Ascending choline acetyltransferase and descending nitric oxide synthase immunoreactive neurones of the myenteric plexus project to the mucosa of the guinea pig gastric corpus

Morphological and Immunohistochemical Characterization of Human Intrinsic Gastric Neurons

Our knowledge about human gastric enteric neuron types is even more limited than that of human intestinal types. Here, we immunohistochemically stained wholemounts and sections of gastric specimens obtained from 18 tumor-resected patients. Myenteric wholemounts were labeled for choline acetyl transferase (ChAT), neuronal nitric oxide synthase (NOS), and the human neuronal protein HuC/D (as pan-neuronal marker for quantitative analysis) or alternatively for neurofilament (for morphological evaluation). ChAT-positive neurons outnumbered NOS-positive neurons (56 vs. 27%), and neurons negative for both markers accounted for 17%. Two larger groups of neurons (each between 12 and 14%) costained for ChAT and vasoactive intestinal peptide (VIP) or for NOS and VIP, respectively. Clear morphochemical correlation was found for uniaxonal stubby type I neurons (ChAT+; putative excitatory inter- or motor neurons), for uniaxonal spiny type I neurons (NOS+/VIP+; putative inhibitory motor or interneurons), and for multiaxonal type II neurons (ChAT+; putative afferent neurons; immunostaining of additional wholemounts revealed their coreactivity for somatostatin). Whereas these latter neuron types were already known from the human intestine, the morphology of gastric myenteric neurons coreactive for ChAT and VIP was newly described: they had numerous short, extremely thin dendrites and resembled, together with their cell bodies, a "hairy" head. In our sections, nerve fibers coreactive for ChAT and VIP were commonly found only in the mucosa. We suggest these myenteric ChAT+/VIP+/hairy neurons to be mucosal effector neurons. In contrast to myenteric neurons, the much less common submucosal neurons were not embedded in a continuous plexus and did not display any clear morphochemical phenotypes.

Distribution and trafficking of the μ-opioid receptor in enteric neurons of the guinea pig

The μ-opioid receptor (MOR) is a major regulator of gastrointestinal motility and secretion and mediates opiate-induced bowel dysfunction. Although MOR is of physiological and therapeutic importance to gut function, the cellular and subcellular distribution and regulation of MOR within the enteric nervous system are largely undefined. Herein, we defined the neurochemical coding of MOR-expressing neurons in the guinea pig gut and examined the effects of opioids on MOR trafficking and regulation. MOR expression was restricted to subsets of enteric neurons. In the stomach MOR was mainly localized to nitrergic neurons (∼88%), with some overlap with neuropeptide Y (NPY) and no expression by cholinergic neurons. These neurons are likely to have inhibitory motor and secretomotor functions. MOR was restricted to noncholinergic secretomotor neurons (VIP-positive) of the ileum and distal colon submucosal plexus. MOR was mainly detected in nitrergic neurons of the colon (nitric oxide synthase positive, 87%), with some overlap with choline acetyltransferase (ChAT). No expression of MOR by intrinsic sensory neurons was detected. [d-Ala(2), MePhe(4), Gly(ol)(5)]enkephalin (DAMGO), morphiceptin, and loperamide induced MOR endocytosis in myenteric neurons. After stimulation with DAMGO and morphiceptin, MOR recycled, whereas MOR was retained within endosomes following loperamide treatment. Herkinorin or the δ-opioid receptor agonist [d-Ala(2), d-Leu(5)]enkephalin (DADLE) did not evoke MOR endocytosis. In summary, we have identified the neurochemical coding of MOR-positive enteric neurons and have demonstrated differential trafficking of MOR in these neurons in response to established and putative MOR agonists.

