1
|
Poto R, Fusco W, Rinninella E, Cintoni M, Kaitsas F, Raoul P, Caruso C, Mele MC, Varricchi G, Gasbarrini A, Cammarota G, Ianiro G. The Role of Gut Microbiota and Leaky Gut in the Pathogenesis of Food Allergy. Nutrients 2023; 16:92. [PMID: 38201921 PMCID: PMC10780391 DOI: 10.3390/nu16010092] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/23/2023] [Revised: 12/21/2023] [Accepted: 12/23/2023] [Indexed: 01/12/2024] Open
Abstract
Food allergy (FA) is a growing public health concern, with an increasing prevalence in Western countries. Increasing evidence suggests that the balance of human gut microbiota and the integrity of our intestinal barrier may play roles in the development of FA. Environmental factors, including industrialization and consumption of highly processed food, can contribute to altering the gut microbiota and the intestinal barrier, increasing the susceptibility to allergic sensitization. Compositional and functional alterations to the gut microbiome have also been associated with FA. In addition, increased permeability of the gut barrier allows the translocation of allergenic molecules, triggering Th2 immune responses. Preclinical and clinical studies have highlighted the potential of probiotics, prebiotics, and postbiotics in the prevention and treatment of FA through enhancing gut barrier function and promoting the restoration of healthy gut microbiota. Finally, fecal microbiota transplantation (FMT) is now being explored as a promising therapeutic strategy to prevent FA in both experimental and clinical studies. In this review article, we aim to explore the complex interplay between intestinal permeability and gut microbiota in the development of FA, as well as depict potential therapeutic strategies.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Remo Poto
- Department of Translational Medical Sciences, University of Naples Federico II, 80131 Naples, Italy; (R.P.); (G.V.)
- Center for Basic and Clinical Immunology Research (CISI), University of Naples Federico II, 80131 Naples, Italy
- World Allergy Organization (WAO), Center of Excellence, 80131 Naples, Italy
| | - William Fusco
- Department of Translational Medicine and Surgery, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, 00168 Rome, Italy (E.R.); (M.C.); (F.K.); (P.R.); (C.C.); (M.C.M.); (A.G.); (G.C.)
- Department of Medical and Surgical Sciences, UOC Gastroenterologia, Fondazione Policlinico Universitario Agostino Gemelli IRCCS, 00168 Rome, Italy
- Department of Medical and Surgical Sciences, UOSD DH Internal Medicine and Digestive Diseases, Fondazione Policlinico Universitario Agostino Gemelli IRCCS, 00168 Rome, Italy
| | - Emanuele Rinninella
- Department of Translational Medicine and Surgery, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, 00168 Rome, Italy (E.R.); (M.C.); (F.K.); (P.R.); (C.C.); (M.C.M.); (A.G.); (G.C.)
- Department of Medical and Surgical Sciences, Clinical Nutrition Unit, Fondazione Policlinico Universitario Agostino Gemelli IRCCS, 00168 Rome, Italy
| | - Marco Cintoni
- Department of Translational Medicine and Surgery, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, 00168 Rome, Italy (E.R.); (M.C.); (F.K.); (P.R.); (C.C.); (M.C.M.); (A.G.); (G.C.)
- Department of Medical and Surgical Sciences, Clinical Nutrition Unit, Fondazione Policlinico Universitario Agostino Gemelli IRCCS, 00168 Rome, Italy
| | - Francesco Kaitsas
- Department of Translational Medicine and Surgery, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, 00168 Rome, Italy (E.R.); (M.C.); (F.K.); (P.R.); (C.C.); (M.C.M.); (A.G.); (G.C.)
| | - Pauline Raoul
- Department of Translational Medicine and Surgery, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, 00168 Rome, Italy (E.R.); (M.C.); (F.K.); (P.R.); (C.C.); (M.C.M.); (A.G.); (G.C.)
- Department of Medical and Surgical Sciences, Clinical Nutrition Unit, Fondazione Policlinico Universitario Agostino Gemelli IRCCS, 00168 Rome, Italy
| | - Cristiano Caruso
- Department of Translational Medicine and Surgery, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, 00168 Rome, Italy (E.R.); (M.C.); (F.K.); (P.R.); (C.C.); (M.C.M.); (A.G.); (G.C.)
- Department of Medical and Surgical Sciences, UOSD DH Internal Medicine and Digestive Diseases, Fondazione Policlinico Universitario Agostino Gemelli IRCCS, 00168 Rome, Italy
| | - Maria Cristina Mele
- Department of Translational Medicine and Surgery, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, 00168 Rome, Italy (E.R.); (M.C.); (F.K.); (P.R.); (C.C.); (M.C.M.); (A.G.); (G.C.)
- Department of Medical and Surgical Sciences, Clinical Nutrition Unit, Fondazione Policlinico Universitario Agostino Gemelli IRCCS, 00168 Rome, Italy
| | - Gilda Varricchi
- Department of Translational Medical Sciences, University of Naples Federico II, 80131 Naples, Italy; (R.P.); (G.V.)
- Center for Basic and Clinical Immunology Research (CISI), University of Naples Federico II, 80131 Naples, Italy
- World Allergy Organization (WAO), Center of Excellence, 80131 Naples, Italy
| | - Antonio Gasbarrini
- Department of Translational Medicine and Surgery, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, 00168 Rome, Italy (E.R.); (M.C.); (F.K.); (P.R.); (C.C.); (M.C.M.); (A.G.); (G.C.)
- Department of Medical and Surgical Sciences, UOC Gastroenterologia, Fondazione Policlinico Universitario Agostino Gemelli IRCCS, 00168 Rome, Italy
- Department of Medical and Surgical Sciences, UOSD DH Internal Medicine and Digestive Diseases, Fondazione Policlinico Universitario Agostino Gemelli IRCCS, 00168 Rome, Italy
| | - Giovanni Cammarota
- Department of Translational Medicine and Surgery, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, 00168 Rome, Italy (E.R.); (M.C.); (F.K.); (P.R.); (C.C.); (M.C.M.); (A.G.); (G.C.)
- Department of Medical and Surgical Sciences, UOC Gastroenterologia, Fondazione Policlinico Universitario Agostino Gemelli IRCCS, 00168 Rome, Italy
- Department of Medical and Surgical Sciences, UOSD DH Internal Medicine and Digestive Diseases, Fondazione Policlinico Universitario Agostino Gemelli IRCCS, 00168 Rome, Italy
| | - Gianluca Ianiro
- Department of Translational Medicine and Surgery, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, 00168 Rome, Italy (E.R.); (M.C.); (F.K.); (P.R.); (C.C.); (M.C.M.); (A.G.); (G.C.)
- Department of Medical and Surgical Sciences, UOC Gastroenterologia, Fondazione Policlinico Universitario Agostino Gemelli IRCCS, 00168 Rome, Italy
- Department of Medical and Surgical Sciences, UOSD DH Internal Medicine and Digestive Diseases, Fondazione Policlinico Universitario Agostino Gemelli IRCCS, 00168 Rome, Italy
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Ballegaard ASR, Bøgh KL. Intestinal protein uptake and IgE-mediated food allergy. Food Res Int 2023; 163:112150. [PMID: 36596102 DOI: 10.1016/j.foodres.2022.112150] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/29/2022] [Revised: 11/08/2022] [Accepted: 11/15/2022] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Food allergy is affecting 5-8% of young children and 2-4% of adults and seems to be increasing in prevalence. The cause of the increase in food allergy is largely unknown but proposed to be influenced by both environmental and lifestyle factors. Changes in intestinal barrier functions and increased uptake of dietary proteins have been suggested to have a great impact on food allergy. In this review, we aim to give an overview of the gastrointestinal digestion and intestinal barrier function and provide a more detailed description of intestinal protein uptake, including the various routes of epithelial transport, how it may be affected by both intrinsic and extrinsic factors, and the relation to food allergy. Further, we give an overview of in vitro, ex vivo and in vivo techniques available for evaluation of intestinal protein uptake and gut permeability in general. Proteins are digested by gastric, pancreatic and integral brush border enzymes in order to allow for sufficient nutritional uptake. Absorption and transport of dietary proteins across the epithelial layer is known to be dependent on the physicochemical properties of the proteins and their digestion fragments themselves, such as size, solubility and aggregation status. It is believed, that the greater an amount of intact protein or larger peptide fragments that is transported through the epithelial layer, and thus encountered by the mucosal immune system in the gut, the greater is the risk of inducing an adverse allergic response. Proteins may be absorbed across the epithelial barrier by means of various mechanisms, and studies have shown that a transcellular facilitated transport route unique for food allergic individuals are at play for transport of allergens, and that upon mediator release from mast cells an enhanced allergen transport via the paracellular route occurs. This is in contrast to healthy individuals where transcytosis through the enterocytes is the main route of protein uptake. Thus, knowledge on factors affecting intestinal barrier functions and methods for the determination of their impact on protein uptake may be useful in future allergenicity assessments and for development of future preventive and treatment strategies.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | - Katrine Lindholm Bøgh
- National Food Institute, Technical University of Denmark, DK-2800 Kgs. Lyngby, Denmark.
