by subchronic exposure with fractionated reclaimed water, and the health risk threshold was tested with a series of diluted reclaimed water. Accordingly, following a 12-week exposure, macromolecules and microorganisms were found to be two major risk factors in reclaimed water that could cause pulmonary inflammation, including increased proportion of polymorphonuclear leukocytes in bronchoalveolar fluid, formation of inducible bronchus-associated lymphoid tissue, and elevation of Immunoglobulin A levels. Moreover, inflammation persisted after a 4-week recovery period. The calculated threshold of reclaimed water exposure for mice was 31.8 Endotoxin Unit (EU)/(kg·day) under when exposed to 50% additional relative humidity from reclaimed water at 25°C for 2 hr/day. Meanwhile, the subchronic threshold estimate for humans under the same exposure conditions was found to be 12.2 EU/(kg·day), corresponding to endotoxin levels of 61.7 EU/mL in reclaimed water. The threshold level of endotoxin was lower than that in most non-potable reclaimed water. The findings of this study suggest that occupational exposure of reclaimed water can serve as a potential risk to workers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jiayang Kong
- State Key Joint Laboratory of Environment Simulation and Pollution Control, State Environment Protection Key Laboratory of Microorganism Application and Risk Control, School of Environment, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China
| | - Yun Lu
- State Key Joint Laboratory of Environment Simulation and Pollution Control, State Environment Protection Key Laboratory of Microorganism Application and Risk Control, School of Environment, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China.
| | - Yunru Ren
- State Key Joint Laboratory of Environment Simulation and Pollution Control, State Environment Protection Key Laboratory of Microorganism Application and Risk Control, School of Environment, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China
| | - Menghao Chen
- State Key Joint Laboratory of Environment Simulation and Pollution Control, State Environment Protection Key Laboratory of Microorganism Application and Risk Control, School of Environment, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China
| | - Gang Liu
- State Key Joint Laboratory of Environment Simulation and Pollution Control, State Environment Protection Key Laboratory of Microorganism Application and Risk Control, School of Environment, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China
| | - Liangliang Shi
- State Key Joint Laboratory of Environment Simulation and Pollution Control, State Environment Protection Key Laboratory of Microorganism Application and Risk Control, School of Environment, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China
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Yalin D, Craddock HA, Assouline S, Ben Mordechay E, Ben-Gal A, Bernstein N, Chaudhry RM, Chefetz B, Fatta-Kassinos D, Gawlik BM, Hamilton KA, Khalifa L, Kisekka I, Klapp I, Korach-Rechtman H, Kurtzman D, Levy GJ, Maffettone R, Malato S, Manaia CM, Manoli K, Moshe OF, Rimelman A, Rizzo L, Sedlak DL, Shnit-Orland M, Shtull-Trauring E, Tarchitzky J, Welch-White V, Williams C, McLain J, Cytryn E. Mitigating risks and maximizing sustainability of treated wastewater reuse for irrigation. WATER RESEARCH X 2023; 21:100203. [PMID: 38098886 PMCID: PMC10719582 DOI: 10.1016/j.wroa.2023.100203] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/20/2023] [Revised: 09/08/2023] [Accepted: 09/19/2023] [Indexed: 12/17/2023]
Abstract
Scarcity of freshwater for agriculture has led to increased utilization of treated wastewater (TWW), establishing it as a significant and reliable source of irrigation water. However, years of research indicate that if not managed adequately, TWW may deleteriously affect soil functioning and plant productivity, and pose a hazard to human and environmental health. This review leverages the experience of researchers, stakeholders, and policymakers from Israel, the United-States, and Europe to present a holistic, multidisciplinary perspective on maximizing the benefits from municipal TWW use for irrigation. We specifically draw on the extensive knowledge gained in Israel, a world leader in agricultural TWW implementation. The first two sections of the work set the foundation for understanding current challenges involved with the use of TWW, detailing known and emerging agronomic and environmental issues (such as salinity and phytotoxicity) and public health risks (such as contaminants of emerging concern and pathogens). The work then presents solutions to address these challenges, including technological and agronomic management-based solutions as well as source control policies. The concluding section presents suggestions for the path forward, emphasizing the importance of improving links between research and policy, and better outreach to the public and agricultural practitioners. We use this platform as a call for action, to form a global harmonized data system that will centralize scientific findings on agronomic, environmental and public health effects of TWW irrigation. Insights from such global collaboration will help to mitigate risks, and facilitate more sustainable use of TWW for food production in the future.
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Affiliation(s)
- David Yalin
- A Department of Earth and Planetary Sciences, The Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot, Israel
| | - Hillary A. Craddock
- Department of Health Policy and Management, School of Public Health, Faculty of Health Sciences, Ben Gurion University of the Negev, Beer-Sheva, Israel
| | - Shmuel Assouline
- Institute of Soil, Water and Environmental Sciences, Agriculture Research Organization (ARO) – The Volcani Institute, Rishon LeZion, Israel
| | - Evyatar Ben Mordechay
- The Robert H Smith Faculty of Agriculture, Food and Environment, Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Rehovot, Israel
| | - Alon Ben-Gal
- Institute of Soil, Water and Environmental Sciences, Agricultural Research Organization (ARO) – The Volcani Institute, Gilat Reseach Center, Israel
| | - Nirit Bernstein
- Institute of Soil, Water and Environmental Sciences, Agriculture Research Organization (ARO) – The Volcani Institute, Rishon LeZion, Israel
| | | | - Benny Chefetz
- The Robert H Smith Faculty of Agriculture, Food and Environment, Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Rehovot, Israel
| | - Despo Fatta-Kassinos
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, NIREAS-International Water Research Center, University of Cyprus, Nicosia, Cyprus
| | - Bernd M. Gawlik
- Ocean and Water Unit, Joint Research Centre, European Commission, Ispra, Italy
| | - Kerry A. Hamilton
- The School of Sustainable Engineering and the Built Environment and The Biodesign Institute Center for Environmental Health Engineering, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ, USA
| | - Leron Khalifa
- Institute of Soil, Water and Environmental Sciences, Agriculture Research Organization (ARO) – The Volcani Institute, Rishon LeZion, Israel
| | - Isaya Kisekka
- Department of Land Air and Water Resources, University of California, Davis, California, USA
| | - Iftach Klapp
- Institute of Agricultural engineering, Agriculture Research Organization (ARO) – The Volcani Institute, Rishon LeZion, Israel
| | | | - Daniel Kurtzman
- Institute of Soil, Water and Environmental Sciences, Agriculture Research Organization (ARO) – The Volcani Institute, Rishon LeZion, Israel
| | - Guy J. Levy
- Institute of Soil, Water and Environmental Sciences, Agriculture Research Organization (ARO) – The Volcani Institute, Rishon LeZion, Israel
| | - Roberta Maffettone
- Ocean and Water Unit, Joint Research Centre, European Commission, Ispra, Italy
| | - Sixto Malato
- CIEMAT-Plataforma Solar de Almería, Ctra. Sen´es km 4, 04200 Tabernas, Almería, Spain
| | - Célia M. Manaia
- Universidade Católica Portuguesa, CBQF - Centro de Biotecnologia e Química Fina – Laboratório Associado, Escola Superior de Biotecnologia, Porto, Portugal
| | - Kyriakos Manoli
- NIREAS-International Water Research Center, University of Cyprus, Nicosia, Cyprus
| | - Orah F. Moshe
- Department of Soil Conservation, Soil Erosion Research Center, Ministry of Agriculture, Rishon LeZion, Israel
| | - Andrew Rimelman
- PG Environmental. 1113 Washington Avenue, Suite 200. Golden, CO 80401, USA
| | - Luigi Rizzo
- Water Science and Technology (WaSTe) Group, Department of Civil Engineering, University of Salerno, Via Giovanni Paolo II 132, 84084 Fisciano, SA, Italy
| | - David L. Sedlak
- Department of Civil & Environmental Engineering, University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley, CA 94720 USA
| | - Maya Shnit-Orland
- Extension Service, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development, Israel
| | - Eliav Shtull-Trauring
- Institute of Soil, Water and Environmental Sciences, Agriculture Research Organization (ARO) – The Volcani Institute, Rishon LeZion, Israel
| | - Jorge Tarchitzky
- The Robert H Smith Faculty of Agriculture, Food and Environment, Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Rehovot, Israel
| | | | - Clinton Williams
- US Arid-Land Agricultural Research Center, Agricultural Research Service, United States Department of Agriculture, Maricopa, AZ, USA
| | - Jean McLain
- Department of Environmental Science, University of Arizona, Tucson, Arizona, USA
| | - Eddie Cytryn
- Institute of Soil, Water and Environmental Sciences, Agriculture Research Organization (ARO) – The Volcani Institute, Rishon LeZion, Israel
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9
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Zhang X, Lu B, Chen G, Wang L, Lin B, Peng Z, Lu S, Li D, Chen J. Culturable and inhalable airborne bacteria in a semiunderground municipal wastewater treatment plant: Distribution, transmission, and health risk assessment. JOURNAL OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS 2023; 459:132234. [PMID: 37586239 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2023.132234] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/21/2023] [Revised: 06/15/2023] [Accepted: 08/04/2023] [Indexed: 08/18/2023]
Abstract
Airborne pathogens constitute a growing threat to global public health. Wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) are important sources of airborne bacteria, which pose great health risks to the employee and nearby residents. In this study, the distribution, transmission and health risk of the airborne culturable and inhalable bacteria carried by PM2.5 in a semiunderground WWTP were evaluated. The concentrations of culturable bacteria in the air were 21.2-1431.1 CFU/m3, with the main contributions of primary and biological treatments. The relative abundances of culturable and total inhalable bacterial taxa were positively correlated (p < 0.05). However, certain bacteria, including Bacillus, Acinetobacter and Enterococcus, exhibited high reproductive capacity despite their low concentration in the air, suggesting that they can survive and regrow in suitable environments. Transmission modeling revealed that the concentrations of airborne bacteria exponentially decreased with distance from 18.67 to 24.12 copies /m3 at the source to 0.06-0.14 copies /m3 at 1000 m downwind. The risks of 8-h exposure in this WWTP except the outlet exceeded the reference value recommended by WHO, which were primarily dependent on P. aeruginosa, Salmonella, and E. coli. Management practices should consider improved controls for bioaerosols in order to reduce the risk of disease transmission.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiang Zhang
- Shanghai Key Laboratory of Atmospheric Particle Pollution and Prevention (LAP3), IRDR ICoE on Risk Interconnectivity and Governance on Weather/Climate Extremes Impact and Public Health, Fudan Tyndall Centre, Department of Environmental Science and Engineering, Fudan University, Shanghai 200433, China
| | - Bingjie Lu
- Shanghai Key Laboratory of Atmospheric Particle Pollution and Prevention (LAP3), IRDR ICoE on Risk Interconnectivity and Governance on Weather/Climate Extremes Impact and Public Health, Fudan Tyndall Centre, Department of Environmental Science and Engineering, Fudan University, Shanghai 200433, China
| | - Guang Chen
- Shanghai Chengtou Sewage Treatment Co., LtD., Shanghai 201203, China
| | - Lihua Wang
- Shanghai Chengtou Sewage Treatment Co., LtD., Shanghai 201203, China
| | - Bingjie Lin
- Shanghai Chengtou Sewage Treatment Co., LtD., Shanghai 201203, China
| | - Zhengliang Peng
- Shanghai Chengtou Sewage Treatment Co., LtD., Shanghai 201203, China
| | - Songliu Lu
- Shanghai Investigation, Design & Research Institute, Shanghai 200335, China
| | - Dan Li
- Shanghai Key Laboratory of Atmospheric Particle Pollution and Prevention (LAP3), IRDR ICoE on Risk Interconnectivity and Governance on Weather/Climate Extremes Impact and Public Health, Fudan Tyndall Centre, Department of Environmental Science and Engineering, Fudan University, Shanghai 200433, China.