Mechanosensitive enteric neurons in the guinea pig gastric corpus

For long it was believed that a particular population of enteric neurons, referred to as intrinsic primary afferent neuron (IPAN)s, encodes mechanical stimulation. We recently proposed a new concept suggesting that there are in addition mechanosensitive enteric neurons (MEN) that are multifunctional. Based on firing pattern MEN behaved as rapidly, slowly, or ultra-slowly adapting RAMEN, SAMEN, or USAMEN, respectively. We aimed to validate this concept in the myenteric plexus of the gastric corpus, a region where IPANs were not identified and existence of enteric sensory neurons was even questioned. The gastric corpus is characterized by a particularly dense extrinsic sensory innervation. Neuronal activity was recorded with voltage sensitive dye imaging after deformation of ganglia by compression (intraganglionic volume injection or von Fry hair) or tension (ganglionic stretch). We demonstrated that 27% of the gastric neurons were MEN and responded to intraganglionic volume injection. Of these 73% were RAMEN, 25% SAMEN, and 2% USAMEN with a firing frequency of 1.7 (1.1/2.2), 5.1 (2.2/7.7), and of 5.4 (5.0/15.5) Hz, respectively. The responses were reproducible and stronger with increased stimulus strength. Even after adaptation another deformation evoked spike discharge again suggesting a resetting mode of the mechanoreceptors. All MEN received fast synaptic input. Fifty five percent of all MEN were cholinergic and 45% nitrergic. Responses in some MEN significantly decreased after perfusion of TTX, low Ca(++)/high Mg(++) Krebs solution, capsaicin induced nerve defunctionalization and capsazepine indicating the involvement of TRPV1 expressing extrinsic mechanosensitive nerves. Half of gastric MEN responded to intraganglionic volume injection as well as to ganglionic stretch and 23% responded to stretch only. Tension-sensitive MEN were to a large proportion USAMEN (44%). In summary, we demonstrated for the first time compression and tension-sensitive MEN in the stomach; many of them responded to one stimulus modality only. Their proportions and the basic properties were similar to MEN previously identified by us in other intestinal region and species. Unlike in the intestine, the responsiveness of some gastric MEN is enhanced by extrinsic TRPV1 expressing visceral afferents.

Immunohistochemical characterization of putative primary afferent (sensory) myenteric neurons in human small intestine

Pseudouni- or multiaxonal Dogiel type II neurons are the intrinsic primary afferent (sensory) neurons (IPANs) in the guinea pig small intestine. Our aim was to decipher the chemical code of human myenteric type II neurons and to establish their putative vertical projections, i.e., from the myenteric plexus to the submucosa/mucosa. Additionally, we tried to distinguish them chemically from uniaxonal, dendritic type V neurons displaying, at first glance, similar shapes, i.e., smoothly contoured cell bodies with several long processes. Wholemount preparations of the myenteric plexus were immunohistochemically double or triple stained for neurofilaments (NF) and one or two of the following peptides: calbindin, calretinin (CR), calcitonin gene-related peptide (CGRP), somatostatin (SOM) and substance P (SP). In each triple stained wholemount three counts were conducted: (1) NF-positive pseudouni- or multiaxonal (type II) neurons including their reactivities for the above peptides, (2) uniaxonal or NF-negative neurons displaying coreactivities for the above peptides and (3) NF-reactive type V neurons taking into account their reactivities for the above markers. Additionally, type II neurons, which had an axon leading into (disrupted) interconnecting strands towards the submucosa were counted and somal areas of types II and V neurons were measured. The majority of myenteric type II neurons displayed coreactivities for SOM/CR (89.6%), SOM/SP (86.6%) and SP/CR (81.6%), respectively. A minority of type II neurons was positive for CGRP or calbindin. A small population with type III morphology (uniaxonal, long and slender dendrites) displayed the same coreactivities as type II neurons. In contrast, not one single type V neuron was coreactive for SOM/CR, SOM/SP or SP/CR. Out of 627 type II neurons counted in six wholemounts, 84 type II neurons displayed an axon which could be followed into disrupted interconnecting strands indicating a vertical projection pattern. Somal areas of type II neurons were twice as big as those of type V neurons (904+/-210 versus 449+/-110 microm(2)). In conclusion, most human myenteric type II neurons contain SOM, SP and CR. We suggest they are the human IPANs. Type V neurons are both morphologically and chemically distinctly different from type II neurons and may represent descending interneurons. Further studies have to decipher the type-specific chemical code of type II neurons distinguishing them also from type III neurons.