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Enterocytes in Food Hypersensitivity Reactions. Animals (Basel) 2021; 11:ani11092713. [PMID: 34573679 PMCID: PMC8466009 DOI: 10.3390/ani11092713] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/31/2021] [Revised: 09/05/2021] [Accepted: 09/10/2021] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Simple Summary Hypersensitivity to food, affecting both animals and humans, is increasing. Until a decade ago, it was thought that enterocytes, the most abundant constituent of the intestinal surface mucosa layer, served only to absorb digested food and prevent foreign and non-digested substances from passing below the intestinal layer. Growing evidence supports the involvement of enterocytes in immunological responses. Here, we present a comprehensive review of the new roles of enterocytes in food hypersensitivity conducted in animal models in order to better understand complicated immune pathological conditions. In addition, resources for further work in this area are suggested, along with a literature overview of the specific roles of enterocytes in maintaining oral tolerance. Lastly, it will be beneficial to investigate the various animal models involved in food hypersensitivity to reach the needed momentum necessary for the complete and profound understanding of the mechanisms of the ever-growing number of food allergies in animal and human populations. Abstract Food hypersensitivity reactions are adverse reactions to harmless dietary substances, whose causes are hidden within derangements of the complex immune machinery of humans and mammals. Until recently, enterocytes were considered as solely absorptive cells providing a physical barrier for unwanted lumen constituents. This review focuses on the enterocytes, which are the hub for innate and adaptive immune reactions. Furthermore, the ambiguous nature of enterocytes is also reflected in the fact that enterocytes can be considered as antigen-presenting cells since they constitutively express major histocompatibility complex (MHC) class II molecules. Taken together, it becomes clear that enterocytes have an immense role in maintaining oral tolerance to foreign antigens. In general, the immune system and its mechanisms underlying food hypersensitivity are still unknown and the involvement of components belonging to other anatomical systems, such as enterocytes, in these mechanisms make their elucidation even more difficult. The findings from studies with animal models provide us with valuable information about allergic mechanisms in the animal world, while on the other hand, these models are used to extrapolate results to the pathological conditions occurring in humans. There is a constant need for studies that deal with this topic and can overcome the glitches related to ethics in working with animals.
Collapse
|
4
|
Noah TK, Knoop KA, McDonald KG, Gustafsson JK, Waggoner L, Vanoni S, Batie M, Arora K, Naren AP, Wang YH, Lukacs NW, Munitz A, Helmrath MA, Mahe MM, Newberry RD, Hogan SP. IL-13-induced intestinal secretory epithelial cell antigen passages are required for IgE-mediated food-induced anaphylaxis. J Allergy Clin Immunol 2019; 144:1058-1073.e3. [PMID: 31175877 PMCID: PMC6779525 DOI: 10.1016/j.jaci.2019.04.030] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/06/2018] [Revised: 03/15/2019] [Accepted: 04/29/2019] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Food-induced anaphylaxis (FIA) is an IgE-dependent immune response that can affect multiple organs and lead to life-threatening complications. The processes by which food allergens cross the mucosal surface and are delivered to the subepithelial immune compartment to promote the clinical manifestations associated with food-triggered anaphylaxis are largely unexplored. OBJECTIVE We sought to define the processes involved in the translocation of food allergens across the mucosal epithelial surface to the subepithelial immune compartment in FIA. METHODS Two-photon confocal and immunofluorescence microscopy was used to visualize and trace food allergen passage in a murine model of FIA. A human colon cancer cell line, RNA silencing, and pharmacologic approaches were used to identify the molecular regulation of intestinal epithelial allergen uptake and translocation. Human intestinal organoid transplants were used to demonstrate the conservation of these molecular processes in human tissues. RESULTS Food allergens are sampled by using small intestine (SI) epithelial secretory cells (termed secretory antigen passages [SAPs]) that are localized to the SI villous and crypt region. SAPs channel food allergens to lamina propria mucosal mast cells through an IL-13-CD38-cyclic adenosine diphosphate ribose (cADPR)-dependent process. Blockade of IL-13-induced CD38/cADPR-dependent SAP antigen passaging in mice inhibited induction of clinical manifestations of FIA. IL-13-CD38-cADPR-dependent SAP sampling of food allergens was conserved in human intestinal organoids. CONCLUSION We identify that SAPs are a mechanism by which food allergens are channeled across the SI epithelium mediated by the IL-13/CD38/cADPR pathway, regulate the onset of FIA reactions, and are conserved in human intestine.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Taeko K Noah
- Mary H. Weiser Food Allergy Center, Department of Pathology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Mich; Division of Allergy and Immunology, Department of Pediatrics, Cincinnati Children's Hospital Medical Center, Cincinnati, Ohio
| | - Kathryn A Knoop
- Division of Gastroenterology, Washington University School of Medicine St Louis, St Louis, Mo
| | - Keely G McDonald
- Division of Gastroenterology, Washington University School of Medicine St Louis, St Louis, Mo
| | - Jenny K Gustafsson
- Division of Gastroenterology, Washington University School of Medicine St Louis, St Louis, Mo
| | - Lisa Waggoner
- Division of Allergy and Immunology, Department of Pediatrics, Cincinnati Children's Hospital Medical Center, Cincinnati, Ohio
| | - Simone Vanoni
- Division of Allergy and Immunology, Department of Pediatrics, Cincinnati Children's Hospital Medical Center, Cincinnati, Ohio
| | - Matthew Batie
- Division of Clinical Engineering, Department of Pediatrics, Cincinnati Children's Hospital Medical Center, Cincinnati, Ohio
| | - Kavisha Arora
- Division of Pulmonary Medicine, Department of Pediatrics, Cincinnati Children's Hospital Medical Center, Cincinnati, Ohio
| | - Anjaparavanda P Naren
- Division of Pulmonary Medicine, Department of Pediatrics, Cincinnati Children's Hospital Medical Center, Cincinnati, Ohio
| | - Yui-Hsi Wang
- Division of Allergy and Immunology, Department of Pediatrics, Cincinnati Children's Hospital Medical Center, Cincinnati, Ohio
| | - Nicholas W Lukacs
- Mary H. Weiser Food Allergy Center, Department of Pathology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Mich
| | - Ariel Munitz
- Department of Clinical Microbiology and Immunology, Sackler School of Medicine, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv, Israel
| | - Michael A Helmrath
- Division of Pediatric Surgery, Department of Pediatrics, Cincinnati Children's Hospital Medical Center, Cincinnati, Ohio
| | - Maxime M Mahe
- Division of Pediatric Surgery, Department of Pediatrics, Cincinnati Children's Hospital Medical Center, Cincinnati, Ohio
| | - Rodney D Newberry
- Division of Gastroenterology, Washington University School of Medicine St Louis, St Louis, Mo
| | - Simon P Hogan
- Mary H. Weiser Food Allergy Center, Department of Pathology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Mich; Division of Allergy and Immunology, Department of Pediatrics, Cincinnati Children's Hospital Medical Center, Cincinnati, Ohio.
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Ansari IT, Mu T. A murine model of wheat versus potato allergy: Patatin and 53kDa protein are the potential allergen from potato. Mol Immunol 2018; 101:284-293. [DOI: 10.1016/j.molimm.2018.07.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/28/2017] [Revised: 04/17/2018] [Accepted: 07/07/2018] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
|
6
|
Winkelbach A, Günzel D, Schulz C, Wuertz S. Differences in IgY gut absorption in gastric rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) and agastric common carp (Cyprinus carpio) assessed in vivo and in vitro. Comp Biochem Physiol C Toxicol Pharmacol 2015; 167:58-64. [PMID: 25224559 DOI: 10.1016/j.cbpc.2014.09.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/04/2014] [Revised: 08/26/2014] [Accepted: 09/03/2014] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Oral IgY antibodies offer promising potential for passive immunization strategies. To evaluate barriers for successful IgY plasma recovery after oral application in vivo, gastric rainbow trout and agastric common carp were comparatively assessed. A positive control that received a low dose of unspecific IgY antibodies by intraperitoneal injection (0.0076 mg IgY g BW(-1) d(-1); BW=body mass) was compared with an oral administration of 75 and 150 fold in rainbow trout (corresponding to 0.57 and 1.14 mg g BW(-1)) and in carp (0.57 mg g BW(-1)). Dietary antibodies were delivered with the antacid sodium bicarbonate and three different putative uptake enhancers (Tween 20, vitamin E TPGS, sodium deoxycholate). IgY concentrations in the plasma were determined 1d (rainbow trout) or 5d after last feeding (both species). Irrespective of the enhancer used, ELISA revealed IgY absorption after feeding in carp, whereas IgY concentration in rainbow trout remained below the detection threshold. Intraperitoneal injections revealed IgY in plasma of both species. In vitro Ussing chamber experiments with posterior intestine tissue of carp and trout were carried out to determine whether species-specific differences in IgY translocation were due to acidic stomach passage or species-specific differences in transepithelial IgY passage. Significantly higher IgY translocation was measured in carp at high application dosage compared to all other groups, indicating that species-specific differences in IgY uptake after oral administration are not only related to peptic IgY degradation in the stomach, but also likely a result of differences in IgY transcytosis in the posterior intestine.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Anja Winkelbach
- Department of Aquaculture and Ecophysiology, Leibniz Institute of Freshwater Ecology and Inland Fisheries, Müggelseedamm 310, 12587 Berlin, Germany; Gesellschaft für Marine Aquakultur, Hafentörn 3, 25761 Büsum, Germany; Institute of Animal Breeding and Husbandry, Christian-Albrechts-Universität zu Kiel, Olshausenstraße 40, 24098 Kiel, Germany.