| | - Jianmin Chen
- Shanghai Key Laboratory of Atmospheric Particle Pollution and Prevention (LAP3), IRDR ICoE on Risk Interconnectivity and Governance on Weather/Climate Extremes Impact and Public Health, Fudan Tyndall Centre, Department of Environmental Science and Engineering, Fudan University, Shanghai 200433, China
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10
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Mori J, Smith RL. Risk of Legionellosis in residential areas around farms irrigating with municipal wastewater. RISK ANALYSIS : AN OFFICIAL PUBLICATION OF THE SOCIETY FOR RISK ANALYSIS 2023; 43:1115-1123. [PMID: 35840056 DOI: 10.1111/risa.13997] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
The conservation of freshwater is of both global and national importance, and in the United States, agriculture is one of the largest consumers of this resource. Reduction of the strain farming puts on local surface or groundwater is vital for ensuring resilience in the face of climate change, and one possible option is to irrigate with a combination of freshwater and reclaimed water from municipal wastewater treatment facilities. However, this wastewater can contain pathogens that are harmful to human health, such as Legionella pneumophila, which is a bacterium that can survive aerosolization and airborne transportation and cause severe pneumonia when inhaled. To assess an individual adult's risk of infection with L. pneumophila from a single exposure to agricultural spray irrigation, a quantitative microbial risk assessment was conducted for a scenario of spray irrigation in central Illinois, for the growing seasons in 2017, 2018, and 2019. The assessment found that the mean risk of infection for a single exposure exceeded the safety threshold of 10-6 infections/exposure up to 1 km from a low-pressure irrigator and up to 2 km from a high-pressure irrigator, although no median risk exceeded the threshold for any distance or irrigator pressure. These findings suggest that spray irrigation with treated municipal wastewater could be a viable option for reducing freshwater consumption in Midwest farming, as long as irrigation on windy days is avoided and close proximity to the active irrigator is limited.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jameson Mori
- Illinois Natural History Survey, University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign, Champaign, Illinois, USA
- Department of Pathobiology, University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois, USA
| | - Rebecca L Smith
- Department of Pathobiology, University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois, USA
- Carle-Illinois College of Medicine, University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois, USA
- Carl R. Woese Institute for Genomic Biology, University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois, USA
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11
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Ashbolt NJ. Conceptual model to inform Legionella-amoebae control, including the roles of extracellular vesicles in engineered water system infections. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2023; 13:1200478. [PMID: 37274310 PMCID: PMC10232903 DOI: 10.3389/fcimb.2023.1200478] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/05/2023] [Accepted: 05/08/2023] [Indexed: 06/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Extracellular vesicles (EVs or exosomes) are well described for bacterial pathogens associated with our gastrointestinal system, and more recently as a novel mechanism for environmental persistence, dissemination and infection for human enteric viruses. However, the roles played by EVs in the ancient arms race that continues between amoebae and one of their prey, Legionella pneumophila, is poorly understood. At best we know of intracellular vesicles of amoebae containing a mix of bacterial prey species, which also provides an enhanced niche for bacteriophage infection/spread. Free-living amoeba-associated pathogens have recently been recognized to have enhanced resistance to disinfection and environmental stressors, adding to previously understood (but for relatively few species of) bacteria sequestered within amoebal cysts. However, the focus of the current work is to review the likely impacts of large numbers of respiratory-sized EVs containing numerous L. pneumophila cells studied in pure and biofilm systems with mixed prey species. These encapsulated pathogens are orders of magnitude more resistant to disinfection than free cells, and our engineered systems with residual disinfectants could promote evolution of resistance (including AMR), enhanced virulence and EV release. All these are key features for evolution within a dead-end human pathogen post lung infection. Traditional single-hit pathogen infection models used to estimate the probability of infection/disease and critical environmental concentrations via quantitative microbial risk assessments may also need to change. In short, recognizing that EV-packaged cells are highly virulent units for transmission of legionellae, which may also modulate/avoid human host immune responses. Key data gaps are raised and a previous conceptual model expanded upon to clarify where biofilm EVs could play a role promoting risk as well as inform a more wholistic management program to proactively control legionellosis.
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12
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Gea-Izquierdo E, Gil-de-Miguel Á, Rodríguez-Caravaca G. Legionella pneumophila Risk from Air–Water Cooling Units Regarding Pipe Material and Type of Water. Microorganisms 2023; 11:microorganisms11030638. [PMID: 36985212 PMCID: PMC10053303 DOI: 10.3390/microorganisms11030638] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/22/2023] [Revised: 02/27/2023] [Accepted: 02/28/2023] [Indexed: 03/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Legionellosis is a respiratory disease related to environmental health. There have been manifold studies of pipe materials, risk installations and legionellosis without considering the type of transferred water. The objective of this study was to determine the potential development of the causative agent Legionella pneumophila regarding air–water cooling units, legislative compliance, pipe material and type of water. Forty-four hotel units in Andalusia (Spain) were analysed with respect to compliance with Spanish health legislation for the prevention of legionellosis. The chi-square test was used to explain the relationship between material–water and legislative compliance, and a biplot of the first two factors was generated. Multiple correspondence analysis (MCA) was performed on the type of equipment, legislative compliance, pipe material and type of water, and graphs of cases were constructed by adding confidence ellipses by categories of the variables. Pipe material–type of water (p value = 0.29; p < 0.05) and legislative compliance were not associated (p value = 0.15; p < 0.05). Iron, stainless steel, and recycled and well water contributed the most to the biplot. MCA showed a global pattern in which lead, iron and polyethylene were well represented. Confidence ellipses around categories indicated significant differences among categories. Compliance with Spanish health legislation regarding the prevention and control of legionellosis linked to pipe material and type of water was not observed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Enrique Gea-Izquierdo
- Preventive Medicine and Public Health, Rey Juan Carlos University, 28922 Madrid, Spain
- Maria Zambrano Program, European Union, Spain
- Correspondence:
| | - Ángel Gil-de-Miguel
- Preventive Medicine and Public Health, Rey Juan Carlos University, 28922 Madrid, Spain
- CIBER of Respiratory Diseases (CIBERES), Instituto de Salud Carlos III, 28029 Madrid, Spain
| | - Gil Rodríguez-Caravaca
- Preventive Medicine and Public Health, Rey Juan Carlos University, 28922 Madrid, Spain
- Department of Preventive Medicine, Hospital Universitario Fundación Alcorcón, Universidad Rey Juan Carlos, 28922 Madrid, Spain
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13
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Paddy EN, Afolabi OOD, Sohail M. Toilet plume bioaerosols in health care and hospitality settings: A systematic review. Am J Infect Control 2023; 51:324-333. [PMID: 35870658 DOI: 10.1016/j.ajic.2022.07.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/17/2022] [Revised: 07/07/2022] [Accepted: 07/08/2022] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The spread of some respiratory and gastro-intestinal infections has been linked to the exposure to infectious bioaerosols released after toilet flushing. This represents a health hazard and infection risk for immunocompromised patients, health workers and the public, particularly within the health care and hospitality settings. This systematic review provides current knowledge and identifies gaps in the evidence regarding toilet plume bioaerosols and the potential contributory role in spreading infections in health care and hospitality settings. METHODS The PRISMA guidelines were used. Searches were run in PubMed, Scopus, and Google Scholar from 1950 to 30th June 2021. Searches of global and regional reports and updates from relevant international and governmental organizations were also conducted. RESULTS AND CONCLUSION The search yielded 712 results, and 37 studies were finally selected for this review. There is a lack of national and international bioaerosol sampling and exposure standards for health care and hospitality settings. Toilet plume bioaerosols are complex in nature, thus, measured bioaerosol concentrations in these settings depend on many variables and may differ for every pathogen responsible for a particular infectious disease. The contact and airborne transmission risks posed by toilet plume bioaerosols also remain unquantified. They are an important pathway that can increase the exposure to enteric and airborne pathogens. Hence, quantitative risk assessment and related research are needed to investigate these transmission risks.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elizabeth N Paddy
- School of Architecture, Building and Civil Engineering, Loughborough University, Loughborough, Leicestershire, United Kingdom.
| | - Oluwasola O D Afolabi
- School of Architecture, Building and Civil Engineering, Loughborough University, Loughborough, Leicestershire, United Kingdom
| | - M Sohail
- School of Architecture, Building and Civil Engineering, Loughborough University, Loughborough, Leicestershire, United Kingdom
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14
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Fito J, Tibebu S, Nkambule TTI. Optimization of Cr (VI) removal from aqueous solution with activated carbon derived from Eichhornia crassipes under response surface methodology. BMC Chem 2023; 17:4. [PMID: 36782231 PMCID: PMC9926672 DOI: 10.1186/s13065-023-00913-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/09/2022] [Accepted: 02/03/2023] [Indexed: 02/15/2023] Open
Abstract
Tannery industries' effluent contains a high concentration of Cr (VI) which has the potential to affect the environment and public health. Therefore, this study aimed to investigate the optimization of Cr (VI) adsorption by activated carbon (AC) derived from Eichhornia crassipes from an aqueous solution. The adsorbent was activated with dilute sulfuric acid followed by thermal activation. AC was characterized using proximate analysis, SEM, FTIR, X-ray diffraction, and the BET method. The Cr (VI) removal optimization process was performed using a central composite design under the response surface methodology. The proximate analysis showed that the moisture content, volatile matter, ash content, and fixed carbon of the activated carbon were 5.6%, 18.2%, 14.4%, and 61.8% respectively. The surface areas of the Eichhornia crassipes before activation, after activation, and after adsorption were 60.6 g/m2, 794.2 g/m2, and 412.6 g/m2 respectively. A highly porous structure with heterogeneous and irregular shapes was observed in the SEM micrograph. In the FTIR analysis, different peaks are indicated with various functional groups. The intensity of XRD peaks decreased as 2 theta values increased, which indicates the presence of an amorphous carbon arrangement. The point of zero charge (pHpzc) of the activated carbon was found to be 5.20. A maximum Cr (VI) removal of 98.4% was achieved at pH 5, contact time 90 min, adsorbent dose 2 g, and initial Cr (VI) concentration of 2.25 mg/L. Statistically significant interactions (P < 0.05) were observed between the initial Cr (VI) concentration and adsorbent dose as well as the initial Cr (VI) concentration and contact time. Langmuir adsorption isotherm fitted the experimental data best, with an R2 value of 0.99. The separation constant (RL) indicates that the adsorption process is favorable. The kinetic experimental data were best fitted with the pseudo-second-order model with an R2 value of 0.99 whereas the adsorption rate is controlled by intraparticle and extragranular diffusion processes. Generally, the AC has the potential to be a strong adsorbent candidate for wastewater treatment at the industrial level.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jemal Fito
- grid.412801.e0000 0004 0610 3238Institute for Nanotechnology and Water Sustainability (iNanoWS), College of Science, Engineering and Technology, Florida Science Campus, University of South Africa, Johannesburg, 1710 South Africa
| | - Solomon Tibebu
- Department of Environmental Engineering, College of Biological and Chemical Engineering, Sustainable Energy Center of Excellence, Bioprocess and Biotechnology Center of Excellence, Addis Ababa Science and Technology University, 16417, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.
| | - Thabo T. I. Nkambule
- grid.412801.e0000 0004 0610 3238Institute for Nanotechnology and Water Sustainability (iNanoWS), College of Science, Engineering and Technology, Florida Science Campus, University of South Africa, Johannesburg, 1710 South Africa
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15
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Luo D, Huang J, Zheng X, Liu F, Li Y, Wang Y, Qian H. Spread of flushing-generated fecal aerosols in a squat toilet cubicle: Implication for infection risk. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2023; 859:160212. [PMID: 36395842 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2022.160212] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/20/2022] [Revised: 10/27/2022] [Accepted: 11/12/2022] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
Toilet flushing generates and spread fecal aerosols, potentially leading to infection transmission risk. Squat toilets are widely used in public restrooms in some Asian countries including China and India, and remain to be studied. Aerosol dispersion while flushing squat toilet in cubicle was visualized, while the aerosol concentrations were measured on different surfaces by monitoring fluorescence intensity through seeding simulated fluorescence feces. Flushing-generated fecal aerosols could spread to the breathing zone, deposit on floor, and partitions in squat toilet cubicles, and spread even beyond to the restroom lobby. A total of 0.24 % and 0.17 % of seeded fecal waste deposits on the floor and partition (lower than 0.20 m) for each flush. Aerosol concentration decays rapidly, with 86.8 ± 2.2 % reduction in the second minute after a previous flush compared to that in the first minute. Public toilet users are recommended to wait for 2 min after the early flush before entering the cubicle.
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Affiliation(s)
- Danting Luo
- School of Energy and Environment, Southeast University, Nanjing, China; Engineering Research Center for Building Energy Environments & Equipments, Ministry of Education, China; Hubei Engineering Center for Infectious Disease Prevention, Control and Treatment, Wuhan, China
| | - Jiayu Huang
- School of Energy and Environment, Southeast University, Nanjing, China; Engineering Research Center for Building Energy Environments & Equipments, Ministry of Education, China
| | - Xiaohong Zheng
- School of Energy and Environment, Southeast University, Nanjing, China; Engineering Research Center for Building Energy Environments & Equipments, Ministry of Education, China
| | - Fan Liu
- School of Energy and Environment, Southeast University, Nanjing, China; University of Shanghai for Science and Technology, Shanghai, China
| | - Yuguo Li
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, The University of Hong Kong, Pokfulam Road, Hong Kong, China
| | - Ying Wang
- Hubei Engineering Center for Infectious Disease Prevention, Control and Treatment, Wuhan, China; Department of infection management, Zhongnan Hospital of Wuhan University, Wuhan, Hubei, China
| | - Hua Qian
- School of Energy and Environment, Southeast University, Nanjing, China; Engineering Research Center for Building Energy Environments & Equipments, Ministry of Education, China; Hubei Engineering Center for Infectious Disease Prevention, Control and Treatment, Wuhan, China.
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16
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Schutte-Smith M, Erasmus E, Mogale R, Marogoa N, Jayiya A, Visser HG. Using visible light to activate antiviral and antimicrobial properties of TiO 2 nanoparticles in paints and coatings: focus on new developments for frequent-touch surfaces in hospitals. JOURNAL OF COATINGS TECHNOLOGY AND RESEARCH 2023; 20:789-817. [PMID: 36777289 PMCID: PMC9904533 DOI: 10.1007/s11998-022-00733-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/27/2022] [Revised: 10/27/2022] [Accepted: 10/30/2022] [Indexed: 05/05/2023]
Abstract
The COVID-19 pandemic refocused scientists the world over to produce technologies that will be able to prevent the spread of such diseases in the future. One area that deservedly receives much attention is the disinfection of health facilities like hospitals, public areas like bathrooms and train stations, and cleaning areas in the food industry. Microorganisms and viruses can attach to and survive on surfaces for a long time in most cases, increasing the risk for infection. One of the most attractive disinfection methods is paints and coatings containing nanoparticles that act as photocatalysts. Of these, titanium dioxide is appealing due to its low cost and photoreactivity. However, on its own, it can only be activated under high-energy UV light due to the high band gap and fast recombination of photogenerated species. The ideal material or coating should be activated under artificial light conditions to impact indoor areas, especially considering wall paints or frequent-touch areas like door handles and elevator buttons. By introducing dopants to TiO2 NPs, the bandgap can be lowered to a state of visible-light photocatalysis occurring. Naturally, many researchers are exploring this property now. This review article highlights the most recent advancements and research on visible-light activation of TiO2-doped NPs in coatings and paints. The progress in fighting air pollution and personal protective equipment is also briefly discussed. Graphical Abstract Indoor visible-light photocatalytic activation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) over TiO2 nanoparticles in paint to kill bacteria and coat frequently touched surfaces in the medical and food industries.