Prejunctional modulation of non-adrenergic non-cholinergic (NANC) inhibitory responses in the isolated guinea-pig gastric fundus

The inhibitory neurotransmission of the stomach was investigated in isolated guinea-pig gastric fundus. In preparations treated with guanethidine (1 micro mol L-1) and p-fluoro-hexahydro-sila-difenidol (1 micro mol L-1), electrical stimulation evoked neurogenic inhibitory responses not modified by hexamethonium (100 micro mol L-1), suggesting that inhibitory postganglionic non-adrenergic non-cholinergic (NANC) nerve fibres are involved. The nitric oxide (NO)-synthase inhibitor Nomega-nitro-l-argininine-methyl-ester hydrochloride (1-100 micro mol L-1) and the soluble guanylyl cyclase inhibitor ODQ (0.1-3 micro mol L-1) also abolished such relaxant response, suggesting the involvement of NO/Cyclic Guanosine 3',5' monophosphate (cGMP) system as the final mechanism of muscle relaxation. The alpha2-adrenoceptor agonist, UK 14 304 (10 nmol L-1-10 micro mol L-1) did not influence the electrical field stimulation (EFS)-evoked NANC responses. These latter responses were also refractory to a variety of receptor agonists and antagonists, acting at Gamma Aminobutyric Acid (GABA), serotonin 5HT1a, opioid micro , delta and kappa, muscarinic M1 and M2, histamine H2 and H3 and cannabinoid receptors. The NANC response was insensitive to the P/Q-type Ca2+-channel blocker omega-agatoxin TK (1 nmol L-1-0.1 micro mol L-1), but partially inhibited by the N-type Ca2+-channel blocker omega-conotoxin GVIA (0.1 nmol L-1-0.1 micro mol L-1), and by the L-type Ca2+-channel blockers nifedipine and calcicludine (0.1 nmol L-1-0.1 micro mol L-1). These data suggest that the NANC relaxation of the isolated guinea-pig gastric fundus is mediated by NO as the final inhibitory (neuro)transmitter at the longitudinal smooth muscle cells. The mechanism(s) promoting NO production is/are Ca2+-dependent, but apparently insensitive to presynaptic modulation. Both N- and L-type channels seem to occur in nitrergic nerve endings, where they contribute to trigger NO diffusion at the synaptic cleft.

Chemical coding of the human gastrointestinal nervous system: cholinergic, VIPergic, and catecholaminergic phenotypes

The aim of this investigation was to identify the proportional neurochemical codes of enteric neurons and to determine the specific terminal fields of chemically defined nerve fibers in all parts of the human gastrointestinal (GI) tract. For this purpose, antibodies against the vesicular monoamine transporters (VMAT1/2), the vesicular acetylcholine transporter (VAChT), tyrosine hydroxylase (TH), dopamine beta-hydroxylase (DBH), serotonin (5-HT), vasoactive intestinal peptide (VIP), and protein gene product 9.5 (PGP 9.5) were used. For in situ hybridization (35)S-labeled VMAT1, VMAT2, and VAChT riboprobes were used. In all regions of the human GI tract, 50-70% of the neurons were cholinergic, as judged by staining for VAChT. The human gut unlike the rodent gut exhibits a cholinergic innervation, which is characterized by an extensive overlap with VIPergic innervation. Neurons containing VMAT2 constituted 14-20% of all intrinsic neurons in the upper GI tract, and there was an equal number of TH-positive neurons. In contrast, DBH was absent from intrinsic neurons. Cholinergic and monoaminergic phenotypes proved to be completely distinct phenotypes. In conclusion, the chemical coding of human enteric neurons reveals some similarities with that of other mammalian species, but also significant differences. VIP is a cholinergic cotransmitter in the intrinsic innervation of the human gut. The substantial overlap between VMAT2 and TH in enteric neurons indicates that the intrinsic catecholaminergic innervation is a stable component of the human GI tract throughout life. The absence of DBH from intrinsic catecholaminergic neurons indicates that these neurons have a dopaminergic phenotype.