| | - Dorothee Günzel
- Institute of Clinical Physiology, Charité-Universitätsmedizin Berlin, 12203 Berlin, Germany
| | - Carsten Schulz
- Gesellschaft für Marine Aquakultur, Hafentörn 3, 25761 Büsum, Germany; Institute of Animal Breeding and Husbandry, Christian-Albrechts-Universität zu Kiel, Olshausenstraße 40, 24098 Kiel, Germany
| | - Sven Wuertz
- Department of Aquaculture and Ecophysiology, Leibniz Institute of Freshwater Ecology and Inland Fisheries, Müggelseedamm 310, 12587 Berlin, Germany
| |
Collapse
|
7
|
Li Y, Feng C, Wei X, Zhang J, Zan R, Zheng G, Yang X, Zhai J. Activation of protease-activated receptor-2 disrupts vaginal epithelial barrier function. Cell Biol Int 2014; 38:1247-51. [PMID: 24889831 DOI: 10.1002/cbin.10315] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/22/2014] [Accepted: 05/06/2014] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Yan Li
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology; Beijing Tongren Hospital; Capital Medical University; Beijing China
| | - Chong Feng
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology; Beijing Tongren Hospital; Capital Medical University; Beijing China
| | - Xing Wei
- Beijing Taipu-Shunkang Institute for Laboratory Medicine; Beijing China
| | - Jiyuan Zhang
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology; Beijing Tongren Hospital; Capital Medical University; Beijing China
| | - Ronghua Zan
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology; Beijing Tongren Hospital; Capital Medical University; Beijing China
| | - Guizhi Zheng
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology; Beijing Tongren Hospital; Capital Medical University; Beijing China
| | - Xiaoying Yang
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology; Beijing Tongren Hospital; Capital Medical University; Beijing China
| | - Jianjun Zhai
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology; Beijing Tongren Hospital; Capital Medical University; Beijing China
| |
Collapse
|
8
|
Liao YW, Wu XM, Jia J, Wu XL, Hong T, Meng LX, Wu XY. Myosin VI contributes to maintaining epithelial barrier function. J Biomed Sci 2013; 20:68. [PMID: 24028494 PMCID: PMC3847564 DOI: 10.1186/1423-0127-20-68] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/20/2013] [Accepted: 09/10/2013] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Epithelial barrier dysfunction is associated with the pathogenesis of a number of immune inflammations; the etiology is not fully understood. The fusion of endosome/lysosome is a critical process in the degradation of endocytic antigens in epithelial cells. Recent reports indicate that myosin VI (myo6) is involved in the activities of endosomes. The present study aims to investigate the role of myo6 in epithelial barrier dysfunction. RESULTS The endosome accumulation was observed in myo6-deficient Rmcs. More than 80% endosomes were fused with lysosomes in naïve Rmcs while less than 30% endosomes were fused with lysosomes in the myo6-deficient Rmcs. The myo6-deficient Rmc monolayers showed high permeability to a macromolecular antigen, ovalbumin, the latter still conserved the antigenicity, which induced strong T cell activation. CONCLUSIONS We conclude that myo6 plays a critical role in the fusion of endosome/lysosome in Rmc epithelial cells. Deficiency of myo6 compromises the epithelial barrier function.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Yu-Wei Liao
- Department of Anesthesiology, Shengjing Hospital, China Medical University, 36 Sanhao St, Shenyang 110004, China.
| | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
9
|
Liao YW, Wu XM, Jia J, Wu XL, Tao H, Wang HY. Proteolytic antigens interfere with endosome/lysosome fusion in epithelial cells. Biochem Cell Biol 2013; 91:449-54. [PMID: 24219287 DOI: 10.1139/bcb-2012-0115] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
The airway epithelial barrier function is important in maintaining the homeostasis in the body. A number of airway disorders are associated with the epithelial barrier dysfunction. The present study aims to elucidate a possible mechanism by which the proteolytic allergens compromise the epithelial barrier function. The airway epithelial cell line, RPMI 2650 cells (Rp cells) and kidney epithelial cell line, MDCK cells, were cultured to be monolayers and used as an in vitro epithelial barrier model. House dust mite antigen, Der P1 (Der) was used as an antigen that has the proteolytic property. The epithelial barrier permeability and transepithelial resistance (TER) were used as the indicators of epithelial barrier function. Both epithelial cell lines could endocytose Der in the culture. Some of the Der was transported across the epithelial barrier to the basal chambers of the Transwells without affecting the TER. The endocytic Der could suppress the expression of ubiquitin E3 lases A20 and further interfered with the fusion of endosome/lysosome in the epithelial cells. Mite antigen, Der, can interfere with the fusion of endosome/lysosome in epithelial cells to induce the epithelial barrier dysfunction.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Yu-Wei Liao
- Department of Anesthesiology, Shengjing Hospital, China Medical University, Shenyang, China
| | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
10
|
Steele L, Mayer L, Berin MC. Mucosal immunology of tolerance and allergy in the gastrointestinal tract. Immunol Res 2013; 54:75-82. [PMID: 22447352 DOI: 10.1007/s12026-012-8308-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
The mucosal immune system typically exists in a state of active tolerance to food antigens and commensal bacteria. Tolerance to food proteins is induced in part by dendritic cells residing in the intestinal mucosa and implemented by regulatory T cells. Food allergy occurs when immune tolerance is disrupted and a sensitizing immune response characterized by food-specific IgE production occurs instead. Experimental food allergy in mice requires use of adjuvant or exploitation of alternate routes of sensitization to induce allergic sensitization, and can aid in understanding the mechanisms of sensitization to food allergens and the pathophysiology of gastrointestinal manifestations of food allergy. Recent work in the understanding of mucosal immunology of tolerance and allergy in the gastrointestinal tract will be discussed.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Lauren Steele
- Mount Sinai School of Medicine, Immunology Institute, New York, NY 10029, USA
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
11
|
Evaluation of Food Allergy in Patients with Atopic Dermatitis. THE JOURNAL OF ALLERGY AND CLINICAL IMMUNOLOGY-IN PRACTICE 2013; 1:22-8. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jaip.2012.11.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 87] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/18/2012] [Revised: 11/12/2012] [Accepted: 11/13/2012] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
|
12
|
An YF, Li TL, Geng XR, Yang G, Zhao CQ, Yang PC. Ubiquitin E3 ligase A20 facilitates processing microbial product in nasal epithelial cells. J Biol Chem 2012; 287:35318-35323. [PMID: 22936803 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m112.392639] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Microbial products play a role in the pathogenesis of allergic diseases; ubiquitin E3 ligase A20 (A20) is an important molecule in regulating inflammation in the body. The present study aims to elucidate the role of A20 in processing the absorbed microbial products in nasal epithelial cells. Human nasal mucosal specimens were collected from patients with or without chronic rhinitis and analyzed by immunohistochemistry. Human nasal epithelial cell line, RPMI2650 cell, was employed to assess the role of A20 in processing the absorbed staphylococcal enterotoxin B (SEB). The RPMI2650 cells absorbed SEB in the culture. The increase in A20 was observed in RPMI2650 cells in parallel to the absorption of SEB. A20 is a critical molecule in the degradation of SEB in the nasal epithelial cells by promoting the tethering of endosomes and lysosomes. A20 plays a critical role in processing of the absorbed SEB in nasal epithelial cells.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Yun-Fang An
- Department of Otolaryngology, Head and Neck Surgery, the Second Hospital of Shanxi Medical University, Taiyuan 030001, China
| | - Tong-Li Li
- Department of Otolaryngology, Shanxi Provincial People's Hospital, Taiyuan 030012, China; Department of Pathology and Molecular Medicine, McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario L8N 4A6, Canada
| | - Xiao-Rui Geng
- Department of Pathology and Molecular Medicine, McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario L8N 4A6, Canada
| | - Gui Yang
- Department of Pathology and Molecular Medicine, McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario L8N 4A6, Canada
| | - Chang-Qing Zhao
- Department of Otolaryngology, Head and Neck Surgery, the Second Hospital of Shanxi Medical University, Taiyuan 030001, China.
| | - Ping-Chang Yang
- Department of Pathology and Molecular Medicine, McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario L8N 4A6, Canada.
| |
Collapse
|
13
|
Berin MC. Mucosal antibodies in the regulation of tolerance and allergy to foods. Semin Immunopathol 2012; 34:633-42. [PMID: 22777546 DOI: 10.1007/s00281-012-0325-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/01/2012] [Accepted: 06/20/2012] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
The intestinal mucosa is densely packed with antibody-secreting B cells, the majority of which produce IgA. Mucosal antibodies have traditionally been thought of as neutralizing antibodies that exclude antigens, but they also function in antigen sampling, allowing for selective transcytosis of antigens from the intestinal lumen. IgE-mediated antigen uptake can facilitate the development of allergic reactions to foods, but emerging evidence indicates that IgG-mediated antigen uptake may also play an important role in the development of immune tolerance to foods, particularly in the neonate. This review will focus on the role of intestinal immunoglobulins in the development of clinical tolerance and allergy to food antigens.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- M Cecilia Berin
- Division of Allergy and Immunology, Department of Pediatrics, Mount Sinai School of Medicine, New York, NY 10029, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
14
|
Ahrens R, Osterfeld H, Wu D, Chen CY, Arumugam M, Groschwitz K, Strait R, Wang YH, Finkelman FD, Hogan SP. Intestinal mast cell levels control severity of oral antigen-induced anaphylaxis in mice. THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PATHOLOGY 2012; 180:1535-46. [PMID: 22322300 DOI: 10.1016/j.ajpath.2011.12.036] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/18/2011] [Revised: 12/02/2011] [Accepted: 12/08/2011] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
Food-triggered anaphylaxis can encompass a variety of symptoms that affect multiple organ systems and can be life threatening. The molecular distinction between non-life-threatening and life-threatening modes of such anaphylaxis has not yet been delineated. In this study, we sought to identify the specific immune functions that regulate the severity of oral antigen-induced anaphylaxis. We thus developed an experimental mouse model in which repeated oral challenge of ovalbumin-primed mice induced an FcεRI- and IgE-dependent oral antigen-triggered anaphylaxis that involved multiple organ systems. Strikingly, the severity of the systemic symptoms of anaphylaxis (eg, hypothermia) positively correlated with the levels of intestinal mast cells (r = -0.53; P < 0.009). In addition, transgenic mice with both increased intestinal and normal systemic levels of mast cells showed increased severity of both intestinal and extra-intestinal symptoms of IgE-mediated passive as well as oral antigen- and IgE-triggered anaphylaxis. In conclusion, these observations indicate that the density of intestinal mast cells controls the severity of oral antigen-induced anaphylaxis. Thus, an awareness of intestinal mast cell levels in patients with food allergies may aid in determining their susceptibility to life-threatening anaphylaxis and may eventually aid in the treatment of food-triggered anaphylaxis.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Richard Ahrens
- Division of Allergy and Immunology, Department of Pediatrics, Cincinnati Children's Hospital Medical Center, University of Cincinnati College of Medicine, Cincinnati, Ohio 45229, USA
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
15
|
Starkl P, Krishnamurthy D, Szalai K, Felix F, Lukschal A, Oberthuer D, Sampson HA, Swoboda I, Betzel C, Untersmayr E, Jensen-Jarolim E. Heating Affects Structure, Enterocyte Adsorption and Signalling, As Well as Immunogenicity of the Peanut Allergen Ara h 2. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2011; 4:24-34. [PMID: 22318448 DOI: 10.2174/1874838401104010024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
Previous studies have indicated that specific molecular properties of proteins may determine their allergenicity. Allergen interaction with epithelia as the first contact site could be decisive for a resulting immune response. We investigate here for the major peanut allergen Ara h 2 whether thermal processing results in structural changes which may impact the protein's molecular interactions with enterocytes, subsequent cellular signalling response, and immunogenicity.Ara h 2 was heat processed and analyzed in terms of patient IgE binding, structural alterations, interaction with human enterocytes and associated signalling as well as immunogenicity in a food allergy mouse model.Heating of Ara h 2 led to significantly enhanced binding to Caco-2/TC7 human intestinal epithelial cells. Structural analyses indicated that heating caused persistent structural changes and led to the formation of Ara h 2 oligomers in solution. Heated protein exhibited a significantly higher immunogenic potential in vivo as determined by IgG and IgE serum antibody levels as well as IL-2 and IL-6 release by splenocytes. In human Caco-2/TC7 cells, Ara h 2 incubation led to a response in immune- and stress signalling related pathway components at the RNA level, whereas heated allergen induced a stress-response only.We suggest from this peanut allergen example that food processing may change the molecular immunogenicity and modulate the interaction capacity of food allergens with the intestinal epithelium. Increased binding behaviour to enterocytes and initiation of signalling pathways could trigger the epimmunome and influence the sensitization capacity of food proteins.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Philipp Starkl
- IPA - Department of Pathophysiology and Allergy Research, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
16
|
Intestinal epithelial barrier dysfunction in food hypersensitivity. J Allergy (Cairo) 2011; 2012:596081. [PMID: 21912563 PMCID: PMC3170794 DOI: 10.1155/2012/596081] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/26/2011] [Revised: 07/06/2011] [Accepted: 07/08/2011] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Intestinal epithelial barrier plays a critical role in the maintenance of gut homeostasis by limiting the penetration of luminal bacteria and dietary allergens, yet allowing antigen sampling for the generation of tolerance. Undigested proteins normally do not gain access to the lamina propria due to physical exclusion by tight junctions at the cell-cell contact sites and intracellular degradation by lysosomal enzymes in enterocytes. An intriguing question then arises: how do macromolecular food antigens cross the epithelial barrier? This review discusses the epithelial barrier dysfunction in sensitized intestine with special emphasis on the molecular mechanism of the enhanced transcytotic rates of allergens. The sensitization phase of allergy is characterized by antigen-induced cross-linking of IgE bound to high affinity FcεRI on mast cell surface, leading to anaphylactic responses. Recent studies have demonstrated that prior to mast cell activation, food allergens are transported in large quantity across the epithelium and are protected from lysosomal degradation by binding to cell surface IgE and low-affinity receptor CD23/FcεRII. Improved immunotherapies are currently under study including anti-IgE and anti-CD23 antibodies for the management of atopic disorders.