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Affiliation(s)
- M. Schutte-Smith
- Department of Chemistry, University of the Free State, P.O. Box 339, Bloemfontein, 9300 South Africa
| | - E. Erasmus
- Department of Chemistry, University of the Free State, P.O. Box 339, Bloemfontein, 9300 South Africa
| | - R. Mogale
- Department of Chemistry, University of the Free State, P.O. Box 339, Bloemfontein, 9300 South Africa
| | - N. Marogoa
- Department of Chemistry, University of the Free State, P.O. Box 339, Bloemfontein, 9300 South Africa
| | - A. Jayiya
- Department of Chemistry, University of the Free State, P.O. Box 339, Bloemfontein, 9300 South Africa
| | - H. G. Visser
- Department of Chemistry, University of the Free State, P.O. Box 339, Bloemfontein, 9300 South Africa
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17
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Zhou Q, Huang J, Guo K, Lou Y, Wang H, Zhou R, Tang J, Hou P. Spatiotemporal distribution of opportunistic pathogens and microbial community in centralized rural drinking water: One year survey in China. ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH 2023; 218:115045. [PMID: 36513125 DOI: 10.1016/j.envres.2022.115045] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/29/2022] [Revised: 11/18/2022] [Accepted: 12/09/2022] [Indexed: 06/17/2023]
Abstract
Centralized water supply in rural areas, supported by small waterworks (small-central mode) and by municipal water treatment plants (urban-extension mode), is an important guarantee to implement the Rural Revitalization Strategy Plan (2018-2022) in China. Opportunistic pathogens (OPs) could not be evaluated by the national drinking water sanitation standards in China (GB 5749-2022), posing potential microbial risks in rural drinking water. In this study, the spatiotemporal distribution of OPs, microbial community and the associated functional composition under two central water supply modes were investigated by molecular approaches. The results indicated that OPs were widely presented in the rural drinking water regardless of water supply modes, and were more abundant than those in the urban tap water. The insufficient residual chlorine and higher turbidity triggered more microbial proliferation, posing a seasonal variation of OPs gene copy numbers and bacterial community compositions. In warm seasons of summer and autumn, the gene copies of E. coli, M. avium, Pseudomonas spp. and the amoeba host Acanthamoeba spp. achieved up to 4.92, 3.94, 6.75 and 3.74 log10 (gene copies/mL), respectively. Potential functional prediction indicated higher relative abundance of pathogenic genes and infectious risks associated with the rural drinking water under small-central water supply mode. This one-year survey of the spatiotemporal distribution of OPs and microbial community provided scientific insights into microbial safety of rural drinking water, prompting attention on small-central water supply mode against OPs risks.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qiaomei Zhou
- College of Materials and Environmental Engineering, Hangzhou Dianzi University, Hangzhou, 310018, PR China.
| | - Jingang Huang
- College of Materials and Environmental Engineering, Hangzhou Dianzi University, Hangzhou, 310018, PR China; The Belt and Road Information Research Institute, Hangzhou Dianzi University, Hangzhou, 310018, PR China.
| | - Kangyin Guo
- College of Materials and Environmental Engineering, Hangzhou Dianzi University, Hangzhou, 310018, PR China; Zhejiang Sunrise Garment Group Co., Ltd., Shengzhou, 312400, PR China
| | - Yucheng Lou
- College of Materials and Environmental Engineering, Hangzhou Dianzi University, Hangzhou, 310018, PR China
| | - Haibo Wang
- Key Laboratory of Drinking Water Science and Technology, Research Center for Eco-Environmental Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100085, PR China.
| | - Rongbing Zhou
- College of Materials and Environmental Engineering, Hangzhou Dianzi University, Hangzhou, 310018, PR China
| | - Junhong Tang
- College of Materials and Environmental Engineering, Hangzhou Dianzi University, Hangzhou, 310018, PR China
| | - Pingzhi Hou
- The Belt and Road Information Research Institute, Hangzhou Dianzi University, Hangzhou, 310018, PR China
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18
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Succar A, Lefebvre X, Prévost M, Bédard E, Robert E. Characterization of the aerosol produced from an aerated jet. WATER RESEARCH 2023; 229:119432. [PMID: 36495852 DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2022.119432] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/17/2022] [Revised: 11/15/2022] [Accepted: 11/25/2022] [Indexed: 06/17/2023]
Abstract
Faucet aerators that form aerated water jets generate aerosols, which can constitute a risk of infection if the water is contaminated, particularly for vulnerable individuals near the sink. In this study, we characterize the size and trajectory of water droplets produced from an aerated jet. The detected particle diameter ranged from 3 to 150μm. The concentration of droplets in the air varied from near-zero to a maximum of 2×1011particles/m3, depending on the location relative to the jet. We found four relevant categories of droplets based on their trajectories following their emission at the jet's free surface: particles with inertia high enough to escape the immediate vicinity of the jet (category 1), particles moving towards the jet (category 2), particles drawn into the aerator, which only included particles with a diameter smaller than 50μm (category 3), and particles with a near-vertical trajectory (category 4). Tracing category 1 particles to their generation location on the water interface shows a higher emission rate near the aerator. Finally, we employ a numerical model to compute the subsequent trajectories of droplets detected at the limits of the sampled domain. We find that particles whose diameter is smaller than 55μm completely dry and become airborne. Larger droplets deposit within a radius of 7cm around the jet, assuming a surface is located 20cm below the aerator tip. These results increase the fundamental understanding of the emission mechanisms of droplets in aerated jets and their fate in the sink environment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Antonella Succar
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Polytechnique Montréal, Montréal, QC, Canada.
| | - Xavier Lefebvre
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Polytechnique Montréal, Montréal, QC, Canada
| | - Michèle Prévost
- Industrial Chair on Drinking Water, Department of Civil, Geological and Mining Engineering, Polytechnique Montréal, Montréal, QC, Canada
| | - Emilie Bédard
- Department of Civil, Geological and Mining Engineering, Polytechnique Montréal, Montréal, QC, Canada
| | - Etienne Robert
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Polytechnique Montréal, Montréal, QC, Canada
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19
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Wilson AM, Canter K, Abney SE, Gerba CP, Myers ER, Hanlin J, Reynolds KA. An application for relating Legionella shower water monitoring results to estimated health outcomes. WATER RESEARCH 2022; 221:118812. [PMID: 35816914 DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2022.118812] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/27/2022] [Revised: 06/27/2022] [Accepted: 07/01/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
Exposure models are useful tools for relating environmental monitoring data to expected health outcomes. The objective of this study was to (1) compare two Legionella shower exposure models, and (2) develop a risk calculator tool for relating environmental monitoring data to estimated Legionella infection risks and Legionnaires' Disease (LD) illness risks. Legionella infection risks for a single shower event were compared using two shower Legionella exposure models. These models varied in their description of partitioning of Legionella in aerosols and aerosol deposition in the lung, where Model 1 had larger and fewer aerosol ranges than Model 2. Model 2 described conventional vs. water efficient showers separately, while Model 1 described exposure for an unspecified shower type (did not describe it as conventional or water efficient). A Monte Carlo approach was used to account for variability and uncertainty in these aerosolization and deposition parameters, Legionella concentrations, and the dose-response parameter. Methods for relating infection risks to illness risks accounting for demographic differences were used to inform the risk calculator web application ("app"). Model 2 consistently estimated higher infection risks than Model 1 for the same Legionella concentration in water and estimated deposited doses with less variability. For a 7.8-min shower with a Legionella concentration of 0.1 CFU/mL, the average infection risks estimated using Model 2 were 4.8 × 10-6 (SD=3.0 × 10-6) (conventional shower) and 2.3 × 10-6 (SD=1.7 × 10-6) (water efficient). Average infection risk estimated by Model 1 was 1.1 × 10-6 (SD=9.7 × 10-7). Model 2 was used for app development due to more conservative risk estimates and less variability in estimated dose. While multiple Legionella shower models are available for quantitative microbial risk assessments (QMRAs), they may yield notably different infection risks for the same environmental microbial concentration. Model comparisons will inform decisions regarding their integration with risk assessment tools. The development of risk calculator tools for relating environmental microbiology data to infection risks will increase the impact of exposure models for informing water treatment decisions and achieving risk targets.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amanda M Wilson
- Department of Community, Environment and Policy, Mel and Enid Zuckerman College of Public Health, University of Arizona, 1295 N. Martin Avenue, Drachman Hall, PO Box: 245210, Tucson, AZ 85724, United States; Rocky Mountain Center for Occupational and Environmental Health, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT, United States
| | - Kelly Canter
- Ecolab Research, Development & Engineering, Eagan, MN, United States
| | - Sarah E Abney
- Department of Community, Environment and Policy, Mel and Enid Zuckerman College of Public Health, University of Arizona, 1295 N. Martin Avenue, Drachman Hall, PO Box: 245210, Tucson, AZ 85724, United States; Department of Soil, Water, and Environmental Science, College of Agriculture and Life Sciences, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, United States
| | - Charles P Gerba
- Department of Community, Environment and Policy, Mel and Enid Zuckerman College of Public Health, University of Arizona, 1295 N. Martin Avenue, Drachman Hall, PO Box: 245210, Tucson, AZ 85724, United States; Department of Soil, Water, and Environmental Science, College of Agriculture and Life Sciences, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, United States
| | - Eric R Myers
- Nalco Water, An Ecolab Company, Naperville, IL, United States
| | - John Hanlin
- Ecolab Research, Development & Engineering, Eagan, MN, United States
| | - Kelly A Reynolds
- Department of Community, Environment and Policy, Mel and Enid Zuckerman College of Public Health, University of Arizona, 1295 N. Martin Avenue, Drachman Hall, PO Box: 245210, Tucson, AZ 85724, United States.
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Rocha-Melogno L, Crank KC, Ginn O, Bergin MH, Brown J, Gray GC, Hamilton KA, Bibby K, Deshusses MA. Quantitative microbial risk assessment of outdoor aerosolized pathogens in cities with poor sanitation. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2022; 827:154233. [PMID: 35245543 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2022.154233] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/16/2021] [Revised: 02/08/2022] [Accepted: 02/25/2022] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
The aeromicrobiological transmission pathway of enteric pathogens in places with unsafe sanitation services is poorly understood. In an attempt to partly fill this knowledge gap, we assessed the potential public health impact of bioaerosols near open waste canals (OWCs) using Quantitative Microbial Risk Assessment (QMRA). We used data acquired in La Paz, Bolivia to characterize the risk of disease that aerosolized enteric pathogens may pose through food, fomites and inhalation (all followed by ingestion). Three reference pathogens were selected to conduct the assessment: enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli (ETEC), Shigella flexneri, and Campylobacter jejuni. Inhalation followed by ingestion had the highest median infection risk per event i.e. 3 × 10-5 (3 infections for every 100,000 exposures), compared to contaminated food e.g. 5 × 10-6 and fomites e.g. 2 × 10-7, all for C. jejuni infections. Our sensitivity analysis showed that bacterial fluxes from the air were the most influential factor on risk. Our results suggest that fecal bacterial aerosols from OWCs present non-negligible risks of infection in La Paz, with median annual infection risks by C. jejuni being 18 (food), and 100 (inhalation) times greater than the EPA's standard for drinking water (1 × 10-4). We included two of the QMRA models presented here in a novel web application we developed for user-specified application in different contexts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lucas Rocha-Melogno
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Duke University, Durham, NC 27708, United States; Duke Global Health Institute, Duke University, Durham, NC 27710, United States; ICF, 2635 Meridian Parkway Suite 200, Durham, NC 27713, United States
| | - Katherine C Crank
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering and Earth Sciences, University of Notre Dame, IN 46556, United States
| | - Olivia Ginn
- School of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA 30332, United States
| | - Michael H Bergin
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Duke University, Durham, NC 27708, United States
| | - Joe Brown
- Department of Environmental Sciences and Engineering, Gillings School of Global Public Health, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC 27599, United States
| | - Gregory C Gray
- Duke Global Health Institute, Duke University, Durham, NC 27710, United States; Division of Infectious Diseases, Duke University School of Medicine, Durham, NC 27710, United States; Global Health Research Center, Duke-Kunshan University, Kunshan, China; Emerging Infectious Diseases Program, Duke-NUS Medical School, Singapore, Singapore; Division of Infectious Diseases, University of Texas Medical Branch (UTMB), Galveston, TX 77555, United States
| | - Kerry A Hamilton
- School of Sustainable Engineering and the Built Environment, Arizona State University, 770 S College Ave, Tempe, AZ 85281, United States; The Biodesign Institute Center for Environmental Health Engineering, Arizona State University, 1001 S McAllister Ave, Tempe, AZ 85281, United States
| | - Kyle Bibby
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering and Earth Sciences, University of Notre Dame, IN 46556, United States
| | - Marc A Deshusses
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Duke University, Durham, NC 27708, United States; Duke Global Health Institute, Duke University, Durham, NC 27710, United States.