Retrograde tracing of enteric neuronal pathways

Neuroanatomical tracing techniques, and retrograde labelling in particular, are widely used tools for the analysis of neuronal pathways in the central and peripheral nervous system. Over the last 10 years, these techniques have been used extensively to identify enteric neuronal pathways. In combination with multiple-labelling immunohistochemistry, quantitative data about the projections and neurochemical profile of many functional classes of cells have been acquired. These data have revealed a high degree of organization of the neuronal plexuses, even though the different classes of nerve cell bodies appear to be randomly assorted in ganglia. Each class of neurone has a predictable target, length and polarity of axonal projection, a particular combination of neurochemicals in its cell body and distinctive morphological characteristics. The combination of retrograde labelling with targeted intracellular recording has made it possible to target small populations of cells that would rarely be sampled during random impalements. These neuroanatomical techniques have also been applied successfully to human tissue and are gradually unravelling the complexity of the human enteric nervous system.

Enteric pathways in the stomach

This report summarises the characteristics of target specific projection and neurochemical coding patterns of motor and interneuronal pathways in the gastric enteric nervous system (ENS) which are involved in the innervation of the mucosa, the circular and the longitudinal muscle. The pathways were identified by retrograde tracing and further characterised by optical and intracellular recordings of the synaptic activation of muscle motor neurones, and by recordings of pathway-specific muscle responses. All motor pathways had polarised projections consisting of ascending cholinergic and descending nitrergic populations. Thus, both muscle layers were innervated by excitatory and inhibitory motor neurones. Their projections indicated the presence of intrinsic circuits that mediate excitatory and inhibitory components of a peristaltic reflex and/or are involved in reflex mediated changes in gastric tone. Although polarised projections were also identified for interneuronal pathways, a substantial proportion of descending interneurones was cholinergic. Interneurones and longitudinal muscle motor pathways had longitudinal projection preferences whereas circular muscle motor pathways had circumferential projection preferences. Target-specific coding was primarily revealed for cholinergic populations; ChAT/ENK/+/-SP neurones projected to the muscle layers, ChAT/NPY/+/-VIP projected to the mucosa and ChAT/+/-SP/+/-5-HT/+/-Calret/+/-Calb were interneurones. Muscle strip recordings revealed the functional significance of ascending excitatory and descending inhibitory pathways to the circular muscle and the prominent influence of ascending and descending cholinergic interneurones which activated excitatory and inhibitory circular muscle motor neurones through nicotinic synapses. It is concluded that enteric pathways in the stomach have region specific features which reflect structural and functional adaptation of the gastric ENS.

Differential Ca(2+) signaling characteristics of inhibitory and excitatory myenteric motor neurons in culture

Physiological studies on functionally identified myenteric neurons are scarce because of technical limitations. We combined retrograde labeling, cell culturing, and fluorescent intracellular Ca(2+) concentration ([Ca(2+)](i)) signaling to study excitatory neurotransmitter responsiveness of myenteric motor neurons. 1, 1-Didodecyl-3,3,3',3'-tetramethyl indocarbocyanine (DiI) was used to label circular muscle motor neurons of the guinea pig ileum. DiI-labeled neurons were easily detectable in cultures prepared from these segments. The excitatory neurotransmitters (10(-5) M) acetylcholine, substance P, and serotonin induced a transient rise in [Ca(2+)](i) in subsets of DiI-labeled neurons (66.7, 56.5, and 84. 3%, respectively). DiI-labeled motor neurons were either inhibitory (23.8%) or excitatory (76.2%) as assessed by staining for nitric oxide synthase or choline acetyltransferase. Compared with excitatory motor neurons, significantly fewer inhibitory neurons in culture responded to acetylcholine (0 vs. 69%) and substance P (12.5 vs. 69.2%). We conclude that combining retrograde labeling and Ca(2+) imaging allows identification of differential receptor expression in functionally identified neurons in culture.