Collapse
|
17
|
Caubet JC, Eigenmann PA. Allergic triggers in atopic dermatitis. Immunol Allergy Clin North Am 2011; 30:289-307. [PMID: 20670814 DOI: 10.1016/j.iac.2010.06.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Abstract
Food or environmental allergens play a significant pathogenic role in a subgroup of patients with atopic dermatitis (AD) and can trigger eczema flares. This review focuses on when and which diagnostic and allergen-avoidance measures are beneficial. Diagnosis of allergic triggers may be aided by skin-prick tests measuring serum-specific IgE and/or atopy patch tests (APT) based on the patient's history, and when necessary, oral food challenges (OFC). In a subset of patients, therapeutic measures, such as elimination of the incriminated allergen(s), can lead to marked improvement of AD; this is especially true for food allergens, but can also apply to inhalant allergens.
Collapse
|
18
|
Palaniyandi S, Tomei E, Li Z, Conrad DH, Zhu X. CD23-dependent transcytosis of IgE and immune complex across the polarized human respiratory epithelial cells. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2011; 186:3484-96. [PMID: 21307287 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.1002146] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/17/2023]
Abstract
IgE-mediated allergic inflammation occurs when allergens cross-link IgE on the surface of immune cells, thereby triggering the release of inflammatory mediators as well as enhancing Ag presentations. IgE is frequently present in airway secretions, and its level can be enhanced in human patients with allergic rhinitis and bronchial asthma. However, it remains completely unknown how IgE appears in the airway secretions. In this study, we show that CD23 (FcεRII) is constitutively expressed in established or primary human airway epithelial cells, and its expression is significantly upregulated when airway epithelial cells were subjected to IL-4 stimulation. In a transcytosis assay, human IgE or IgE-derived immune complex (IC) was transported across a polarized Calu-3 monolayer. Exposure of the Calu-3 monolayer to IL-4 stimulation also enhanced the transcytosis of either human IgE or the IC. A CD23-specific Ab or soluble CD23 significantly reduced the efficiency of IgE or IC transcytosis, suggesting a specific receptor-mediated transport by CD23. Transcytosis of both IgE and the IC was further verified in primary human airway epithelial cell monolayers. Furthermore, the transcytosed Ag-IgE complexes were competent in inducing degranulation of the cultured human mast cells. Because airway epithelial cells are the first cell layer to come into contact with inhaled allergens, our study implies CD23-mediated IgE transcytosis in human airway epithelial cells may play a critical role in initiating and contributing to the perpetuation of airway allergic inflammation.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Senthilkumar Palaniyandi
- Laboratory of Immunology, Virginia-Maryland Regional College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Maryland, College Park, MD 20742, USA
| | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
19
|
Sumiyoshi M, Sakanaka M, Kimura Y. Effects of Red Ginseng extract on allergic reactions to food in Balb/c mice. JOURNAL OF ETHNOPHARMACOLOGY 2010; 132:206-212. [PMID: 20713140 DOI: 10.1016/j.jep.2010.08.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/30/2010] [Revised: 06/30/2010] [Accepted: 08/09/2010] [Indexed: 05/29/2023]
Abstract
AIM OF THE STUDY Red Ginseng roots (Panax ginseng C.A. Meyer) have traditionally been thought to have anti-allergic effects, but their influence on food-induced allergic responses is unclear. MATERIALS AND METHODS This study examined the effects of a Red Ginseng extract on an ova-albumin (OVA)-evoked allergic reaction in mice. RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONS The orally administered extract significantly inhibited the increase in OVA-specific IgG(1) (Th(2)) levels in OVA-sensitized mice, but had no effect on OVA-specific IgE (Th(2)) levels. The extract prevented a reduction in IL-12 production and the ratio of IFN-γ (Th(1)) to IL-4 (Th(2)) in splenocytes, and enhanced small intestinal CD8-, IFN-γ-, and IgA-positive cell numbers in the OVA-sensitized mice. These findings suggest that Red Ginseng inhibits allergic reactions to food by preventing reductions in the ratio of IFN-γ to IL-4 and in IL-12 production induced by dietary antigens in spleen cells, and/or increasing the expression of CD8 and IFN-γ in the small intestine. It may also protect against sensitization to antigens as an immunomodulator by increasing intestinal IgA secretion without affecting antigen-specific IgE levels. In conclusion, Red Ginseng roots may be a natural preventative of food allergies.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Maho Sumiyoshi
- Division of Functional Histology, Department of Functional Biomedicine, Ehime University Graduate School of Medicine, Shitsukawa, Toon City, Ehime 791-0295, Japan
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
20
|
Abstract
BACKGROUND The ability to control uptake across the mucosa and protect from damage of harmful substances from the lumen is defined as intestinal barrier function. A disturbed barrier dysfunction has been described in many human diseases and animal models, for example, inflammatory bowel disease, irritable bowel syndrome, and intestinal hypersensitivity. In most diseases and models, alterations are seen both of the paracellular pathway, via the tight junctions, and of the transcellular routes, via different types of endocytosis. Recent studies of pathogenic mechanisms have demonstrated the important role of neuroimmune interaction with the epithelial cells in the regulation of barrier function. Neural impulses from extrinsic vagal and/or sympathetic efferent fibers or intrinsic enteric nerves influence mucosal barrier function via direct effects on epithelial cells or via interaction with immune cells. For example, by nerve-mediated activation by corticotropin-releasing hormone or cholinergic pathways, mucosal mast cells release a range of mediators with effects on transcellular, and/or paracellular permeability (for example, tryptase, TNF-alpha, nerve growth factor, and interleukins). PURPOSE In this review, we discuss current physiological and pathophysiological aspects of the intestinal barrier and, in particular, its regulation by neuroimmune factors.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- A V Keita
- Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, Division of Surgery and Clinical Oncology, Faculty of Health Science, University Hospital, Linköping, Sweden
| | | |
Collapse
|
21
|
Multiple facets of intestinal permeability and epithelial handling of dietary antigens. Mucosal Immunol 2010; 3:247-59. [PMID: 20404811 DOI: 10.1038/mi.2010.5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 242] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
The intestinal epithelium, the largest interface between the host and environment, regulates fluxes of ions and nutrients and limits host contact with the massive load of luminal antigens. Local protective and tolerogenic immune responses toward luminal content depend on antigen sampling by the gut epithelial layer. Whether, and how exaggerated, the entrance of antigenic macromolecules across the gut epithelium might initiate and/or perpetuate chronic inflammation as well as the respective contribution of paracellular and transcellular permeability remains a matter of debate. To this extent, experimental studies involving the in vivo assessment of intestinal permeability using small inert molecules do not necessarily correlate with the uptake of larger dietary antigens. This review analyzes both the structural and functional aspects of intestinal permeability with special emphasis on antigen handling in healthy and diseased states and consequences on local immune responses to food antigens.