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21
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Xu PC, Zhang CM, Wang XC. Numerical simulation for spatial distribution of water aerosol produced from nozzle spray and health risk related to Legionella pneumophila in spray scenarios. WATER RESEARCH 2022; 216:118304. [PMID: 35325820 DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2022.118304] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/13/2021] [Revised: 02/22/2022] [Accepted: 03/14/2022] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
Water spray facilities are widely used in public places for sprinkling or beautifying the environment. However, the potential health risk induced by water aerosols increasingly calls for attention. In this study, the spatial distribution of water aerosols was investigated through the molecular sieve adsorption method, and predicted by discrete phase model (DPM). On this basis, the health risk regarding Legionella pneumophila for specific spray scenarios was evaluated by quantitative microbial risk assessment (QMRA). The results showed that the original droplet size can be described by the Rosin_Rommaler distribution (R2>0.99). The spatial distribution of water aerosols produced from a nozzle spray can be well predicted by the DPM. The concentration of water aerosols showed a sharp decline within 5 m from the nozzle and was not significantly different within 5 m (p>0.05) as for various spray scenarios. However, the difference was significant outside 5 m (p<0.05). Furthermore, a safe contact distance of exceeding 8 m is proposed in spray scenarios considering the risk threshold of 0.0001. Sensitivity analysis demonstrated the concentration of Legionella pneumophila in water aerosols as the critical factor affecting the health risk.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peng-Cheng Xu
- School of Environmental and Municipal Engineering, Xi'an University of Architecture and Technology, Xi'an, 710055, China; Key Lab of Northwest Water Resource, Environment and Ecology, Ministry of Education, Xi'an University of Architecture and Technology, Xi'an, 710055, China; Shaanxi Key Laboratory of Environmental Engineering, Xi'an University of Architecture and Technology, Xi'an, 710055, China; International Science and Technology Cooperation Center for Urban Alternative Water Resources Development, Xi'an University of Architecture and Technology, Xi'an, 710055, China
| | - Chong-Miao Zhang
- School of Environmental and Municipal Engineering, Xi'an University of Architecture and Technology, Xi'an, 710055, China; Key Lab of Northwest Water Resource, Environment and Ecology, Ministry of Education, Xi'an University of Architecture and Technology, Xi'an, 710055, China; Shaanxi Key Laboratory of Environmental Engineering, Xi'an University of Architecture and Technology, Xi'an, 710055, China; International Science and Technology Cooperation Center for Urban Alternative Water Resources Development, Xi'an University of Architecture and Technology, Xi'an, 710055, China.
| | - Xiaochang C Wang
- School of Environmental and Municipal Engineering, Xi'an University of Architecture and Technology, Xi'an, 710055, China; Key Lab of Northwest Water Resource, Environment and Ecology, Ministry of Education, Xi'an University of Architecture and Technology, Xi'an, 710055, China; International Science and Technology Cooperation Center for Urban Alternative Water Resources Development, Xi'an University of Architecture and Technology, Xi'an, 710055, China
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22
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Rasuli L, Dehghani MH, Aghaei M, Mahvi AH, Mubarak NM, Karri RR. Occurrence and fate of bacterial endotoxins in the environment (air, water, wastewater) and remediation technologies: An overview. CHEMOSPHERE 2022; 303:135089. [PMID: 35623438 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2022.135089] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/04/2022] [Revised: 05/10/2022] [Accepted: 05/21/2022] [Indexed: 12/07/2022]
Abstract
Endotoxins as the outer membrane of most Gram-Negative Bacteria (GNB) and typical toxic biochemical produced by microorganisms are identified as one of the emerging pollutants. These microbial by-products are harmful compounds that can be present in various environments including air, water, soil, and other ecosystems which was discussed in detail in this review. Environmental and occupational exposure caused by endotoxin occurs in water and wastewater treatment plants, industrial plants, farming, waste recovery, and composting facilities. Even though the health risk related to endotoxin injection in intravenous and dialysis are well identified, the harmful effects of ingestion, inhalation, and other way of exposure are not well quantified and there is insufficient information on the potential health risks of endotoxins exposure in water environments, and another exposures. Because of limited studies, the outbreaks of diseases related to endotoxins in the various source of exposure not been well documented. Endotoxin removal from different environments are investigated in this review. The results of various studies have shown that conventional treatment methods have been unable to remove endotoxins from water and wastewater, therefore, monitoring the effectiveness of these processes in controlling this contaminant and also using the appropriate removal method is essential. However, management of water and wastewater treatment processes and the use of advanced processes such as Advanced Oxidation Processes (AOPs) can be effective in monitoring and reducing endotoxin levels during water and wastewater treatment. One of the limitations of endotoxin monitoring is the lack of sufficient information to develop monitoring levels. In addition, the lack of guidelinesand methods of controlling them at high levels may cause irreparable disaster.
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Affiliation(s)
- Leila Rasuli
- Qazvin University of Medical Science, Qazvin, Iran
| | - Mohammad Hadi Dehghani
- Department of Environmental Health Engineering, School of Public Health, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran; Institute for Environmental Research, Center for Solid Waste Research, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran.
| | - Mina Aghaei
- Department of Environmental Health Engineering, School of Public Health, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Amir Hossein Mahvi
- Department of Environmental Health Engineering, School of Public Health, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran; Institute for Environmental Research, Center for Solid Waste Research, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Nabisab Mujawar Mubarak
- Petroleum and Chemical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Universiti Teknologi Brunei, Bandar Seri Begawan, BE1410, Brunei Darussalam
| | - Rama Rao Karri
- Petroleum and Chemical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Universiti Teknologi Brunei, Bandar Seri Begawan, BE1410, Brunei Darussalam
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Zhang J, He X, Zhang H, Liao Y, Wang Q, Li L, Yu J. Factors Driving Microbial Community Dynamics and Potential Health Effects of Bacterial Pathogen on Landscape Lakes with Reclaimed Water Replenishment in Beijing, PR China. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2022; 19:ijerph19095127. [PMID: 35564521 PMCID: PMC9106022 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph19095127] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/13/2022] [Revised: 04/20/2022] [Accepted: 04/20/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Assessing the bacteria pathogens in the lakes with reclaimed water as major influents are important for public health. This study investigated microbial communities of five landscape lakes replenished by reclaimed water, then analyzed driven factors and identified health effects of bacterial pathogens. 16S rRNA gene sequence analysis demonstrated that Proteobacteria, Actinobacteria, Cyanobacteria, Firmicutes, and Verrucomicrobia were the most dominant phyla in five landscape lakes. The microbial community diversities were higher in June and July than that in other months. Temperature, total nitrogen and phosphorus were the main drivers of the dominant microbial from the Redundancy analysis (RDA) results. Various potential bacterial pathogens were identified, including Pseudomonas, GKS98_freshwater_group, Sporosarcina, Pseudochrobactrum, Streptomyces and Bacillus, etc, some of which are easily infectious to human. The microbial network analysis showed that some potential pathogens were nodes that had significant health effects. The work provides a basis for understanding the microbial community dynamics and safety issues for health effects in landscape lakes replenished by reclaimed water.
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Affiliation(s)
- Junzhi Zhang
- Beijing Climate Change Response Research and Education Center, Beijing University of Civil Engineering and Architecture, Beijing 100044, China; (X.H.); (H.Z.); (Y.L.); (L.L.)
- Correspondence: (J.Z.); (J.Y.); Tel.: +86-010-6120-9207 (J.Z.); +86-010-6284-9149 (J.Y.)
| | - Xiao He
- Beijing Climate Change Response Research and Education Center, Beijing University of Civil Engineering and Architecture, Beijing 100044, China; (X.H.); (H.Z.); (Y.L.); (L.L.)
| | - Huixin Zhang
- Beijing Climate Change Response Research and Education Center, Beijing University of Civil Engineering and Architecture, Beijing 100044, China; (X.H.); (H.Z.); (Y.L.); (L.L.)
| | - Yu Liao
- Beijing Climate Change Response Research and Education Center, Beijing University of Civil Engineering and Architecture, Beijing 100044, China; (X.H.); (H.Z.); (Y.L.); (L.L.)
| | - Qi Wang
- Key Laboratory of Drinking Water Science and Technology, Research Center for Eco-Environmental Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100085, China;
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100019, China
| | - Luwei Li
- Beijing Climate Change Response Research and Education Center, Beijing University of Civil Engineering and Architecture, Beijing 100044, China; (X.H.); (H.Z.); (Y.L.); (L.L.)
| | - Jianwei Yu
- Key Laboratory of Drinking Water Science and Technology, Research Center for Eco-Environmental Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100085, China;
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100019, China
- Correspondence: (J.Z.); (J.Y.); Tel.: +86-010-6120-9207 (J.Z.); +86-010-6284-9149 (J.Y.)
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24
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Zhang CM, Xu PC, Du WW, Wang XC. Exposure parameters and health risk of Cryptosporidium and Giardia in the recreational water activities for urban residents in China. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND POLLUTION RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2022; 29:1573-1583. [PMID: 34363153 DOI: 10.1007/s11356-021-15463-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/16/2021] [Accepted: 07/12/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Knowledge gaps in the exposure parameters for recreational water activities make quantitative risk assessment related to water recreation difficult. Therefore, the annual exposure frequency and single exposure duration for the recreational water activities of residents from ten cities in the North and South of China were investigated. Questionnaire interviews were carried on recreational water activities comprising swimming (SW), boating (BA), playing in interactive fountains (PF), and watching fountains (WF). Quantitative microbial risk assessment for the exposure of urban residents to Cryptosporidium and Giardia was also performed. For the four recreational water activities, the participation rates of urban residents in SW and WF were higher than the others. For SW and BA, the mean annual exposure frequency and single exposure duration for males were significantly higher than those for females. PF and WF showed the opposite. The annual exposure frequency for above 35-year-old residents was higher than that for young residents (18-35 years). However, the single exposure duration for young residents was highest in SW, BA, and PF. The mean annual exposure frequency and single exposure duration for North China residents were higher than those for South China residents in all recreational water activities, except for SW. Overall, the annual exposure frequency and single exposure duration in recreational water activities for all urban residents followed a lognormal distribution. In the four recreational water activities, the total annual infection risk of male exposure to Cryptosporidium was 1.0 × 10-2, with the confidence intervals between 95 and 5% of [4.3 × 10-4, 3.7 × 10-2], whereas that for females was 6.8 × 10-3 and [4.2 × 10-4, 2.4 × 10-2]. Also, the annual infection risk of males to Giardia was 8.8 × 10-3 and [5.1×10-4, 3.2×10-2], and that of females was 5.3 × 10-3 and [4.0 × 10-4, 1.8 × 10-2]. These results demonstrated that SW and PF made the highest contribution to the total annual infection risk. Sensitivity analysis highlighted that the characterization of exposure parameters plays a critical role in health risk assessment, which may provide a scientific basis for recreational water quality standards formulation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chong-Miao Zhang
- School of Environmental and Municipal Engineering, Xi'an University of Architecture and Technology, Xi'an, 710055, China.
- Key Laboratory of Northwest Water Resource, Environment and Ecology, Ministry of Education, Xi'an University of Architecture and Technology, Xi'an, 710055, China.
- Shaanxi Key Laboratory of Environmental Engineering, Xi'an University of Architecture and Technology, Xi'an, 710055, China.
- International Science and Technology Cooperation Center for Urban Alternative Water Resources Development, Xi'an University of Architecture and Technology, Xi'an, 710055, China.
| | - Peng-Cheng Xu
- School of Environmental and Municipal Engineering, Xi'an University of Architecture and Technology, Xi'an, 710055, China
- Key Laboratory of Northwest Water Resource, Environment and Ecology, Ministry of Education, Xi'an University of Architecture and Technology, Xi'an, 710055, China
- Shaanxi Key Laboratory of Environmental Engineering, Xi'an University of Architecture and Technology, Xi'an, 710055, China
- International Science and Technology Cooperation Center for Urban Alternative Water Resources Development, Xi'an University of Architecture and Technology, Xi'an, 710055, China
| | - Wei-Wei Du
- School of Environmental and Municipal Engineering, Xi'an University of Architecture and Technology, Xi'an, 710055, China
- Key Laboratory of Northwest Water Resource, Environment and Ecology, Ministry of Education, Xi'an University of Architecture and Technology, Xi'an, 710055, China
- Shaanxi Key Laboratory of Environmental Engineering, Xi'an University of Architecture and Technology, Xi'an, 710055, China
| | - Xiaochang C Wang
- Key Laboratory of Northwest Water Resource, Environment and Ecology, Ministry of Education, Xi'an University of Architecture and Technology, Xi'an, 710055, China
- International Science and Technology Cooperation Center for Urban Alternative Water Resources Development, Xi'an University of Architecture and Technology, Xi'an, 710055, China
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25
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Wang RN, Li X, Yan C. Seasonal fluctuation of aerosolization ratio of bioaerosols and quantitative microbial risk assessment in a wastewater treatment plant. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND POLLUTION RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2021; 28:68615-68632. [PMID: 34273075 DOI: 10.1007/s11356-021-15462-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/12/2021] [Accepted: 07/12/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) play a vital role in public health because it can emit a large quantity of bioaerosols. Exposure to bioaerosols from WWTPs is a potential health risk to WWTP workers and surrounding residents. In this study, the seasonal fluctuation of aerosolization ratios of several bioaerosols and quantitative health risks of the WWTP workers and the surrounding residents exposed to total coliform, fecal coliform, and enterococcal bioaerosols were analyzed. Results showed that the aerosolization ratio of airborne bacteria was higher in the cold seasons and lower in the warm seasons, whereas the aerosolization ratio of airborne fungi was the highest in summer. The aerosolization ratio of airborne fungi was evidently higher than that of other bioaerosols. Moreover, the aerosolization ratio under the inverted umbrella aerator mode was generally higher than that under the microporous aerator mode. For each exposure scenario, the health risks of males were generally 7.2-26.7% higher than those of females. The health risks of the exposure population exposed to total coliform and enterococcal bioaerosols were generally higher in warm seasons, whereas those of the population exposed to fecal coliform bioaerosol were the highest in winter. Additionally, the health risks of exposure population without masks under the imprudent/conservative estimate all exceeded the benchmarks. However, when equipped with masks, all the exposure populations' health risks decreased 1-2 orders of magnitude and approached acceptable levels. This research methodically provides new scientific data on the aerosolization ratio of microorganism bioaerosols in a WWTP and promotes the comprehension of their quantitative health risks under imprudent/conservative estimates.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rui-Ning Wang
- School of Environmental Studies, China University of Geosciences, 388 Lumo Road, Wuhan, 430074, People's Republic of China
| | - Xiang Li
- Three Gorges Base Development Co., Ltd., Yichang, 443002, People's Republic of China
| | - Cheng Yan
- School of Environmental Studies, China University of Geosciences, 388 Lumo Road, Wuhan, 430074, People's Republic of China.