Neurochemical coding and projection patterns of gastrin-releasing peptide-immunoreactive myenteric neurone subpopulations in the guinea-pig gastric fundus

The aim of this study was to characterise the projection and neurochemical coding patterns of gastrin-releasing peptide (GRP)-containing subpopulations of myenteric neurones in the guinea-pig gastric fundus. For this purpose, we used retrograde tracing with the dye DiI and immunohistochemistry against GRP, choline acetyltransferase (ChAT), enkephalin (ENK), substance P (SP) and neuropeptide Y (NPY). Cell counts revealed that 44% of the myenteric neurones were GRP-positive. Of the GRP-positive neurones, 92% were ChAT-positive and, hence, 8% were presumptively nitric oxide synthase positive (NOS). The GRP-positive subpopulations were ChAT/GRP (40% of all GRP neurones), ChAT/NPY/GRP (25%), ChAT/SP/GRP/+/-ENK (20%), ChAT/ENK/GRP (8%), NOS/NPY/GRP/+/-ENK (5%) and NOS/GRP (3%). The tracing experiments revealed the relative contributions of the various GRP-positive subpopulations to the innervation of the circular muscle and the mucosa. GRP immunoreactivity was detected in 46 and 38% of the DiI-labelled muscle and mucosa neurones, respectively. GRP was almost exclusively found in ascending ChAT-positive mucosa and muscle neurones. The populations encoded ChAT/SP/GRP/+/-ENK and ChAT/ENK/GRP projected predominantly to the circular muscle, whereas the ChAT/NPY/GRP and ChAT/GRP populations had primarily projections to the mucosa. GRP was colocalised with ChAT, ENK and/or SP in varicose nerve fibres innervating the circular muscle and the muscularis mucosae, whereas in the mucosal epithelium GRP was mainly present in nerve fibres containing ChAT and NPY. The data suggest that in the guinea-pig gastric fundus, the ChAT/SP/GRP/+/-ENK and ChAT/ENK/GRP neurones are ascending excitatory muscle motor neurones, whereas the ChAT/NPY/GRP and ChAT/GRP neurones are very likely involved in the regulation of mucosal functions.

Recording ionic events from cultured, DiI-labelled myenteric neurons in the guinea-pig proximal colon

To date investigations of enteric neurons by patch clamping/calcium imaging have been limited by studying unidentified heterogeneous populations of neurons. In DiI-labelled colonic myenteric neurons, the feasibility of recording ionic events was determined by applying DiI either to the mucosa or the circular muscle, dispersing neurons after 48 h organotypic culture, and patch-clamping/calcium imaging labeled neurons after 3-7 days in culture. Myenteric neurons with diffuse DiI fluorescence were typically smooth and agranular. Neurons labeled after DiI was applied to circular muscle, fired in either a phasic or a tonic manner, and exhibited fast afterhyperpolarizations (100-300 ms duration) at the end of a depolarizing pulse. They expressed a fast inward current and at least three different outward currents. Action potentials elicited in DiI-labeled sensory neurons were followed by a prolonged afterhyperpolarization (AH, 4-6 s). The offset of a suprathreshold depolarizing step elicited a prolonged outward tail current that approximated the timecourse of the prolonged AH. In addition, in response to membrane depolarization in DiI-labeled neurons loaded with fura-2, robust Ca(2+) transients were recorded using the perforated patch technique. These results demonstrate that DiI labeling of cultured myenteric neurons is feasible, and patch clamp/Ca(2+) fluorescence recordings can be made from specific populations of cultured DiI-labeled colonic myenteric neurons.