Collapse
|
22
|
Heyman M. Antigènes alimentaires, barrière intestinale et immunité muqueuse. CAHIERS DE NUTRITION ET DE DIETETIQUE 2010. [DOI: 10.1016/j.cnd.2010.02.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
|
23
|
Abstract
The rapid rise of allergic disorders in developed countries has been attributed to the hygiene hypothesis, implicating that increased environmental sanitation in early childhood may be associated with higher incidence of hypersensitivity. Intestinal epithelial barriers play a crucial role in the maintenance of gut homeostasis by limiting penetration of luminal bacteria and dietary allergens, yet allowing antigen sampling via the follicle-associated epithelium for generation of tolerance. However, this intricate balance is upset in allergic intestines, whereby luminal proteins with antigenic properties gain access to the subepithelial compartment and stimulate mast cell degranulation. Recent studies demonstrated that food allergens were protected from lysosomal degradation, and were transported in large quantities across the epithelium by binding to cell surface IgE/CD23 (FcepsilonRII) that prevented the antigenic protein from lysosomal degradation in enterocytes. IL-4 (a Th2-type cytokine) not only increased production of IgE from B cells, but also upregulated the expression of CD23 on intestinal epithelial cells. Further studies indicated that CD23 was responsible for the bidirectional transport of IgE across epithelium. The presence of IgE/CD23 opens a gate for intact dietary allergens to transcytose across the epithelial cells, and thus foments the mast cell-dependent anaphylactic responses. The understanding of the molecular mechanism responsible for epithelial barrier defects may be helpful in designing novel therapies to treat food allergy and other allergic diseases.
Collapse
|
24
|
Transepithelial transport of macromolecular substances in IL-4 treated human intestinal T84 cell monolayers. Biosci Biotechnol Biochem 2009; 73:2422-6. [PMID: 19897912 DOI: 10.1271/bbb.90383] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
The effect of interleukin-4 (IL-4), a cytokine associated with allergy and inflammation, on the permeability of the intestinal epithelium was investigated. IL-4 reduced transepithelial electrical resistance (TER) and increased permeation to horseradish peroxidase (HRP) and Lucifer Yellow (LY) of human intestinal T84 cell monolayers. The increased permeation due to IL-4 treatment was also observed at 4 degrees C. The permeability of T84 cell monolayers to beta-lactogulobulin (beta-Lg), ovalbumin (OVA), and fluorescein isothiocyanate (FITC)-dextran of various molecular sizes was also high in the IL-4-treated cell monolayers. Sodium azide (NaN(3)), which inhibits ATP synthesis of the cells, did not inhibit the increases in these substances. Even 150 kDa FITC-dextran significantly permeated the T84 cells when the monolayers were treated with IL-4. These results suggest that fairly large molecules are able to permeate intestinal epithelial monolayers via the energy-independent paracellular pathway when the monolayers are exposed to excessive IL-4.
Collapse
|
25
|
Groschwitz KR, Hogan SP. Intestinal barrier function: molecular regulation and disease pathogenesis. J Allergy Clin Immunol 2009; 124:3-20; quiz 21-2. [PMID: 19560575 PMCID: PMC4266989 DOI: 10.1016/j.jaci.2009.05.038] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1071] [Impact Index Per Article: 71.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/12/2009] [Revised: 05/22/2009] [Accepted: 05/27/2009] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
The intestinal epithelium is a single-cell layer that constitutes the largest and most important barrier against the external environment. It acts as a selectively permeable barrier, permitting the absorption of nutrients, electrolytes, and water while maintaining an effective defense against intraluminal toxins, antigens, and enteric flora. The epithelium maintains its selective barrier function through the formation of complex protein-protein networks that mechanically link adjacent cells and seal the intercellular space. The protein networks connecting epithelial cells form 3 adhesive complexes: desmosomes, adherens junctions, and tight junctions. These complexes consist of transmembrane proteins that interact extracellularly with adjacent cells and intracellularly with adaptor proteins that link to the cytoskeleton. Over the past decade, there has been increasing recognition of an association between disrupted intestinal barrier function and the development of autoimmune and inflammatory diseases. In this review we summarize the evolving understanding of the molecular composition and regulation of intestinal barrier function. We discuss the interactions between innate and adaptive immunity and intestinal epithelial barrier function, as well as the effect of exogenous factors on intestinal barrier function. Finally, we summarize clinical and experimental evidence demonstrating intestinal epithelial barrier dysfunction as a major factor contributing to the predisposition to inflammatory diseases, including food allergy, inflammatory bowel diseases, and celiac disease.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Katherine R. Groschwitz
- Division of Allergy and Immunology, Department of Pediatrics, Cincinnati Children’s Hospital Medical Center, University of Cincinnati College of Medicine, Cincinnati, OH
- Division of Immunobiology, Department of Pediatrics, Cincinnati Children’s Hospital Medical Center, University of Cincinnati College of Medicine, Cincinnati, OH
| | - Simon P. Hogan
- Division of Allergy and Immunology, Department of Pediatrics, Cincinnati Children’s Hospital Medical Center, University of Cincinnati College of Medicine, Cincinnati, OH
| |
Collapse
|
26
|
Abstract
Animal models of food allergy have been used to identify mechanisms involved in the development of sensitization to food proteins as well as immunologic mechanisms of adverse reactions to allergen reexposure. To counteract the normal tolerant responses to antigen generated in the gastrointestinal tract, investigators have used mucosal adjuvants or manipulated the mucosal barrier, taken advantage of endogenous adjuvanticity of some food allergens, or bypassed the oral route and sensitized through the skin. Site of antigen uptake in the gastrointestinal tract is a critical factor in both sensitization and anaphylaxis, and antigen uptake can be facilitated by immunoglobulin-E (IgE)-antigen complexes binding to CD23 on the epithelial cell surface. Studies on systemic anaphylaxis or local gastrointestinal manifestations of food allergy in mice have highlighted the contribution of IgE, mast cells, and pathogenic Th2 lymphocytes in experimental food allergy.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- M C Berin
- Jaffe Food Allergy Institute, Mount Sinai School of Medicine, New York, New York, USA.
| | | |
Collapse
|
27
|
Lemon-Mulé H, Nowak-Wegrzyn A, Berin C, Knight AK. Pathophysiology of food-induced anaphylaxis. Curr Allergy Asthma Rep 2008; 8:201-8. [PMID: 18589838 DOI: 10.1007/s11882-008-0034-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Food-induced anaphylaxis is a steadily increasing problem in westernized countries and now represents the leading cause of anaphylaxis in the outpatient setting, particularly in children. Much of our knowledge of the pathophysiology of food-induced anaphylaxis comes from animal studies. Food anaphylaxis in humans is thought to be entirely IgE mediated. Several features appear to be unique to these reactions; factors such as exercise can lower the "threshold" for anaphylaxis in certain susceptible individuals. Different methods of thermal processing can modify the allergenicity of food proteins. Alteration of stomach pH can allow for incomplete digestion of food proteins, leading to increased absorption of intact food allergens. Low serum platelet-activating factor acetylhydrolase may predispose to fatal food-induced anaphylaxis. With a greater understanding of the pathophysiology of food-induced anaphylaxis, novel approaches not only to identify those at risk, but to treat and ultimately prevent food-induced anaphylaxis, are on the horizon.
Collapse
|
28
|
T(H)2 adjuvants: implications for food allergy. J Allergy Clin Immunol 2008; 121:1311-20; quiz 1321-2. [PMID: 18539190 DOI: 10.1016/j.jaci.2008.04.023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/21/2008] [Revised: 04/04/2008] [Accepted: 04/07/2008] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
A persistent question for immunologists studying allergic disease has been to define the characteristics of a molecule that make it allergenic. There has been substantial progress elucidating mechanisms of innate priming of T(H)2 immunity in the past several years. These accumulating data demonstrate that T(H)2 immunity is actively induced by an array of molecules, many of which were first discovered in the context of antihelminthic immune responses. Similar intrinsic or associated activities are now known to account for the T(H)2 immunogenicity of some allergens, and may prove to play a role for many more. In this review, we discuss what has been discovered regarding molecules that induce innate immune activation and the pathways that promote T(H)2-polarized immune responses generally, and specifically what role these mechanisms may play in food allergy from models of food allergy and the study of T(H)2 gastrointestinal adjuvants.