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26
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Wang Q, Liu L. On the Critical Role of Human Feces and Public Toilets in the Transmission of COVID-19: Evidence from China. SUSTAINABLE CITIES AND SOCIETY 2021; 75:103350. [PMID: 34540563 PMCID: PMC8433098 DOI: 10.1016/j.scs.2021.103350] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/24/2021] [Revised: 09/08/2021] [Accepted: 09/08/2021] [Indexed: 05/05/2023]
Abstract
The surprising spread speed of the COVID-19 pandemic creates an urgent need for investigating the transmission chain or transmission pattern of COVID-19 beyond the traditional respiratory channels. This study therefore examines whether human feces and public toilets play a critical role in the transmission of COVID-19. First, it develops a theoretical model that simulates the transmission chain of COVID-19 through public restrooms. Second, it uses stabilized epidemic data from China to empirically examine this theory, conducting an empirical estimation using a two-stage least squares (2SLS) model with appropriate instrumental variables (IVs). This study confirms that the wastewater directly promotes the transmission of COVID-19 within a city. However, the role of garbage in this transmission chain is more indirect in the sense that garbage has a complex relationship with public toilets, and it promotes the transmission of COVID-19 within a city through interaction with public toilets and, hence, human feces. These findings have very strong policy implications in the sense that if we can somehow use the ratio of public toilets as a policy instrument, then we can find a way to minimize the total number of infections in a region. As shown in this study, pushing the ratio of public toilets (against open defecation) to the local population in a city to its optimal level would help to reduce the total infection in a region.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qiuyun Wang
- School of Economics, Southwestern University of Finance and Economics, P.R China
| | - Lu Liu
- School of Economics, Southwestern University of Finance and Economics, P.R China
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27
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Lakho FH, Vergote J, Ihsan-Ul-Haq Khan H, Depuydt V, Depreeuw T, Van Hulle SWH, Rousseau DPL. Total value wall: Full scale demonstration of a green wall for grey water treatment and recycling. JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT 2021; 298:113489. [PMID: 34426216 DOI: 10.1016/j.jenvman.2021.113489] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/06/2021] [Revised: 07/13/2021] [Accepted: 08/05/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Greywater treatment and reuse for non-potable purposes in urban areas has become a widely researched topic to reduce the burden on fresh water resources. This study reports on the use of a green wall for treating grey water and reusing the effluent for toilet flushing, called Total Value Wall (TVW). Initially, the effectiveness of (mixtures of) different substrates, i.e. lava, lightweight expanded clay aggregates, organic soil and biochar was investigated by means of column tests. All substrates were first examined for hydraulic characteristics and later on the columns were fed with synthetic grey wastewater and followed up in terms of removal efficiency of COD and detergents. The mixture consisting of lava (50%), organic soil (25%) and biochar (25%) proved to be optimal both in terms of percolation rates and removal efficiencies, and was thus selected for the full-scale system. The full-scale TVW of 14.4 m2 was installed at a terraced house in Ghent (Belgium), and was loaded with grey water at 100 L per day. Influent and effluent quality were routinely monitored by grab sampling, water savings were monitored by means of flow meters, and electricity consumption was also accounted for. The TVW was further equipped with sensors that measure temperature, Particulate Matter (PM10) and CO2 in the air. The full-scale system obtained effluent concentrations of 13 mg.L-1 TSS, 91 mg.L-1 COD and 5 mg.L-1 BOD5. Ammonium and total coliforms were removed with removal rates of 97% and 99% (2 log units) respectively. However, an increase in effluent concentration of nitrate and phosphate was observed due to leaching from the selected substrate. Available data from the temperature sensors have clearly demonstrated the additional benefit of the TVW as an insulating layer, keeping the heat outside on warmer days, and keeping the heat inside on colder days. Overall, this study demonstrated that the TVW is a sustainable system for greywater treatment and reuse.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fida Hussain Lakho
- Laboratory for Industrial Water and Ecotechnology (LIWET), Department of Green Chemistry and Technology, Ghent University Campus Kortrijk, Sint-Martens Latemlaan 2B, B-8500, Kortrijk, Belgium.
| | - Jarne Vergote
- Laboratory for Industrial Water and Ecotechnology (LIWET), Department of Green Chemistry and Technology, Ghent University Campus Kortrijk, Sint-Martens Latemlaan 2B, B-8500, Kortrijk, Belgium
| | - Hafiz Ihsan-Ul-Haq Khan
- Laboratory for Industrial Water and Ecotechnology (LIWET), Department of Green Chemistry and Technology, Ghent University Campus Kortrijk, Sint-Martens Latemlaan 2B, B-8500, Kortrijk, Belgium
| | - Veerle Depuydt
- Flanders Knowledge Center Water (Vlakwa), Leiestraat 22, B-8500, Kortrijk, Belgium
| | - Teun Depreeuw
- Muurtuin, Vandenpeereboomstraat 16, 2140, Borgerhout, Belgium
| | - Stijn W H Van Hulle
- Laboratory for Industrial Water and Ecotechnology (LIWET), Department of Green Chemistry and Technology, Ghent University Campus Kortrijk, Sint-Martens Latemlaan 2B, B-8500, Kortrijk, Belgium
| | - Diederik P L Rousseau
- Laboratory for Industrial Water and Ecotechnology (LIWET), Department of Green Chemistry and Technology, Ghent University Campus Kortrijk, Sint-Martens Latemlaan 2B, B-8500, Kortrijk, Belgium
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28
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Haji Ali B, Shahin MS, Masoumi Sangani MM, Faghihinezhad M, Baghdadi M. Wastewater aerosols produced during flushing toilets, WWTPs, and irrigation with reclaimed municipal wastewater as indirect exposure to SARS-CoV-2. JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL CHEMICAL ENGINEERING 2021; 9:106201. [PMID: 34405082 PMCID: PMC8361049 DOI: 10.1016/j.jece.2021.106201] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/13/2021] [Revised: 08/05/2021] [Accepted: 08/10/2021] [Indexed: 05/07/2023]
Abstract
The detection of SARS-CoV-2 RNA in raw and treated wastewater can open up a fresh perspective to waterborne and aerosolized wastewater as a new transmission route of SARS-CoV-2 RNA during the current pandemic. The aim of this paper is to discuss the potential transmission of SARS-CoV-2 RNA from wastewater aerosols formed during toilet flushing, plumbing failure, wastewater treatment plants, and municipal wastewater reuse for irrigation. Moreover, how these aerosols might increase the risk of exposure to this novel coronavirus (SARS-CoV-2 RNA). This article supplies a review of the literature on the presence of SARS-CoV-2 RNA in untreated wastewater, as well as the fate and stability of SARS-CoV-2 RNA in wastewater. We also reviewed the existing literatures on generation and transmission of aerosolized wastewater through flush a toilet, house's plumbing networks, WWTPs, wastewater reuse for irrigation of agricultural areas. Finally, the article briefly studies the potential risk of infection with exposure to the fecal bioaerosols of SARS-CoV-2 RNA for the people who might be exposed through flushing toilets or faulty building plumbing systems, operators/workers in wastewater treatment plants, and workers of fields irrigated with treated wastewater - based on current knowledge. Although this review highlights the indirect transmission of SARS-CoV-2 RNA through wastewater aerosols, no research has yet clearly demonstrated the role of aerosolized wastewater in disease transmission regarding the continuation of this pandemic. Therefore, there is a need for additional studies on wastewater aerosols in transmission of COVID-19.
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Affiliation(s)
- Banafsheh Haji Ali
- School of Environment, College of Engineering, University of Tehran, Tehran, Iran
| | | | | | - Mohsen Faghihinezhad
- School of Environment, College of Engineering, University of Tehran, Tehran, Iran
| | - Majid Baghdadi
- School of Environment, College of Engineering, University of Tehran, Tehran, Iran
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29
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Ghosh S, Zhu NJ, Milligan E, Falkinham JO, Pruden A, Edwards MA. Mapping the Terrain for Pathogen Persistence and Proliferation in Non-potable Reuse Distribution Systems: Interactive Effects of Biofiltration, Disinfection, and Water Age. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2021; 55:12561-12573. [PMID: 34448580 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.1c02121] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Diverse pathogens can potentially persist and proliferate in reclaimed water distribution systems (RWDSs). The goal of this study was to evaluate interactive effects of reclaimed water treatments and water age on persistence and proliferation of multiple fecal (e.g., Klebsiella, Enterobacter) and non-fecal (e.g., Legionella, mycobacteria) gene markers in RWDSs. Six laboratory-scale RWDSs were operated in parallel receiving the influent with or without biologically active carbon (BAC) filtration + chlorination, chloramination, or no disinfectant residual. After 3 years of operation, the RWDSs were subject to sacrificial sampling and shotgun metagenomic sequencing. We developed an in-house metagenome-derived pathogen quantification pipeline, validated by quantitative polymerase chain reaction and mock community analysis, to estimate changes in abundance of ∼30 genera containing waterborne pathogens. Microbial community composition in the RWDS bulk water, biofilm, and sediments was clearly shaped by BAC filtration, disinfectant conditions, and water age. Key commonalities were noted in the ecological niches occupied by fecal pathogen markers in the RWDSs, while non-fecal pathogen markers were more varied in their distribution. BAC-filtration + chlorine was found to most effectively control the widest range of target genera. However, filtration alone or chlorine secondary disinfection alone resulted in proliferation of some of these genera containing waterborne pathogens.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sudeshna Ghosh
- Department of Civil & Environmental Engineering, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, Virginia 24060, United States
| | - Ni Joyce Zhu
- Department of Civil & Environmental Engineering, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, Virginia 24060, United States
| | - Erin Milligan
- Department of Civil & Environmental Engineering, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, Virginia 24060, United States
| | - Joseph O Falkinham
- Department of Biological Sciences, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, Virginia 24060, United States
| | - Amy Pruden
- Department of Civil & Environmental Engineering, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, Virginia 24060, United States
| | - Marc A Edwards
- Department of Civil & Environmental Engineering, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, Virginia 24060, United States
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Hamilton KA, Kuppravalli A, Heida A, Joshi S, Haas CN, Verhougstraete M, Gerrity D. Legionnaires' disease in dental offices: Quantifying aerosol risks to dental workers and patients. JOURNAL OF OCCUPATIONAL AND ENVIRONMENTAL HYGIENE 2021; 18:378-393. [PMID: 34161202 DOI: 10.1080/15459624.2021.1939878] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Legionella pneumophila is an opportunistic bacterial respiratory pathogen that is one of the leading causes of drinking water outbreaks in the United States. Dental offices pose a potential risk for inhalation or aspiration of L. pneumophila due to the high surface area to volume ratio of dental unit water lines-a feature that is conducive to biofilm growth. This is coupled with the use of high-pressure water devices (e.g., ultrasonic scalers) that produce fine aerosols within the breathing zone. Prior research confirms that L. pneumophila occurs in dental unit water lines, but the associated human health risks have not been assessed. We aimed to: (1) synthesize the evidence for transmission and management of Legionnaires' disease in dental offices; (2) create a quantitative modeling framework for predicting associated L. pneumophila infection risk; and (3) highlight influential parameters and research gaps requiring further study. We reviewed outbreaks, management guidance, and exposure studies and used these data to parameterize a quantitative microbial risk assessment (QMRA) model for L. pneumophila in dental applications. Probabilities of infection for dental hygienists and patients were assessed on a per-exposure and annual basis. We also assessed the impact of varying ventilation rates and the use of personal protective equipment (PPE). Following an instrument purge (i.e., flush) and with a ventilation rate of 1.2 air changes per hour, the median per-exposure probability of infection for dental hygienists and patients exceeded a 1-in-10,000 infection risk benchmark. Per-exposure risks for workers during a purge and annual risks for workers wearing N95 masks did not exceed the benchmark. Increasing air change rates in the treatment room from 1.2 to 10 would achieve an ∼85% risk reduction, while utilization of N95 respirators would reduce risks by ∼95%. The concentration of L. pneumophila in dental unit water lines was a dominant parameter in the model and driver of risk. Future risk assessment efforts and refinement of microbiological control protocols would benefit from expanded occurrence datasets for L. pneumophila in dental applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kerry A Hamilton
- School of Sustainable Engineering and the Built Environment, Arizona State University, Tempe, Arizona
- The Biodesign Institute Center for Environmental Health Engineering, Arizona State University, Tempe, Arizona
| | - Aditya Kuppravalli
- School of Sustainable Engineering and the Built Environment, Arizona State University, Tempe, Arizona
- The Biodesign Institute Center for Environmental Health Engineering, Arizona State University, Tempe, Arizona
- BASIS Scottsdale High School, Scottsdale, Arizona
| | - Ashley Heida
- School of Sustainable Engineering and the Built Environment, Arizona State University, Tempe, Arizona
- The Biodesign Institute Center for Environmental Health Engineering, Arizona State University, Tempe, Arizona
| | - Sayalee Joshi
- School of Sustainable Engineering and the Built Environment, Arizona State University, Tempe, Arizona
- The Biodesign Institute Center for Environmental Health Engineering, Arizona State University, Tempe, Arizona
| | - Charles N Haas
- Department of Civil, Architectural, and Environmental Engineering, Drexel University, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
| | - Marc Verhougstraete
- Mel and Enid Zuckerman College of Public Health, The University of Arizona, Tucson, Arizona
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31
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Couturier J, Ginevra C, Nesa D, Adam M, Gouot C, Descours G, Campèse C, Battipaglia G, Brissot E, Beraud L, Ranc AG, Jarraud S, Barbut F. Transmission of Legionnaires' Disease through Toilet Flushing. Emerg Infect Dis 2021; 26:1526-1528. [PMID: 32568063 PMCID: PMC7323554 DOI: 10.3201/eid2607.190941] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/06/2023] Open
Abstract
We describe 2 cases of healthcare-associated Legionnaires’ disease in patients in France hospitalized 5 months apart in the same room. Whole-genome sequencing analyses showed that clinical isolates from the patients and isolates from the room’s toilet clustered together. Toilet contamination by Legionella pneumophila could lead to a risk for exposure through flushing.