Immunohistochemical demonstration of choline acetyltransferase of a peripheral type (pChAT) in the enteric nervous system of rats

Using a recently developed antiserum against a splice variant (pChAT) of choline acetyltransferase, the enzyme which synthesizes acetylcholine, we carried out an immunohistochemical examination in the digestive canal of rats. Positive staining was exclusively localized to neuronal cells and fibers. Positive somata were distributed widely in the intramural ganglia throughout the digestive tract from the esophagus to the rectum. Double staining indicated that, in the rat, virtually all pChAT immunoreactive somata exhibited histochemical activity for acetylcholinesterase but not for NADPH-diaphorase. In the guinea pig, however, there were a few neurons possessing both pChAT and NADPH-diaphorase. We also found a few neuronal somata which were positive for acetylcholinesterase but not for pChAT. The results suggest that pChAT immunohistochemistry is useful for studying the enteric cholinergic system.

Mucosa of the guinea pig gastric corpus is innervated by myenteric neurones with specific neurochemical coding and projection preferences

The present study identified and characterised myenteric neurones involved in the innervation of the gastric mucosa. We applied retrograde neuronal tracing methods by using the dye DiI (1,1'-didodecyl-3,3,3',3'-tetramethylindocarbocyanine perchlorat) in combination with the immunohistochemical demonstration of choline acetyltransferase (ChAT), enkephalin (ENK), neuropeptide Y (NPY), nitric oxide synthase (NOS), substance P (SP), and vasoactive intestinal peptide (VIP). This method showed distinct neurochemical coding of DiI-labelled neurones with projections to the mucosa (mucosa neurones): ChAT/- (indicating the presence of ChAT only, 32%), ChAT/NPY/ +/- VIP (22%), NOS/NPY/ +/- VIP (19%), ChAT/SP/ +/- ENK (12%), NOS/- (indicating the presence of NOS only, 8%), or ChAT/ENK (4.6%). DiI-labelled mucosa neurones did not contain calretinin, serotonin, or somatostatin. All ChAT population had primarily ascending projections, whereas the NOS populations had mainly descending projections. Both were further classified as longitudinally and circumferentially projecting neurones, the latter having projection preferences towards the lesser or greater curvature. All subpopulations exhibited projection preferences. Nitrergic projections primarily arose from cell bodies located at the lesser curvature. ChAT/- projections, which dominated the cholinergic pathway, mainly arose from cell bodies located at the greater curvature. The other major cholinergic pathway with the code ChAT/NPY/ +/- VIP consisted of neurones located mainly at the lesser curvature. The results suggest specific coding of gastric myenteric neurones with projections to the mucosa. Polarised projections consisted of ascending cholinergic and descending nitrergic neurones; the additional presence of NPY/VIP was a prominent feature in both pathways. Chemical coding, polarity, and projection preferences of enteric pathways to the gastric mucosa are remarkably different from those of other regions in the gut.

Polarised innervation pattern of the mucosa of the guinea pig distal colon

A neuronal retrograde tracing method with the dye DiI in combination with the immunohistochemical detection of vasoactive intestinal polypeptide (VIP) and choline acetyltransferase (ChAT) was used to characterise the mucosal projection of neurones located in the submucosal plexus of the guinea pig distal colon. VIP and ChAT immunoreactivity labelled separate populations. The mucosa was innervated by descending (59.7 +/- 7.4%), ascending (8.7 +/- 5.0%) and circumferential (31.7 +/- 6.1%) pathways. Descending neurones had longer projections than ascending ones. Descending DiI-labelled neurones were in their vast majority VIP-positive (88.4 +/- 3.6%) and only 3.5 +/- 4.8% of them were ChAT-positive. Conversely, the ascending pathways were predominantly ChAT-positive (90.9 +/- 20.3%) and only 7.8 +/- 20.6% of them were VIP-positive. A significantly larger proportion of DiI-neurones with circumferential projection were ChAT- than VIP-positive (70.9 +/- 15.6 vs. 27.8 +/- 15.7%). The proportion of ascending, descending and circumferential ChAT-positive DiI-neurones was 23:7:70%, respectively, whereas the proportion for VIP-positive DiI-neurones was 2:84:14%, respectively. The results suggest a conservation of the submucosal innervation pattern along the guinea pig colonic mucosa but also reveal differences in the mucosal enteric innervation of other regions of the gastrointestinal tract.