Collapse
|
29
|
Roth-Walter F, Berin MC, Arnaboldi P, Escalante CR, Dahan S, Rauch J, Jensen-Jarolim E, Mayer L. Pasteurization of milk proteins promotes allergic sensitization by enhancing uptake through Peyer's patches. Allergy 2008; 63:882-90. [PMID: 18588554 DOI: 10.1111/j.1398-9995.2008.01673.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 162] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The underlying mechanisms responsible for allergic sensitization to food proteins remain elusive. To investigate the intrinsic properties (as well as the effect of pasteurization) of the milk proteins alpha-lactalbumin, beta-lactoglobulin and casein that promote the induction of milk allergy. METHODS Alteration of structure and immune-reactivity of native and pasteurized proteins was assessed by gel filtration and ELISA. Uptake of these proteins was compared in vitro and in vivo. The biological effect was assessed by orally sensitizing C3H/HeJ mice with milk proteins followed by a graded oral challenge. Required dose to induce anaphylaxis, symptoms and mean body temperature was recorded. Antigen-specific antibodies and cytokine production by splenocytes were analyzed. RESULTS Soluble beta-lactoglobulin and alpha-lactalbumin but not insoluble casein were readily transcytosed through enterocytes in vitro and in vivo. Pasteurization caused aggregation of beta-lactoglobulin and alpha-lactalbumin inhibiting uptake by intestinal epithelial cells in vitro and in vivo. Furthermore, aggregation redirected uptake to Peyer's patches, which promoted significantly higher Th2-associated antibody and cytokine production in mice than their native counterparts. Despite this only the soluble forms of beta-lactoglobulin and alpha-lactalbumin elicited anaphylaxis (following priming) when allergens were administered orally. Aggregated beta-lactoglobulin and alpha-lactalbumin as well as casein required systemic administration to induce anaphylaxis. CONCLUSIONS These results indicate that triggering of an anaphylactic response requires two phases (1) sensitization by aggregates through Peyer's patches and (2) efficient transfer of soluble protein across the epithelial barrier. As the majority of common food allergens tend to form aggregates, this may be of clinical importance.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- F Roth-Walter
- Center of Immunobiology, Mount Sinai School of Medicine, New York, NY 10029, USA
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
30
|
Blázquez AB, Berin MC. Gastrointestinal Dendritic Cells Promote Th2 Skewing via OX40L. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2008; 180:4441-50. [DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.180.7.4441] [Citation(s) in RCA: 109] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
|
31
|
Corl BA, Odle J, Niu X, Moeser AJ, Gatlin LA, Phillips OT, Blikslager AT, Rhoads JM. Arginine activates intestinal p70(S6k) and protein synthesis in piglet rotavirus enteritis. J Nutr 2008; 138:24-9. [PMID: 18156399 DOI: 10.1093/jn/138.1.24] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/03/2023] Open
Abstract
We previously showed that phosphorylation of p70 S6 kinase (p70(S6k)) in the intestine is increased during viral enteritis. In this study, we hypothesized that during rotavirus infection, oral Arg, which stimulates p70(S6k) activation, will further stimulate intestinal protein synthesis and mucosal recovery, whereas the p70(S6k) inhibitor rapamycin (Rapa) will inhibit mucosal recovery. Newborn piglets were fed a standard milk replacer diet supplemented with Arg (0.4 g x kg(-1) x d(-1), twice daily by gavage), Rapa (2 mg x m(-2) x d(-1)), Arg + Rapa, or saline (controls). They were infected on d 6 of life with porcine rotavirus. Three days postinoculation, we measured the piglets' body weight, fecal rotavirus excretion, villus-crypt morphology, epithelial electrical resistance in Ussing chambers, and p70(S6k) activation by Western blotting and immunohistochemistry. We previously showed a 2-fold increase in jejunal protein synthesis during rotavirus diarrhea. In this experiment, Arg stimulated jejunal protein synthesis 1.3-fold above standard medium, and the Arg stimulation was partially inhibited by Rapa. Small bowel stimulation of p70(S6k) phosphorylation and p70(S6k) levels were inhibited >80% by Rapa. Immunohistochemistry revealed a major increase of p70(S6k) and ribosomal protein S6 phosphorylation in the crypt and lower villus of the infected piglets. However, in Arg-treated piglets, p70(S6k) activation occurred over the entire villus. Jejunal villi of the Rapa-treated group showed inactivation of p70(S6k) and a decrease in mucosal resistance (reflecting increased permeability), the latter of which was reversed by Arg. We conclude that, early in rotavirus enteritis, Arg has no impact on diarrhea but augments intestinal protein synthesis in part by p70(S6k) stimulation, while improving intestinal permeability via a mammalian target of rapamycin/p70(S6k)-independent mechanism.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Benjamin A Corl
- Department of Animal Sciences, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC 27695, USA
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
32
|
Knight AK, Blázquez AB, Zhang S, Mayer L, Sampson HA, Berin MC. CD4 T cells activated in the mesenteric lymph node mediate gastrointestinal food allergy in mice. Am J Physiol Gastrointest Liver Physiol 2007; 293:G1234-43. [PMID: 17916645 DOI: 10.1152/ajpgi.00323.2007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/31/2023]
Abstract
A localized Th2 milieu has been observed in the intestine of subjects with food allergic disorders; however, the role of T cells in the pathophysiology of these disorders remains poorly understood. Our aim was to examine sites of T cell activation in response to food challenge, identify potential factors responsible for T cell recruitment to the gut, and determine the role of T cells in disease. BALB/c mice were systemically sensitized to ovalbumin (OVA) and repeatedly fed with OVA to induce allergic diarrhea. Local cytokine and chemokine expressions were assessed by quantitative PCR, and cytokine secretion levels in the mesenteric lymph node (MLN) were determined by ELISA. Homing molecule expression was determined by flow cytometry, and the role of CD4(+) T cells in promoting disease was tested by adoptive transfer. Mice developed diarrhea associated with changes in epithelial ion transport, mast cell infiltration, intestinal IgE secretion, and local upregulation of Th2 cytokines and the Th2 chemokines CCL1, CCL17, and CCL22 in the small intestine. T cell activation occurred in the MLN before symptom onset, and a single feed of OVA induced T cell proliferation, alpha(4)beta(7) upregulation, and CD62L downregulation. Cells from the MLN, including purified CD4(+) T cells, were able to transfer allergic diarrhea to naive mice. A gut-homing phenotype induced in the MLN and selective upregulation of Th2 chemoattractants are likely important factors in the gastrointestinal recruitment of pathological Th2-skewed CD4(+) T cells in food allergy.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Adina Kay Knight
- The Division of Allergy and Immunology/Department of Pediatrics, Mount Sinai School of Medicine, One Gustave L. Levy Place, New York, NY 10029, USA
| | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
33
|
Hundorfean G, Zimmer KP, Strobel S, Gebert A, Ludwig D, Büning J. Luminal antigens access late endosomes of intestinal epithelial cells enriched in MHC I and MHC II molecules: in vivo study in Crohn's ileitis. Am J Physiol Gastrointest Liver Physiol 2007; 293:G798-808. [PMID: 17673546 DOI: 10.1152/ajpgi.00135.2007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/31/2023]
Abstract
In contrast to healthy conditions, intestinal epithelial cells (IECs) stimulate proinflammatory CD4+ and CD8+ T cells during Crohn's disease (CD). The underlying regulatory mechanisms remain unknown. Here we investigated the epithelial expression of major histocompatibility complex (MHC) I and MHC II and its interference with endocytic pathways, in vivo. During ileoscopy, ovalbumin (OVA) was sprayed onto ileal mucosa of CD patients (ileitis and remission) and controls. The epithelial traffic of OVA and MHC I/II pathways were studied in biopsies using fluorescence and electron microscopy. We found MHC I and MHC II to accumulate within multivesicular late endosomes (MVLE) of IECs. Faint labeling for these molecules was seen in early endosomes and lysosomes. MVLE were entered by OVA 10 min after exposure. Exosomes carrying MHC I, MHC II, and OVA were detected in intercellular spaces of the epithelium. OVA trafficking and labeling patterns for MHC I and MHC II in IECs showed no differences between CD patients and controls. Independent of inflammatory stimuli, MHC I and MHC II pathways intersect MVLE in IECs, which were efficiently targeted by luminal antigens. Similar to MHC II-enriched compartments in professional antigen presenting cells, these MVLE might be critically involved in MHC I- and MHC II-related antigen processing in IECs and the source of epithelial-released exosomes. The access of luminal antigens to MHC I in MVLE might indicate that the presentation of exogenous antigens by IECs must not be restricted to MHC II but might also occur as "cross-presentation" via MHC I to CD8+ T cells.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Gheorghe Hundorfean
- Dept. of Internal Medicine I, Univ. Hospital of Schleswig-Holstein, Ratzeburger Allee 160, D-23538 Lübeck, Germany
| | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
34
|
Ramos L, Vicario M, Santos J. [Stress-mast cell axis and regulation of gut mucosal inflammation: from intestinal health to an irritable bowel]. Med Clin (Barc) 2007; 129:61-9. [PMID: 17588364 DOI: 10.1157/13106939] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
The functional gastrointestinal disorders and the irritable bowel syndrome, in particular, represent one of the commonest causes of medical consultation and the most frequent diagnosis raised by the gastroenterologists. Despite their high prevalence, the aetiology and pathophysiology of these functional digestive disorders remains unclear and specific diagnostic markers and clearly effective therapeutic options are lacking as well. These factors generate an important impairment in the quality of life in these patients and a growing sanitary burden. Recent studies showing the presence of low grade intestinal mucosal inflammation along with mast cell hyperplasia may contribute to the development and perpetuation of visceral hypersensitivity and dismotility patterns and epithelial barrier abnormalities, characteristic of the irritable bowel syndrome. In this article we will review the role of the stress-mast cell axis in the modulation of the gut mucosal inflammation and in the pathophysiology of the irritable bowel syndrome.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Laura Ramos
- Unidad de Investigación en Enfermedades Digestivas, Servicio de Aparato Digestivo, Hospital Universitari Vall d'Hebron, Departamento de Medicina, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Barcelona, España
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
35
|
Bodinier M, Legoux MA, Pineau F, Triballeau S, Segain JP, Brossard C, Denery-Papini S. Intestinal translocation capabilities of wheat allergens using the Caco-2 cell line. JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD CHEMISTRY 2007; 55:4576-83. [PMID: 17477542 DOI: 10.1021/jf070187e] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/15/2023]
Abstract
Because intestinal absorption of food protein can trigger an allergic reaction, the effect of wheat proteins on intestinal epithelial cell permeability was evaluated and the abilities of these proteins in native or pepsin-hydrolyzed state to cross the epithelial cell monolayer were compared. Enterocytic monolayers were established by culturing Caco-2 cells, a model of enterocytes, on permeable supports that separate the apical and basal compartments. Proteins were added into the apical compartment, and the transepithelial resistance (TER) was measured; proteins that crossed the cell monolayer were detected in the basal medium by ELISA. Wheat proteins did not alter the cell monolayer. TER and Caco-2 cell viability were conserved, and the passage of dextran was prevented. Native and pepsin-hydrolyzed forms of omega5-gliadin and lipid transfer proteins were detected in the basal medium. The results suggest that these two major allergens in food allergy to wheat were able to cross the cell monolayer by the transcellular route.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Marie Bodinier
- INRA, Research Unit on Biopolymères, Interactions et Assemblages (BIA), and INRA, Université de Nantes, UMR 1280, F44316 Nantes, France.
| | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
36
|
Morita E, Kunie K, Matsuo H. Food-dependent exercise-induced anaphylaxis. J Dermatol Sci 2007; 47:109-17. [PMID: 17507204 DOI: 10.1016/j.jdermsci.2007.03.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 147] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/13/2007] [Accepted: 03/07/2007] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Food-dependent exercise induced anaphylaxis (FDEIA) is a distinct form of food allergy induced by physical exercise. Symptoms are typically generalized urticaria and severe allergic reactions such as shock or hypotension. Whereas various food items are responsible for the development of FDEIA, wheat is reported to be the allergen with the highest frequency in Japan. Recently aspirin has been known to be an additional exacerbating factor. Skin tests and in vitro serum food-specific IgE assays are currently used, however their sensitivity and specificity are not always satisfactory. A challenge test consisting of ingestion of assumed food followed by intense physical exercise is the only reliable method to determine the causative food and to diagnose the disease. The challenge test is not always safe because in some cases the test induces an anaphylactic shock. So a reliable in vitro diagnostic method is necessary for the patients with FDEIA. We revealed that wheat omega-5 gliadin and high molecular weight glutenin subunit are major allergens in wheat-dependent exercise-induced anaphylaxis (WDEIA). A simultaneous detection of specific IgE to epitope sequences of both omega-5 gliadin and high molecular weight glutenin is found to achieve higher sensitivity and specificity compared with the in vitro serum food-specific IgE assays currently used for diagnosis of WDEIA. On the other hand, immunoreactive gliadins appeared in the sera of patients during the provocation test with both wheat-exercise and wheat-aspirin challenges in parallel with allergic symptoms. These findings suggest that FDEIA is IgE-mediated hypersensitivity reaction to foods and both exercise and aspirin facilitate allergen absorption from the gastrointestinal tract.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Eishin Morita
- Department of Dermatology, Shimane University School of Medicine, 89-1 Enya, Izumo 693-8501, Japan.