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32
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Wu S, Kang Y, Zhao Z, Liu X. Demisting and water recovery from wet cooling tower by multi-field coalescence. J DISPER SCI TECHNOL 2021. [DOI: 10.1080/01932691.2020.1724138] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Siyu Wu
- School of Chemical Engineering and Technology, Tianjin University, Tianjin, China
- Collaborative Innovation Center of Chemical Science and Engineering (Tianjin), Tianjin, China
| | - Yong Kang
- School of Chemical Engineering and Technology, Tianjin University, Tianjin, China
| | - Zihao Zhao
- School of Chemical Engineering and Technology, Tianjin University, Tianjin, China
- Collaborative Innovation Center of Chemical Science and Engineering (Tianjin), Tianjin, China
| | - Xinhe Liu
- School of Chemical Engineering and Technology, Tianjin University, Tianjin, China
- Collaborative Innovation Center of Chemical Science and Engineering (Tianjin), Tianjin, China
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33
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Gholipour S, Mohammadi F, Nikaeen M, Shamsizadeh Z, Khazeni A, Sahbaei Z, Mousavi SM, Ghobadian M, Mirhendi H. COVID-19 infection risk from exposure to aerosols of wastewater treatment plants. CHEMOSPHERE 2021; 273:129701. [PMID: 33517118 PMCID: PMC7825974 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2021.129701] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2020] [Revised: 01/17/2021] [Accepted: 01/20/2021] [Indexed: 05/03/2023]
Abstract
Fecal shedding of SARS-CoV-2 from COVID-19 patients and presence of the viral RNA in wastewater have extensively been reported. Some wastewater treatment plant (WWTP) processes generate aerosols which have the potential to transmit pathogenic microorganisms and present a health risk for exposed individuals. We analyzed the presence of viral RNA of SARS-CoV-2 in raw wastewater and air samples of WWTPs. The risk that may arise from exposure to virus-contaminated aerosols of wastewater was estimated by developing a quantitative microbial risk analysis (QMRA) method. SARS-CoV-2 was detected in 9 of 24 (37.5%) wastewater samples with a concentration about 104 genomic copies L-1. The viral RNA was also detected in 40% (6/15) of air samples. QMRA analysis showed a relatively high risk of SARS-CoV-2 infection for wastewater workers via exposure to the viral aerosols. The estimated annual infection risk ranged from 1.1 × 10-2 to 2.3 × 10-2 per person per year (PPPY) for wastewater workers which was higher than the reference level recommended by WHO (10-3 pppy). However, due to the lack of data on survival of SARS-CoV-2 in wastewater and its fate in aerosolized state, more research is needed to determine the importance of wastewater in transmission of COVID-19.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sahar Gholipour
- Department of Environmental Health Engineering, School of Health, Isfahan University of Medical Sciences, Isfahan, Iran
| | - Farzaneh Mohammadi
- Department of Environmental Health Engineering, School of Health, Isfahan University of Medical Sciences, Isfahan, Iran
| | - Mahnaz Nikaeen
- Department of Environmental Health Engineering, School of Health, Isfahan University of Medical Sciences, Isfahan, Iran.
| | - Zahra Shamsizadeh
- Department of Environmental Health Engineering, School of Health, Isfahan University of Medical Sciences, Isfahan, Iran
| | - Atefeh Khazeni
- Department of Infectious Disease, Vice Chancellery for Health, Isfahan University of Medical Sciences, Isfahan, Iran
| | | | | | | | - Hossein Mirhendi
- Department of Medical Parasitology and Mycology, School of Medicine, Isfahan University of Medical Sciences, Isfahan, Iran
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34
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DeFlorio W, Liu S, White AR, Taylor TM, Cisneros-Zevallos L, Min Y, Scholar EMA. Recent developments in antimicrobial and antifouling coatings to reduce or prevent contamination and cross-contamination of food contact surfaces by bacteria. Compr Rev Food Sci Food Saf 2021; 20:3093-3134. [PMID: 33949079 DOI: 10.1111/1541-4337.12750] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/14/2020] [Revised: 02/28/2021] [Accepted: 03/06/2021] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
Illness as the result of ingesting bacterially contaminated foodstuffs represents a significant annual loss of human quality of life and economic impact globally. Significant research investment has recently been made in developing new materials that can be used to construct food contacting tools and surfaces that might minimize the risk of cross-contamination of bacteria from one food item to another. This is done to mitigate the spread of bacterial contamination and resultant foodborne illness. Internet-based literature search tools such as Web of Science, Google Scholar, and Scopus were utilized to investigate publishing trends within the last 10 years related to the development of antimicrobial and antifouling surfaces with potential use in food processing applications. Technologies investigated were categorized into four major groups: antimicrobial agent-releasing coatings, contact-based antimicrobial coatings, superhydrophobic antifouling coatings, and repulsion-based antifouling coatings. The advantages for each group and technical challenges remaining before wide-scale implementation were compared. A diverse array of emerging antimicrobial and antifouling technologies were identified, designed to suit a wide range of food contact applications. Although each poses distinct and promising advantages, significant further research investment will likely be required to reliably produce effective materials economically and safely enough to equip large-scale operations such as farms, food processing facilities, and kitchens.
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Affiliation(s)
- William DeFlorio
- Artie McFerrin Department of Chemical Engineering, Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas, USA
| | - Shuhao Liu
- Artie McFerrin Department of Chemical Engineering, Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas, USA
| | - Andrew R White
- Department of Chemical and Environmental Engineering, University of California, Riverside, California, USA
| | | | - Luis Cisneros-Zevallos
- Department of Nutrition and Food Science, Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas, USA.,Department of Horticultural Sciences, Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas, USA
| | - Younjin Min
- Department of Chemical and Environmental Engineering, University of California, Riverside, California, USA
| | - Ethan M A Scholar
- Artie McFerrin Department of Chemical Engineering, Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas, USA.,Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas, USA
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35
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Mori J, Uprety S, Mao Y, Koloutsou-Vakakis S, Nguyen TH, Smith RL. Quantification and Comparison of Risks Associated with Wastewater Use in Spray Irrigation. RISK ANALYSIS : AN OFFICIAL PUBLICATION OF THE SOCIETY FOR RISK ANALYSIS 2021; 41:745-760. [PMID: 33084120 DOI: 10.1111/risa.13607] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/08/2020] [Revised: 09/12/2020] [Accepted: 09/22/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
In the U.S., spray irrigation is the most common method used in agriculture and supplementing with animal wastewater has the potential to reduce water demands. However, this could expose individuals to respiratory pathogens such as Legionella pneumophila and nontuberculosis Mycobacteria (NTM). Disinfection with methods like anaerobic digestion is an option but can increase concentrations of cytotoxic ammonia (personal communication). Our study aimed to model the annual risks of infection from these bacterial pathogens and the air concentrations of ammonia and determine if anaerobically digesting this wastewater is a safe option. Air dispersion modeling, conducted in AERMOD, generated air concentrations of water during the irrigation season (May-September) for the years 2013-2018. These values fed into the quantitative microbial risk assessments for the bacteria and allowed calculation of ammonia air concentrations. The outputs of these models were compared to the safety thresholds of 10-4 infections/year and 0.5 mg/m3 , respectively, to determine their potential for negative health outcomes. It was determined that infection from NTM was not a concern for individuals near active spray irrigators, but that infection with L. pneumophila could be a concern, with a maximum predicted annual risk of infection of 3.5 × 10-3 infections/year and 25.2% of parameter combinations exceeding the established threshold. Ammonia posed a minor risk, with 1.5% of parameter combinations surpassing the risk threshold of 0.5 mg/m3 . These findings suggest that animal wastewater should be anaerobically digested prior to use in irrigation to remove harmful pathogens.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jameson Mori
- Department of Pathobiology, University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL, USA
| | - Sital Uprety
- Department of Civil & Environmental Engineering, University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL, USA
| | - Yuqing Mao
- Department of Civil & Environmental Engineering, University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL, USA
| | - Sotiria Koloutsou-Vakakis
- Department of Civil & Environmental Engineering, University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL, USA
| | - Thanh H Nguyen
- Department of Civil & Environmental Engineering, University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL, USA
- Carl R. Woese Institute for Genomic Biology, University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign
| | - Rebecca L Smith
- Department of Pathobiology, University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL, USA
- Carl R. Woese Institute for Genomic Biology, University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign
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36
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Shi KW, Huang YH, Quon H, Ou-Yang ZL, Wang C, Jiang SC. Quantifying the risk of indoor drainage system in multi-unit apartment building as a transmission route of SARS-CoV-2. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2021; 762:143056. [PMID: 33268249 PMCID: PMC7560110 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.143056] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/20/2020] [Revised: 10/08/2020] [Accepted: 10/10/2020] [Indexed: 05/05/2023]
Abstract
The COVID-19 pandemic has had a profound impact on human society. The isolation of SARS-CoV-2 from patients' feces on human cell line raised concerns of possible transmission through human feces including exposure to aerosols generated by toilet flushing and through the indoor drainage system. Currently, routes of transmission, other than the close contact droplet transmission, are still not well understood. A quantitative microbial risk assessment was conducted to estimate the health risks associated with two aerosol exposure scenarios: 1) toilet flushing, and 2) faulty connection of a floor drain with the building's main sewer pipe. SARS-CoV-2 data were collected from the emerging literature. The infectivity of the virus in feces was estimated based on a range of assumption between viral genome equivalence and infectious unit. The human exposure dose was calculated using Monte Carlo simulation of viral concentrations in aerosols under each scenario and human breathing rates. The probability of COVID-19 illness was generated using the dose-response model for SARS-CoV-1, a close relative of SARS-CoV-2, that was responsible for the SARS outbreak in 2003. The results indicate the median risks of developing COVID-19 for a single day exposure is 1.11 × 10-10 and 3.52 × 10-11 for toilet flushing and faulty drain scenario, respectively. The worst case scenario predicted the high end of COVID-19 risk for the toilet flushing scenario was 5.78 × 10-4 (at 95th percentile). The infectious viral loads in human feces are the most sensitive input parameter and contribute significantly to model uncertainty.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kuang-Wei Shi
- School of Environment, Tsinghua University, Beijing, China
| | - Yen-Hsiang Huang
- Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of California, Irvine, USA
| | - Hunter Quon
- Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of California, Irvine, USA
| | - Zi-Lu Ou-Yang
- School of Environment, Tsinghua University, Beijing, China
| | - Chengwen Wang
- School of Environment, Tsinghua University, Beijing, China.
| | - Sunny C Jiang
- Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of California, Irvine, USA.
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37
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Kusumawardhana A, Zlatanovic L, Bosch A, van der Hoek JP. Microbiological Health Risk Assessment of Water Conservation Strategies: A Case Study in Amsterdam. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2021; 18:2595. [PMID: 33807661 PMCID: PMC7967349 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph18052595] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/04/2021] [Revised: 02/24/2021] [Accepted: 03/03/2021] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
The aim of this study was to assess the health risks that may arise from the implementation of greywater reuse and rainwater harvesting for household use, especially for toilet flushing. In addition, the risk of cross connections between these systems and the drinking water system was considered. Quantitative microbial risk assessment (QMRA) is a method that uses mathematical modelling to estimate the risk of infection when exposure to pathogens happens and was used in this study to assess the health risks. The results showed that using rainwater without prior treatment for toilet flushing poses an annual infection risk from L. pneumophila at 0.64 per-person-per-year (pppy) which exceeds the Dutch standard of 10-4 pppy. The use of untreated greywater showed a risk that is below the standard. However, treatment is recommended due to the ability of P. aeruginosa to grow in the reuse system. Moreover, showering and drinking with cross-connected water has a high annual infection risk that exceeds the standard due to contact with Staphylococcus aureus and E. coli O157:H7. Several measures can be implemented to mitigate the risks such as treating the greywater and rainwater with a minimum of 5-log removal, closing the toilet lid while flushing, good design of greywater and rainwater collection systems, and rigorous plumbing installation procedures.