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
37
|
Liu T, He SH, Zheng PY, Zhang TY, Wang BQ, Yang PC. Staphylococcal enterotoxin B increases TIM4 expression in human dendritic cells that drives naïve CD4 T cells to differentiate into Th2 cells. Mol Immunol 2007; 44:3580-7. [PMID: 17439824 DOI: 10.1016/j.molimm.2007.03.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/11/2007] [Revised: 02/18/2007] [Accepted: 03/09/2007] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Aberrant T helper (Th)2 polarization plays a critical role in the pathogenesis of allergic disorders; the etiology remains unclear. Dendritic cells (DCs) express T cell immunoglobulin mucin domain (TIM)4 that ligates TIM1 on CD4 T cells to drive them to become Th2 cells, but the pathogenic source of TIM4 is unknown. Here we report that a significant increase in TIM4 expression in human DCs was observed in response to Staphylococcal enterotoxin B (SEB) stimulation via Toll-like receptor (TLR)2 and nucleotide-binding oligomerization domain (NOD)1 pathway. Coculture SEB-conditioned DCs with naïve CD4 T cells induced Th2 responses that could be abolished using TLR2 or NOD1 or TIM4 or TIM1 with counterpart antibodies or RNA interference. The results demonstrate that Staphylococcus aureus derived SEB promotes the TIM4 production in human DCs. The interaction between TIM4 and TIM1 drives naïve CD4 T cells to develop to Th2 cells.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Tao Liu
- Allergy Research Unit, The First Hospital, Shanxi Medical University, Taiyuan, Shanxi, China
| | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
38
|
Kimura Y, Sumiyoshi M, Suzuki T, Suzuki T, Sakanaka M. Inhibitory effects of water-soluble low-molecular-weight beta-(1,3-1,6) d-glucan purified from Aureobasidium pullulans GM-NH-1A1 strain on food allergic reactions in mice. Int Immunopharmacol 2007; 7:963-72. [PMID: 17499199 DOI: 10.1016/j.intimp.2007.03.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/29/2006] [Revised: 03/02/2007] [Accepted: 03/11/2007] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
There have been a number of reports showing that the crude beta-glucan fraction prepared from various kinds of Basidiomycetes mushrooms acts as anti-cancer and anti-allergic reagent through stimulation of IFN-gamma production. It has been reported, however, that the exposure of the airway to beta-(1,3) d-glucan, contained in house dust, indoor moulds and some bacteria, potentiates the airway allergic response. It seems likely that the discrepant effects on immune function may be related to such factors as differences of the administration route, average molecular weight and water solubility. We isolated a new low-molecular-weight (about 100 kDa) beta-glucan from Aureobasidium pullulans 1A1 strain of black yeast, and found that it had low viscosity and was water-soluble. In this study, we examined the effects of water-soluble low-molecular-weight beta-(1-->3) and 50-80% branched beta-(1-->6) glucan (LMW-beta-Glucan) isolated from A. pullulans on the ova-albumin (OVA)-treated allergic reaction in mice. Feeding standard laboratory diets containing 0.5 and 1% LMW-beta-Glucan significantly inhibited the OVA-specific IgE elevation compared to that in OVA-sensitized mice fed standard laboratory diet alone (control). Furthermore, feeding standard laboratory diets containing 0.5 and 1% LMW-beta-Glucan inhibited the reduction of IL-12 and IFN-gamma production from splenocytes and the reduction of CD8- and IFN-gamma-positive cell number in the small intestine of the OVA-sensitized mice. These findings suggest that anti-food allergic action of LMW-beta-Glucan may be due to the inducing IFN-gamma production in the small intestine and splenocytes.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Yoshiyuki Kimura
- Division of Biochemical Pharmacology, Department of Basic Medical Research, Graduate School of Medicine, Ehime University, Shitsukawa, Toon-City, Ehime 791-0295, Japan.
| | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
39
|
Berin MC, Li H, Sperber K. Antibody-mediated antigen sampling across intestinal epithelial barriers. Ann N Y Acad Sci 2006; 1072:253-61. [PMID: 17057205 DOI: 10.1196/annals.1326.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
The epithelium of the gastrointestinal tract is the interface between luminal contents and the mucosal immune system. It must function as a selective barrier to limit penetration of antigens yet keep the mucosal immune system "informed" for the purpose of generating oral tolerance responses to food antigens or commensal organisms and host defense responses against pathogens. Alterations in epithelial barrier function have been proposed to play a significant role in gastrointestinal disease. In this review, we will discuss mechanisms of regulation of epithelial barrier function, and we will focus on the emerging understanding of how secreted immunoglobulins play a role in antigen-specific antigen sampling across the gastrointestinal epithelium.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- M Cecilia Berin
- Department of Pediatrics, Jaffe Food Allergy Institute, Mount Sinai School of Medicine, One Gustave L. Levy Place, New York, NY 10029, USA.
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
40
|
Liu T, Wang BQ, Wang CS, Yang PC. Concurrent exposure to thermal stress and oral Ag induces intestinal sensitization in the mouse by a mechanism of regulation of IL‐12 expression. Immunol Cell Biol 2006; 84:430-9. [PMID: 16942486 DOI: 10.1111/j.1440-1711.2006.01452.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
The mechanism of food allergy remains unclear. The absorption of intact protein Ag into the intestinal tissue is a prerequisite in the development of intestinal sensitization. Previous studies indicate that thermal stress compromises the intestinal barrier function. Mice were concurrently exposed to thermal stress and oral Ag. Intestinal sensitivity, levels of serum-specific IgE, IL-4 and INF-gamma were assessed. Intestinal dendritic cell, Th1 and Th2 functions were determined. The mice that were treated with thermal stress and oral Ag showed high levels of serum Ag-specific IgE, intestinal mast cell activation in response to oral Ag challenge, suppression of IL-12 expression in the intestinal dendritic cells, inhibition of T-bet expression and Th1 function and marked increases in (GATA)3 expression and Th2 function. Mice exposed to thermal stress alone or oral Ag alone did not show any signs of the intestinal sensitization. Pretreatment with IL-12 inhibited the intestinal sensitization induced by the concurrent exposure to thermal stress and Ag gavage. We conclude that although Ag absorption is essential, Ag absorption alone is insufficient; other accessory factors that can disturb the local immune homeostasis are also required for the induction of intestinal sensitization. The present study illustrates that concurrent exposure to thermal stress and oral Ag can prove to be a factor in the induction of intestinal sensitization by a mechanism of regulating IL-12 expression.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Tao Liu
- Institute of Allergy, Shanxi Medical University, Taiyuan, Shanxi, China
| | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
41
|
Tu Y, Perdue MH. CD23-mediated transport of IgE/immune complexes across human intestinal epithelium: role of p38 MAPK. Am J Physiol Gastrointest Liver Physiol 2006; 291:G532-8. [PMID: 16899715 DOI: 10.1152/ajpgi.00524.2005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/31/2023]
Abstract
We previously reported that CD23/FcepsilonRII (low-affinity IgE receptor) is expressed on human intestinal epithelial cells and is responsible for transepithelial transport of IgE. In this study, we compared the transport of IgE with that of immune complexes in both the apical-to-serosal and the serosal-to-apical directions across HT29 epithelial cell layers and examined the effects of two p38 MAPK inhibitors, SKF86002 and SB203580, on the expression and function of CD23. Our study showed that both p38 MAPK inhibitors at 10 microM significantly inhibited constitutive and IL-4-upregulated CD23 protein expression in epithelial cells. Both inhibitors, in a concentration-dependent manner, also significantly reduced IgE binding and uptake into cells. Transepithelial transport of IgE and immune complexes across the epithelial barrier were similarly inhibited. IL-4 upregulated the phosphorylation and activity of p38 MAPK and the phosphorylation of the downstream substrate MAPKAPK-2 (MK-2). The inhibitors exerted effects in the pathway post the p38 MAPK; SB203580 significantly inhibited the phosphorylation of MK-2. Our results indicate that CD23 expression in these human intestinal epithelial cells is mediated through the p38 MAPK pathway and that inhibition of p38 MAPK consequently interferes with the transport of IgE and immune complexes across the intestinal epithelial barrier.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Yahong Tu
- Intestinal Disease Research Program, HSC-3N5C, McMaster University, 1200 Main St. West, Hamilton, ON, Canada
| | | |
Collapse
|
42
|
Abstract
Food allergy is a growing health issue; its prevalence has exponentially increased in the past years, and it is situated around 4-5% of the general population. Health professionals will frequently have to deal with the management of affected patients. Only a minor number of foods cause the majority of allergic reactions. In Spain, milk, egg and fish are the most frequent sensitizers in children with food allergy; in adults, fruits and nuts, followed by fish and sea-food are the main food allergens. Clinical manifestations range from mild cutaneous reactions to life-threatening anaphylaxis. Therefore, an accurate diagnosis is crucial, as well as a correct medical treatment of reactions. Furthermore, patients and care-givers should be instructed on allergen avoidance and on the use of emergency kits in case of accidental ingestion.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Victoria Cardona
- Servicio de Medicina Interna, Hospital Universitari de la Vall d'Hebron, Barcelona, Spain.
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
43
|
Untersmayr E, Jensen-Jarolim E. Mechanisms of type I food allergy. Pharmacol Ther 2006; 112:787-98. [PMID: 16876254 DOI: 10.1016/j.pharmthera.2006.06.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/02/2006] [Accepted: 06/02/2006] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
The gastrointestinal tract represents the biggest immune organ of the human body and has 3 distinct functions: (1) barrier and defense against potential pathogens, (2) ignorance or tolerance of innocuous agents, and (3) digestion and nutritional uptake of alimentary compounds. Recent studies have indicated that especially structural features of dietary proteins seem to be a precondition for the induction of immediate type immune responses. Crystallographic studies of allergen molecules have been fundamental for epitope studies in a 3-dimensional format using peptides or mimotopes. The identified IgE epitopes were all conformational and responsible for high-affinity interactions with specific IgE. Moreover, numerous studies have indicated that allergens, among them food allergens, preferentially form di-, tri-, or multimers, thus leading to a repetitive display of epitopes. As B-lymphocytes are pattern recognizers, this feature is essential for a memory response, but may also be critical for the very first allergen contact and initiation of the IgE response. Here we review the key candidate cells in the gut, which are capable of recognizing conformation and molecular patterns, but may also be involved in skewing the immune response towards Th2. Animal models have been basic for understanding the molecular principles of food allergy and they will be increasingly indispensable for the definition of novel vaccination strategies. Therefore, the available models are critically analyzed in this review.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Eva Untersmayr
- Center of Physiology and Pathophysiology, Medical University Vienna, Waehringer Guertel 18-20, E3Q, 1090 Vienna, Austria
| | | |
Collapse
|
44
|
Bernasconi E, Fritsché R, Corthésy B. Specific effects of denaturation, hydrolysis and exposure to Lactococcus lactis on bovine beta-lactoglobulin transepithelial transport, antigenicity and allergenicity. Clin Exp Allergy 2006; 36:803-14. [PMID: 16776682 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2222.2006.02504.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Food allergy in developed countries represents a growing concern as reflected by epidemiological studies, indicating that up to 4% of the overall population is affected. Reduction of symptoms takes place following eviction or processing of some allergens. However, it cannot be predicted which structural changes will be associated with significant effects on the allergenicity. OBJECTIVE To determine how various treatments of bovine beta-lactoglobulin (BLG) used as a model antigen alters its immunoreactivity and transepithelial transport, and whether this correlates with reduced allergenicity using an in vitro basophil activation assay. METHODS BLG was subjected to reduction/alkylation, trypsin digestion or exposed to Lactococcus lactis. The remaining immunoreactivity toward IgG raised against native BLG was assessed by ELISA. Transepithelial transport of BLG and derivatives was examined using polarized Caco-2 cell monolayers mimicking the intestinal epithelium. Selective passage of tryptic peptides was determined using colchicine and cytochalasin D. Basophil activation was measured following stimulation with BLG and derivatives. RESULTS Reduction/alkylation, trypsin digestion or incubation with L. lactis was associated with decreased BLG recognition by IgG antibodies raised against the native protein. All treatments also resulted in a more efficient transepithelial transport of BLG. BLG crossed the Caco-2 monolayer through passage across the cell, whereas tryptic peptides followed both the para- and transcellular routes. With the exception of denaturation by reduction/alkylation, cross-linking of IgE antibodies by BLG derivatives led to lower basophil degranulation. CONCLUSION In vitro dissection of antigenicity and allergenicity may be a valid and convenient alternative to evaluate the effects of biotechnological processing on dietary proteins. In addition, it can help to define the molecular and cellular mechanisms that will provide improved means of diagnosis and possibly therapy of food-allergic disorders.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- E Bernasconi
- R & D Laboratory of the Division of Immunology and Allergy, DMI-CHUV, Lausanne, Switzerland
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
45
|
Yang PC, Wang CS. Heat stress increases protein antigen transport across the intestinal epithelium via a mechanism of impairing proteolytic enzymatic activity. Dig Dis Sci 2006; 51:1003-11. [PMID: 16683060 DOI: 10.1007/s10620-005-9003-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/14/2005] [Accepted: 08/17/2005] [Indexed: 12/09/2022]
Abstract
It has not been fully understood how intact protein antigens escape digestion in the course of absorption. The present study was designed to investigate the mechanism that heat stress induced an increase in intact protein antigen absorption. Human colonic cell line Caco-2 cells were treated with high temperature (37 to 43 degrees C) for 60 min. Epithelial permeability was evaluated by horseradish peroxidase (HRP) flux and dextran flux. Activity of the major intracellular proteolytic enzyme, acid phosphatase, in Caco-2 cells was determined. HRP products in Caco-2 cells were observed by electron microscopy (EM) and analyzed with a computerized image processing system. Heat stress significantly increased intact protein HRP transport across Caco-2 monolayers, decreased acid phosphatase activity of the cells, and significantly reduced transepithelial electric resistance of Caco-2 cells. EM results showed that HRP transport across Caco-2 monolayers occurred mainly via the intracellular pathway.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- P-C Yang
- Department of Pathology and Molecular Medicine, McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada.
| | | |
Collapse
|
46
|
Yang PC, Jury J, Söderholm JD, Sherman PM, McKay DM, Perdue MH. Chronic psychological stress in rats induces intestinal sensitization to luminal antigens. THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PATHOLOGY 2006; 168:104-14; quiz 363. [PMID: 16400013 PMCID: PMC1592661 DOI: 10.2353/ajpath.2006.050575] [Citation(s) in RCA: 119] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
There is increasing evidence that stress plays a role in the pathophysiology of chronic intestinal disorders, but the mechanisms remain unclear. Previous studies in rats have revealed that stress decreases gut barrier function and allows excessive uptake of luminal material. Here, we investigated whether chronic psychological stress acts to induce sensitization of intestinal tissues to oral antigens. Rats were subjected to 1 hour per day of water avoidance stress or sham stress daily for 10 days, and horseradish peroxidase (HRP) was delivered by gavage on day 5. Studies to determine sensitization were conducted on day 20. All stressed rats developed HRP-specific IgE antibodies, antigen-induced intestinal secretion, and increased numbers of inflammatory cells in gut mucosa. Luminal HRP was absorbed more readily by enterocytes of stressed animals. In addition, stressed rats had increased expression of interleukin-4 and decreased expression of interferon-gamma in gut mucosa, a cytokine profile that is typical of allergic conditions. Treatment of stressed rats with an antagonist to corticotropin-releasing hormone (previously shown to inhibit stress-enhanced gut permeability) eliminated the manifestations of intestinal hypersensitivity. Our results indicate that the presence of oral antigen during chronic psychological stress alters the immune response (to sensitization rather than oral tolerance) and causes subsequent antigen-induced gut pathophysiology.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ping-Chang Yang
- Department of Pathology and Molecular Medicine, Intestinal Disease Research Program, McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada
| | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
47
|
Tamiolakis D, Nicolaidou S, Bolioti S, Tzilivaki A. Prognostic significance of major histocompatibility complex class II antigens (HLA-DR) in normal colonic mucosa, tubulovillous adenoma, and invasive colonic carcinoma. Ann Saudi Med 2006; 26:133-7. [PMID: 16761451 PMCID: PMC6074159 DOI: 10.5144/0256-4947.2006.133] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
|
48
|
|
49
|
Büning J, Hundorfean G, Schmitz M, Zimmer KP, Strobel S, Gebert A, Ludwig D. Antigen targeting to MHC class II-enriched late endosomes in colonic epithelial cells: trafficking of luminal antigens studied in vivo in Crohn's colitis patients. FASEB J 2005; 20:359-61. [PMID: 16373401 DOI: 10.1096/fj.05-4807fje] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
In Crohn's disease (CD), colonic epithelial cells (CECs) are suggested to stimulate pro-inflammatory CD4+ T cells. However, the endocytic pathways of luminal antigens involved in underlying MHC class II presentation by CECs remain unknown. Our aim was to elucidate antigen trafficking and associated MHC class II expression in CECs of CD patients in vivo. In CD patients (Crohn's colitis and remission) and healthy controls undergoing colonoscopy, ovalbumin (OVA) was sprayed onto inflamed or healthy mucosa. The subcellular localization of OVA and MHC class II was visualized in biopsies taken from OVA-incubated mucosa using fluorescence and cryoelectron microscopy. Targeting of OVA into late endosomes of CECs was found in healthy (controls and CD in remission) and inflamed mucosa (Crohn's colitis). MHC class II expression in CECs was not detected in healthy mucosa but strongly up-regulated during CD inflammation. Induced MHC class II in CECs was predominantly seen at basolateral membranes and in late endosomes, which were efficiently accessed by internalized OVA. Our data provide in vivo evidence that the endocytic pathway of luminal antigens in CECs of Crohn's colitis patients intersects MHC class II-enriched late endosomes and support the postulated role of CECs in MHC class II-associated antigen presentation during CD.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jürgen Büning
- Medizinische Klinik I and Institut für Anatomie, Universitätsklinikum Schleswig-Holstein, Lübeck, Germany.
| | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
50
|
Abstract
Mast cells (MCs) are major effector cells of immunoglobulin E (IgE)-mediated allergic inflammation. However, it has become increasingly clear that they also play important roles in diverse physiological and pathological processes. Recent advances have focused on the importance of MCs in both innate and adaptive immune responses and have fostered studies of MCs beyond the myopic focus on allergic reactions. MCs possess a variety of surface receptors and may be activated by inflammatory mediators, IgE, IgG, light chains, complement fragments, proteases, hormones, neuropeptides, and microbial products. Following activation, they produce a plethora of pro-inflammatory mediators and participate in inflammatory reactions in many organs. This review focuses on the role of MCs in inflammatory reactions in mucosal surfaces with particular emphasis on their role in respiratory and gastrointestinal inflammatory conditions.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Harissios Vliagoftis
- Department of Medicine, Pulmonary Research Group, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada
| | | |
Collapse
|