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Affiliation(s)
- Agung Kusumawardhana
- Department of Water Management, Faculty of Civil Engineering and Geosciences, Delft University of Technology, P.O. Box 5, 2600 AA Delft, The Netherlands; (A.K.); (L.Z.)
| | - Ljiljana Zlatanovic
- Department of Water Management, Faculty of Civil Engineering and Geosciences, Delft University of Technology, P.O. Box 5, 2600 AA Delft, The Netherlands; (A.K.); (L.Z.)
- Amsterdam Institute for Advanced Metropolitan Solutions, Kattenburgerstraat 5, 1018 JA Amsterdam, The Netherlands
- Water Supply Company Noord-Holland PWN, Rijksweg 501, 1991 AS Velserbroek, The Netherlands
| | - Arne Bosch
- Waternet, P.O. Box 94370, 1090 GJ Amsterdam, The Netherlands;
| | - Jan Peter van der Hoek
- Department of Water Management, Faculty of Civil Engineering and Geosciences, Delft University of Technology, P.O. Box 5, 2600 AA Delft, The Netherlands; (A.K.); (L.Z.)
- Amsterdam Institute for Advanced Metropolitan Solutions, Kattenburgerstraat 5, 1018 JA Amsterdam, The Netherlands
- Waternet, P.O. Box 94370, 1090 GJ Amsterdam, The Netherlands;
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38
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Schreck JH, Lashaki MJ, Hashemi J, Dhanak M, Verma S. Aerosol generation in public restrooms. PHYSICS OF FLUIDS (WOODBURY, N.Y. : 1994) 2021; 33:033320. [PMID: 33897239 PMCID: PMC8060976 DOI: 10.1063/5.0040310] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/11/2020] [Accepted: 02/11/2021] [Indexed: 05/04/2023]
Abstract
Aerosolized droplets play a central role in the transmission of various infectious diseases, including Legionnaire's disease, gastroenteritis-causing norovirus, and most recently COVID-19. Respiratory droplets are known to be the most prominent source of transmission for COVID-19; however, alternative routes may exist given the discovery of small numbers of viable viruses in urine and stool samples. Flushing biomatter can lead to the aerosolization of micro-organisms; thus, there is a likelihood that bioaerosols generated in public restrooms may pose a concern for the transmission of COVID-19, especially since these areas are relatively confined, experience heavy foot traffic, and may suffer from inadequate ventilation. To quantify the extent of aerosolization, we measure the size and number of droplets generated by flushing toilets and urinals in a public restroom. The results indicate that the particular designs tested in the study generate a large number of droplets in the size range 0.3 μ m - 3 μ m , which can reach heights of at least 1.52 m. Covering the toilet reduced aerosol levels but did not eliminate them completely, suggesting that aerosolized droplets escaped through small gaps between the cover and the seat. In addition to consistent increases in aerosol levels immediately after flushing, there was a notable rise in ambient aerosol levels due to the accumulation of droplets from multiple flushes conducted during the tests. This highlights the need for incorporating adequate ventilation in the design and operation of public spaces, which can help prevent aerosol accumulation in high occupancy areas and mitigate the risk of airborne disease transmission.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jesse H. Schreck
- Department of Ocean and Mechanical Engineering, Florida Atlantic University, Boca Raton, Florida 33431, USA
| | - Masoud Jahandar Lashaki
- Department of Civil, Environmental and Geomatics Engineering, Florida Atlantic University, Boca Raton, Florida 33431, USA
| | - Javad Hashemi
- Department of Ocean and Mechanical Engineering, Florida Atlantic University, Boca Raton, Florida 33431, USA
| | - Manhar Dhanak
- Department of Ocean and Mechanical Engineering, Florida Atlantic University, Boca Raton, Florida 33431, USA
| | - Siddhartha Verma
- Department of Ocean and Mechanical Engineering, Florida Atlantic University, Boca Raton, Florida 33431, USA
- Also at: Harbor Branch Oceanographic Institute, Florida Atlantic University, Fort Pierce, FL 34946, USA. Author to whom correspondence should be addressed:. URL:http://www.computation.fau.edu
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39
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Exposure to SARS-CoV-2 in Aerosolized Wastewater: Toilet Flushing, Wastewater Treatment, and Sprinkler Irrigation. WATER 2021. [DOI: 10.3390/w13040436] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
The existence of SARS-CoV-2, the etiologic agent of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), in wastewater raises the opportunity of tracking wastewater for epidemiological monitoring of this disease. However, the existence of this virus in wastewater has raised health concerns regarding the fecal–oral transmission of COVID-19. This short review is intended to highlight the potential implications of aerosolized wastewater in transmitting this virus. As aerosolized SARS-CoV-2 could offer a more direct respiratory pathway for human exposure, the transmission of this virus remains a significant possibility in the prominent wastewater-associated bioaerosols formed during toilet flushing, wastewater treatment, and sprinkler irrigation. Implementing wastewater disinfection, exercising precautions, and raising public awareness would be essential. Additional research is needed to evaluate the survival, fate, and dissemination of SARS-CoV-2 in wastewater and the environment and rapid characterization of aerosols and their risk assessment.
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40
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Yan C, Gui ZC, Wu JT. Quantitative microbial risk assessment of bioaerosols in a wastewater treatment plant by using two aeration modes. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND POLLUTION RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2021; 28:8140-8150. [PMID: 33051848 DOI: 10.1007/s11356-020-11180-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/19/2020] [Accepted: 10/06/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Nonnegligible emission of bioaerosols usually occurs during aeration of wastewater in aerator tanks in wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs). Literature had shown that the respiratory and intestinal diseases of workers at WWTPs are related to bioaerosols. Thus, quantitative microbial risk assessment (QMRA) based on Monte Carlo simulation was utilized in this research to assess the health risks of Gram-negative bacteria bioaerosol (GNBB) and Staphylococcus aureus bioaerosol (SAB) among academic visitors and staffs. Results showed that the concentrations of GNBB and SAB in the inverted umbrella aeration mode were consistently higher than those in the microporous aeration mode under all six size distribution ranges of the Anderson six-stage impactor. Thus, GNBB and SAB can be highly threatening to the weasand and first bronchus (or alveoli and third bronchus) for the exposure populations. The health risks (annual probability of infection (Py) and disease burden (DB)) of males were constantly higher than those of females for each certain exposure scenario. The health risks of staffs were higher than those of academic visitors when assessed by Monte Carlo simulation. The wearing of mask is an effective measure to minimize health risks through reducing the bioaerosol concentration intake. Especially, for the academic visitors and staffs exposed to GNBB, all their DB failed to meet the World Health Organization DB benchmark under various credible intervals when they were without a mask on. In a word, the results of health risk assessment in this research can be utilized as an educational tool and policy basis to facilitate the implementation of efficacious prevention measures to protect the public health from bioaerosol health threats in WWTPs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cheng Yan
- School of Environmental Studies, China University of Geosciences, 388 Lumo Road, Wuhan, 430074, People's Republic of China.
| | - Zi-Cheng Gui
- School of Environmental Studies, China University of Geosciences, 388 Lumo Road, Wuhan, 430074, People's Republic of China
| | - Jun-Ting Wu
- School of Environmental Studies, China University of Geosciences, 388 Lumo Road, Wuhan, 430074, People's Republic of China
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41
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Hozalski RM, LaPara TM, Zhao X, Kim T, Waak MB, Burch T, McCarty M. Flushing of Stagnant Premise Water Systems after the COVID-19 Shutdown Can Reduce Infection Risk by Legionella and Mycobacterium spp. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2020; 54:15914-15924. [PMID: 33232602 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.0c06357] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
There is concern about potential exposure to opportunistic pathogens when reopening buildings closed due to the COVID-19 pandemic. In this study, water samples were collected before, during, and after flushing showers in five unoccupied (i.e., for ∼2 months) university buildings with quantification of opportunists via a cultivation-based assay (Legionella pneumophila only) and quantitative PCR. L. pneumophila were not detected by either method; Legionella spp., nontuberculous mycobacteria (NTM), and Mycobacterium avium complex (MAC), however, were widespread. Using quantitative microbial risk assessment (QMRA), the estimated risks of illness from exposure to L. pneumophila and MAC via showering were generally low (i.e., less than a 10-7 daily risk threshold), with the exception of systemic infection risk from MAC exposure in some buildings. Flushing rapidly restored the total chlorine (as chloramine) residual and decreased bacterial gene targets to building inlet concentrations within 30 min. During the postflush stagnation period, the residual chlorine dissipated within a few days and bacteria rebounded, approaching preflush concentrations after 6-7 days. These results suggest that flushing can quickly improve water quality in unoccupied buildings, but the improvement may only last a few days.
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Affiliation(s)
- Raymond M Hozalski
- Department of Civil, Environmental, and Geo-Engineering, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis 55455, Minnesota, United States
| | - Timothy M LaPara
- Department of Civil, Environmental, and Geo-Engineering, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis 55455, Minnesota, United States
| | - Xiaotian Zhao
- Department of Civil, Environmental, and Geo-Engineering, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis 55455, Minnesota, United States
| | - Taegyu Kim
- Department of Civil, Environmental, and Geo-Engineering, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis 55455, Minnesota, United States
| | - Michael B Waak
- Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim 7031, Norway
- Department of Infrastructure, SINTEF Community, Trondheim 7031, Norway
| | - Tucker Burch
- Agricultural Research Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Marshfield, Wisconsin 54449, United States
| | - Michael McCarty
- School of Public Health, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis 55455, Minnesota, United States
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Xue J, Zhang B, Lamori J, Shah K, Zabaleta J, Garai J, Taylor CM, Sherchan SP. Molecular detection of opportunistic pathogens and insights into microbial diversity in private well water and premise plumbing. JOURNAL OF WATER AND HEALTH 2020; 18:820-834. [PMID: 33095203 PMCID: PMC9115838 DOI: 10.2166/wh.2020.271] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/10/2023]
Abstract
Private well water systems in rural areas that are improperly maintained will result in poor drinking water quality, loss of water supply, and pose human health risk. The purpose of this study was to investigate the occurrence of fecal indicator bacteria (FIB) and opportunistic pathogens in private well water in rural areas surrounding New Orleans, Louisiana. Our results confirmed the ubiquitous nature of Legionella (86.7%) and mycobacteria (68.1%) in private well water in the study area, with gene concentration ranged from 0.60 to 5.53 and 0.67 to 5.95 Log10 of GC/100 mL, respectively. Naegleria fowleri target sequence was detected in 16.8% and Escherichia coli was detected in 43.4% of the water samples. Total coliform, as well as Legionella and mycobacteria genetic markers' concentrations were significantly reduced by 3-minute flushing. Next-generation sequencing (NGS) data indicated that the abundance of bacterial species was significantly increased in water collected in kitchens compared with samples from wells directly. This study provided integrated knowledge on the persistence of pathogenic organisms in private well water. Further study is needed to explore the presence of clinical species of those opportunistic pathogens in private well water systems to elucidate the health risk.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jia Xue
- Department of Environmental Health Sciences, School of Public Health and Tropical Medicine, Tulane University, New Orleans, Louisiana, 70112, USA E-mail:
| | - Bowen Zhang
- Department of Natural Resources and Environmental Management, Ball State University, Muncie, Indiana, 47306, USA
| | - Jennifer Lamori
- Department of Environmental Health Sciences, School of Public Health and Tropical Medicine, Tulane University, New Orleans, Louisiana, 70112, USA E-mail:
| | - Kinjal Shah
- Department of Environmental Health Sciences, School of Public Health and Tropical Medicine, Tulane University, New Orleans, Louisiana, 70112, USA E-mail:
| | - Jovanny Zabaleta
- Department of Pediatrics and Stanley S. Scott Cancer Center, Louisiana State University Health Sciences Center, Louisiana Cancer Research Center, New Orleans, Louisiana, 70112, USA
| | - Jone Garai
- Department of Pediatrics and Stanley S. Scott Cancer Center, Louisiana State University Health Sciences Center, Louisiana Cancer Research Center, New Orleans, Louisiana, 70112, USA
| | - Christopher M Taylor
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology & Parasitology, Louisiana State University Health Sciences Center, New Orleans, Louisiana, 70112, USA
| | - Samendra P Sherchan
- Department of Environmental Health Sciences, School of Public Health and Tropical Medicine, Tulane University, New Orleans, Louisiana, 70112, USA E-mail:
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43
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Xu P, Zhang C, Mou X, Wang XC. Bioaerosol in a typical municipal wastewater treatment plant: concentration, size distribution, and health risk assessment. WATER SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY : A JOURNAL OF THE INTERNATIONAL ASSOCIATION ON WATER POLLUTION RESEARCH 2020; 82:1547-1559. [PMID: 33107849 DOI: 10.2166/wst.2020.416] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/11/2023]
Abstract
An investigation on bioaerosol in a wastewater treatment plant (WWTP) located in Xi'an, China, was conducted to understand the characteristics of bioaerosol released from wastewater and sludge treatment facilities because the bioaerosols may pose a threat to human health. Using the Andersen impactor sampler collection and colony-counting method, bioaerosol concentrations and size distributions were detected. The risk quotient method was used to evaluate the health risks associated with inhalation of bioaerosol for WWTP staff, based on the average daily dose rates of exposure. The health risk in relation to Legionella pneumophila was quantitatively calculated using quantitative microbial risk assessment (QMRA), based on the assumption of the percentage. The maximum concentration of airborne bacteria (3,767 ± 280 colony forming units (CFU)/m3) and fungi (8,775 ± 406 CFU/m3) occurred from the aerated grit chamber and sludge thickening house, respectively, which all exceeded 500 CFU/m3 as the acceptable guideline proposed by the American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists. The particle size of airborne bacteria was mainly distributed in the first three stages (>3.3 µm), while that of airborne fungi was from the second to the fourth stage (2.1-7.0 µm). The hazard index exposure to bioaerosol for adult males and females by inhalation were higher than 1. The proportion of L. pneumophila should be strictly controlled below 10-8, based on the QMRA approach.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pengcheng Xu
- International Science and Technology Cooperation Center for Urban Alternative Water Resources Development; Key Lab of Northwest Water Resource, Environment and Ecology, Ministry of Education; Engineering Technology Research Center for Wastewater Treatment and Reuse, Shaanxi Province; Shaanxi Key Laboratory of Environmental Engineering, Xi'an University of Architecture and Technology, Xi'an 710055, China E-mail:
| | - Chongmiao Zhang
- International Science and Technology Cooperation Center for Urban Alternative Water Resources Development; Key Lab of Northwest Water Resource, Environment and Ecology, Ministry of Education; Engineering Technology Research Center for Wastewater Treatment and Reuse, Shaanxi Province; Shaanxi Key Laboratory of Environmental Engineering, Xi'an University of Architecture and Technology, Xi'an 710055, China E-mail:
| | - Xiao Mou
- Shaanxi Institute for Food and Drug Control, Xi'an 710065, China
| | - Xiaochang C Wang
- International Science and Technology Cooperation Center for Urban Alternative Water Resources Development; Key Lab of Northwest Water Resource, Environment and Ecology, Ministry of Education; Engineering Technology Research Center for Wastewater Treatment and Reuse, Shaanxi Province; Shaanxi Key Laboratory of Environmental Engineering, Xi'an University of Architecture and Technology, Xi'an 710055, China E-mail:
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Krishnan RH. A brief review on lavatory cleaning devices and their feasibility in public toilets in developing countries. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF INTELLIGENT ROBOTICS AND APPLICATIONS 2020; 4:354-369. [PMID: 32838030 PMCID: PMC7340857 DOI: 10.1007/s41315-020-00143-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/07/2020] [Accepted: 06/27/2020] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
The purpose of this article is twofold, one is to provide a brief review on various lavatory cleaning devices while the other is to study the feasibility of using these devices in public toilets in developing countries. The article presents a literature review on various lavatory cleaning devices, focusing on various designs available as patent documents and commercially available toilet cleaning robots. The issues that prevent these devices from being deployed in multi-lavatory public toilet complexes in developing countries are discussed. Design considerations of a simple, cost-effective, semi-automated lavatory cleaning robot that may serve as a solution to these issues are also covered in this article.
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Affiliation(s)
- R. Hari Krishnan
- School of Mechanical Engineering, SASTRA Deemed to be University, Thanjavur, 613 401 Tamil Nadu India
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45
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Li YY, Wang JX, Chen X. Can a toilet promote virus transmission? From a fluid dynamics perspective. PHYSICS OF FLUIDS (WOODBURY, N.Y. : 1994) 2020; 32:065107. [PMID: 32574232 PMCID: PMC7301880 DOI: 10.1063/5.0013318] [Citation(s) in RCA: 93] [Impact Index Per Article: 23.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/15/2020] [Accepted: 05/21/2020] [Indexed: 05/03/2023]
Abstract
Currently, a novel coronavirus named "SARS-CoV-2" is spreading rapidly across the world, causing a public health crisis, economic losses, and panic. Fecal-oral transmission is a common transmission route for many viruses, including SARS-CoV-2. Blocking the path of fecal-oral transmission, which occurs commonly in toilet usage, is of fundamental importance in suppressing the spread of viruses. However, to date, efforts at improving sanitary safety in toilet use have been insufficient. It is clear from daily experience that flushing a toilet generates strong turbulence within the bowl. Will this flushing-induced turbulent flow expel aerosol particles containing viruses out of the bowl? This paper adopts computational fluid dynamics to explore and visualize the characteristics of fluid flow during toilet flushing and the influence of flushing on the spread of virus aerosol particles. The volume-of-fluid (VOF) model is used to simulate two common flushing processes (single-inlet flushing and annular flushing), and the VOF-discrete phase model (DPM) method is used to model the trajectories of aerosol particles during flushing. The simulation results are alarming in that massive upward transport of virus particles is observed, with 40%-60% of particles reaching above the toilet seat, leading to large-scale virus spread. Suggestions concerning safer toilet use and recommendations for a better toilet design are also provided.
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Huang C, Shen Y, Smith RL, Dong S, Nguyen TH. Effect of disinfectant residuals on infection risks from Legionella pneumophila released by biofilms grown under simulated premise plumbing conditions. ENVIRONMENT INTERNATIONAL 2020; 137:105561. [PMID: 32088542 DOI: 10.1016/j.envint.2020.105561] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/04/2019] [Revised: 02/05/2020] [Accepted: 02/06/2020] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
The ubiquitous presence of biofilms in premise plumbing and stagnation, which commonly occurs in premise plumbing, can exacerbate the decay of chlorine residual in drinking water. Using biofilms grown in a simulated premise plumbing setup fed directly with freshly treated water at two full-scale water treatment plants, we previously determined the mass transfer coefficients for chlorine decay in premise plumbing. These coefficients coupled with inactivation kinetics of L. pneumophila released from biofilms reported previously were integrated into a Monte Carlo framework to estimate the infection risk of biofilm-derived L. pneumophila from 1 to 48 h of stagnation. The annual infection risk was significantly higher when water stayed stagnant for up to 48 h in pipes covered internally with biofilms, compared to clean pipes without biofilms. The decay of residual chlorine due to biofilms during 48-hour stagnation led to up to 6 times increase in the annual infection risk compared to the case where biofilms was absent. Global sensitivity analysis revealed that the rate of L. pneumophila detachment from biofilms and the decay of chlorine residual during stagnation are the two most important factors influencing the infection risks. Stagnation caused by water use patterns and water-saving devices in the premise plumbing can lead to increased infection risk by biofilm-derived L. pneumophila. Overall, this study's findings suggested that biofilms could induce chlorine decay and consequently increase L. pneumophila infection risk. Thus, reducing stagnation, maintaining residual chlorine, and suppressing biofilm growth could contribute to better management of L. pneumophila infection risk.
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Affiliation(s)
- Conghui Huang
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL 61801, United States
| | - Yun Shen
- Department of Chemical and Environmental Engineering, The University of California, Riverside, Riverside, CA 92521, United States
| | - Rebecca L Smith
- Department of Pathobiology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL 61801, United States
| | - Shengkun Dong
- Guangdong Engineering Technology Research Center of Water Security Regulation and Control for Southern China, Key Laboratory of Water Cycle and Water Security in Southern China of Guangdong Higher Education Institute, School of Civil Engineering, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, Guangdong 510275, China.
| | - Thanh H Nguyen
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL 61801, United States.
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Allegra S, Riffard S, Leclerc L, Girardot F, Stauffert M, Forest V, Pourchez J. A valuable experimental setup to model exposure to Legionella's aerosols generated by shower-like systems. WATER RESEARCH 2020; 172:115496. [PMID: 31972415 DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2020.115496] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/17/2019] [Revised: 01/07/2020] [Accepted: 01/08/2020] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
The mechanism underlying Legionella aerosolization and entry into the respiratory tract remains poorly documented. In previous studies, we characterized the aerodynamic behaviour of Legionella aerosols and assessed their regional deposition within the respiratory tract using a human-like anatomical model. The aim of this study was to assess whether this experimental setup could mimic the exposure to bioaerosols generated by showers. To achieve this objective we performed experiments to measure the mass median aerodynamic diameter (MMAD) as well as the emitted dose and the physiological state of the airborne bacteria generated by a shower and two nebulizers (vibrating-mesh and jet nebulizers). The MMADs of the dispersed bioaerosols were characterized using a 12-stage cascade low-pressure impactor. The amount of dispersed airborne bacteria from a shower was quantified using a Coriolis® Delta air sampler and compared to the airborne bacteria reaching the thoracic region in the experimental setup. The physiological state and concentration of airborne Legionella were assessed by qPCR for total cells, culture for viable and cultivable Legionella (VC), and flow cytometry for viable but non-cultivable Legionella (VBNC). In summary, the experimental setup developed appears to mimic the bioaerosol emission of a shower in terms of aerodynamic size distribution. Compared to the specific case of a shower used as a reference in this study, the experimental setup developed underestimates by 2 times (when the jet nebulizer is used) or overestimates by 43 times (when the vibrating-mesh nebulizer is used) the total emitted dose of airborne bacteria. To our knowledge, this report is the first showing that an experimental model mimics so closely an exposure to Legionella aerosols produced by showers to assess human lung deposition and infection in well-controlled and safe conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Séverine Allegra
- University of Lyon, University Jean Monnet of Saint-Etienne, CNRS, EVS-ISTHME UMR 5600, F-42023, Saint-Etienne, France.
| | - Serge Riffard
- University of Lyon, University Jean Monnet of Saint-Etienne, CNRS, EVS-ISTHME UMR 5600, F-42023, Saint-Etienne, France
| | - Lara Leclerc
- Mines Saint-Etienne, University of Lyon, University Jean Monnet of Saint-Etienne, INSERM, U 1059 Sainbiose, Centre CIS, F-42023, Saint-Etienne, France
| | - Françoise Girardot
- University of Lyon, University Jean Monnet of Saint-Etienne, CNRS, EVS-ISTHME UMR 5600, F-42023, Saint-Etienne, France
| | - Magalie Stauffert
- University of Lyon, University Jean Monnet of Saint-Etienne, CNRS, EVS-ISTHME UMR 5600, F-42023, Saint-Etienne, France
| | - Valérie Forest
- Mines Saint-Etienne, University of Lyon, University Jean Monnet of Saint-Etienne, INSERM, U 1059 Sainbiose, Centre CIS, F-42023, Saint-Etienne, France
| | - Jérémie Pourchez
- Mines Saint-Etienne, University of Lyon, University Jean Monnet of Saint-Etienne, INSERM, U 1059 Sainbiose, Centre CIS, F-42023, Saint-Etienne, France
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Schoen ME, Jahne MA, Garland J. Enteric Pathogen Treatment Requirements for Nonpotable Water Reuse Despite Limited Exposure Data. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY LETTERS 2020; 7:943-947. [PMID: 33409324 PMCID: PMC7784632 DOI: 10.1021/acs.estlett.0c00752] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/02/2023]
Abstract
Exposure factors (e.g., ingestion volume and frequency) are required to establish risk-based treatment requirements (i.e., log10 reduction targets (LRTs)) for enteric pathogens using quantitative microbial risk assessment (QMRA). However, data to Wastewater characterize nonpotable exposure factors are sparse. We calculated graywater and wastewater nonpotable LRTs (corresponding to 10-4 infections per person per year) for uses missing detailed exposure data (including showering and decorative fountain) and across a range of exposure factors. The LRTs decreased linearly toward zero as the log10 transformed volume or the frequency of reuse decreased. When nonroutine exposure was included, representing either accidental ingestion from misuse or cross-connection between potable and nonpotable waters, the LRTs remained high, even as the routine ingestion volume decreased. Therefore, uses with small anticipated routine ingestion volumes (i.e., roughly <10-5 L), e.g., domestic indoor or decorative fountain uses, share common LRTs, and further refinement of the routine exposure is of limited value. Additional data to characterize nonroutine exposures and uses with high routine ingestion, e.g., showering, remain valuable to better estimate LRTs. These results will assist regulators in the selection of LRTs for nonpotable uses that lack detailed exposure factor characterizations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mary E Schoen
- Soller Environmental, LLC, Berkeley, California 94703, United States
| | - Michael A Jahne
- U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Cincinnati, Ohio 45268, United States
| | - Jay Garland
- U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Cincinnati, Ohio 45268, United States
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Boukazia Y, Delaplace G, Cadé M, Bellouard F, Bégué M, Semmar N, Fillaudeau L. Metrological performances of fouling sensors based on steady thermal excitation applied to bioprocess. FOOD AND BIOPRODUCTS PROCESSING 2020. [DOI: 10.1016/j.fbp.2019.11.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
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50
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Antimicrobial Effect of Visible Light-Photoinactivation of Legionella rubrilucens by Irradiation at 450, 470, and 620 nm. Antibiotics (Basel) 2019; 8:antibiotics8040187. [PMID: 31618994 PMCID: PMC6963517 DOI: 10.3390/antibiotics8040187] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/12/2019] [Revised: 10/11/2019] [Accepted: 10/13/2019] [Indexed: 01/12/2023] Open
Abstract
Despite the high number of legionella infections, there are currently no convincing preventive measures. Photoinactivation with visible light is a promising new approach and the photoinactivation sensitivity properties of planktonic Legionella rubrilucens to 450, 470, and 620 nm irradiation were thus investigated and compared to existing 405 nm inactivation data for obtaining information on responsible endogenous photosensitizers. Legionella were streaked on agar plates and irradiated with different doses by light emitting diodes (LEDs) of different visible wavelengths. When irradiating bacterial samples with blue light of 450 nm, a 5-log reduction could be achieved by applying a dose of 300 J cm−2, whereas at 470 nm, a comparable reduction required about 500 J cm−2. For red irradiation at 620 nm, no inactivation could be observed, even at 500 J cm−2. The declining photoinactivation sensitivity with an increasing wavelength is consistent with the assumption of porphyrins and flavins being among the relevant photosensitizers. These results were obtained for L. rubrilucens, but there is reason to believe that its inactivation behavior is similar to that of pathogenic legionella species. Therefore, this photoinactivation might lead to new future concepts for legionella reduction and prevention in technical applications or even on or inside the human body.
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